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ITISTHEGREENWAYORTHE HIGHWAY

MARWADABAIEH

AalborgUniversity,Denmark MalmoUniversity,Sweden

WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier

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Notices

Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthis ﬁeldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearch andexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.

Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledge inevaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperiments describedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfulof theirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea professionalresponsibility.

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ISBN:978-0-12-820079-7

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Publisher: MatthewDeans

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TypesetbyTNQTechnologies

1.Vernaculararchitectureandcomfortattheextremes1

1.1 Vernaculararchitectureandclimatechange1

1.2 Learningfromvernaculararchitecture3

1.3 Vernacularandcircularthinking13

1.4 Climatechangeandresilientdesign17

1.5 Smartbuildingsandsmartusers20

1.6 Caseapplication21

1.7 Nature-basedsolutions33 Bibliography38

2.Designingforvulnerablegroups41

2.1 Whoareclimaterefugees?41

2.2 Post-disasterclimate-responsivedesign42

2.3 Thermalsafedesignforclimaterefugees46

2.4 Resilientenergysystemsforextremecomfortdemands57

2.5 Naturalmaterialsandclimatedesign78 Bibliography84

3.Circulararchitectureandbuildingdesign87

3.1 Circulararchitectureandbuildingdesign87

3.2 Circulararchitecturedesignstrategies92

3.3 TheZ-freehome93

3.4 Karmsolarcamp107

3.5 TheCircleHouseinDenmark128

3.6 Challengesfacingcirculardesignandconstruction129

3.7 Usefullinks130 Bibliography131

4.Climate-responsivedesignforlow-impactarchitecture133

4.1 Background134

4.2 Selectedzonefortheprojectimplementation135

4.3 Guidelinesforazero-energyresidentialunitinasemi-aridclimatezone136

4.4 Concept137

4.5 Infrastructure144

4.6 Indoorenvironment147

4.7 Passivestrategiesforheating,cooling,anddaylight148

4.8 Wastemanagement156

4.9 Energyproduction159

4.10 Solarwaterheating160

4.11 Vegetation160

4.12 Materials161

4.13 Indoorthermalcomfortcalculations167

4.14 Energycalculations169

4.15 Runningcosts170

Preface

Circulararchitectureandcircularthinkingingeneralareamongthemost importantandpopulartopicsrightnowinthebuildingindustryarenasince wehavealmostapproachingadeadendwithourcurrentsustainability strategies.Thecurrentrateofglobalconsumptionfarexceedsthelevelwe shouldbeat.Theratenowisthatittakes8monthstoconsumewhatwe shouldconsumeinafullyear.Today,naturetakes18monthstorecover fromwhatweconsumegloballyin12months.Justtogiveanexample,if everyoneontheplanetconsumedasmuchasanaverageEuropeancitizen, wewouldneedthreeEarthstomatchthedemand.Inparallelwithour consumptionincrease,thepopulationisalsomounting.Overthecoming 4decades,theworldpopulationisexpectedtojumpfrom7billionto almost10billion.Withthepopulationgrowthweneedtobuildmore,and constructionisconsequentlysettoincrease.Thismeansanever-increasing burdenontheenvironmentduetotheoveruseofnaturalresourcesandthe negativeimpactofthebuildingsectoronourenvironment,suchastoxic emissionsandharmfulconstructionwaste.Thechancesofmoreextreme climatechangeeventsissadlyforecasttoincreaseduetotheseadverse environmentalburdens.Forecastsfortheconstructionsectorsuggestthat 60%ofthebuildingstockthatisexpectedtoexistin2050hasnotyetbeen built.Thismeansthatourconsumptionfornaturalresourceswillneedtobe threetimestheamountofresourcesweactuallyhave.Wecannotdelay constructionprogramsallovertheworld,butwecanbuildclimate-smart andfuture-friendlybuildings.Theenormousthreatfromclimatechange haspressuredanewwayofthinkingtowardareductionofenergy consumptionandthecarbonfootprintofthebuiltenvironment.Fromhere comestheurgencyforanewparadigmofbuildingdesignthinking,shifting fromalineartoacircularway,hencethenotionforthisbook.

BeinganEgyptianstudyingancientEgyptianarchitectureandvernaculararchitecture,providedtheprivilegetoknowmoreaboutancientand traditionalbuildingknow-how,includingthewayofthinkingand decision-makingstrategies.Itwassurprisingthatwewerereinventing circularity.Itwasthedefaultwayoflivingintraditionalcommunities.The levelofawarenesswaswayhigherthanwhatwehavecurrentlyintermsof usingnaturalresourcesandavoidingenvironmentalimpacts.Whatwe

describenowasclosingtheloopofproductionandconsumptioniswhat ourancestorsperceivedasthenorm.InthisbookIhaveelaboratedmore onsuchfactswithexamplesandcaseapplications.Ihaveshownhowthe modernglamourouslifewiththeindustrialuseofeverythinghastransformedourpureinstincttoalinearone-waypatternofconsumption, insteadofthenaturalcircularway.Theancientwayofthinkingwaswiseto lookatnaturalresourcesasaloantakenfromfuturegenerationsthatmust bepaidbackexactlyaswetookthem.Unfortunately,nowwelookat naturalresourcesaninheritedrecourseswetookfromourancestorsasfor grantedfortuneandmisusedthem.Theaimofthisbookistodevelopand disseminateknowledgeaboutcircularityinarchitecture,takinginspiration fromthepasttoourfuture.Thisbookisnotofferingutopiansolutionsas muchasitisofferinginspirationforawayofthinkinginapracticalmanner. Itisnotofferingatracktofolloworamanualtouse,asmuchasitisofferingaspectrumofwidesolutions,strategies,orprinciplesthatcanbeof guidancetoredirectourpathwaytowardsensibleandclimate-responsive design.Throughyourreadingofthisbookyouwill findhands-onexamplesforprojectsthatmanagedtocomeupwithideastousematerialsthat canbedisassembledandreuseddirectly “one-to-one” innewbuildings withoutneedingtobeprocessedorwithoutsignificantlossofmaterial valuebeforetheirreuse.Youwill findwhatarecalledtransparentdesign approachesinusingrawmaterialsastheyarefor firstuseandforother subsequentusesafterbuildingdemolitionorendoflife.

Thedifferentchaptershaveexploredthewidenotionsofecological adaptivethinkingforhowwecanhaveamuchlighterimpactonthe environment.Severaltopicsarediscussed,suchasenergyefficiencyin buildings,renewabletechnologies,nature-basedsolutions,bio-basedmaterials,fromecologicaltoregenerativethinking,andmanymore.Someof theargumentsraisedinthisbookarearoundthedilemmaofaestheticsand artisticexpressionofarchitecture,andsustainabilityorecologicalthinking. Circulargreenbuildingsneedtobebeautiful.Beingenergyefficientand carbonneutraldoesnotmeannotcreatingaestheticallypleasingpiecesof architecture.Theyarenotcontradictory.Usingreclaimedmaterialsdoes notnecessarilymeanusingscrapwastethatlooksugly.Thisspecific argumentremindsmeofthesaying “ifyoubuildanuglybuilding,youare influencingthetasteofmillionsofpeopleformanyyearstocome.” It wouldbeworseifthisbuildingwasnotacarbon-lightstructureonthe environmentandonethatwouldleavemanyenvironmentalburdenseven afteritsendoflife.Letaloneifthebuildingisalsonotprovidingahealthy

indoorenvironmenttoitsoccupants.Therefore,buildingscanreallyharm ourpsychology,physiology,andgeneralhealth.Ifwelookatthebuilding sectorandtrytoseehowwecanshifttoacircularmindset,weneedtostop theconceptofasingleuseofourbuildingmaterials.Thetransitionto circularityinthebuiltenvironmentmeans,forexample,thatconstruction andbuildingproductsmustbemanufacturedsothattheirconstituent materialscanbeseparatedoutandeasilydisassembledforasecondifnota thirduse.

Iwouldsaythatthemostimportantcontributionofthisbookisthatit exploreshowaheightenedawarenessofenvironmentalandhumancentereddesign,whendonewithnatureinmind,canhelpus ﬁndresilientdesignsfortheadverseclimateproblemswearefacing.Thebuilding industryinthemeanwhileisbasicallyconcernedaboutproducingenergysavingmeasuresthatwillreduceemissions.Theissueisbiggerthanthis. Circularityinarchitectureishowweconserveeverysingleresourceweuse inconstructionandretaintheenergycontentofbuildingmaterialsaslong aspossible. Thisbookhastriedtomaintainabalancebetweenphilosophical emotionsaboutcarbonneutralityandecologyinthebuiltenvironment witharchitecturalconceptualideasandtechnicalinformation.Thebook alsoprovideslinkstowebtoolsanduser-friendlyprogramsandsoftwarethat aremainlyresearch-basedopen-accesstools.Thesearetohelpdesigners, architects,andengineerstogetaquickindicationduringtheirdesign processontheirbuildingperformance.Also,theywillbeveryhelpfulfor studentsandresearchersundertakingprojectstogivepreliminaryassessmentsfortheirdesigns.Thebookstartedwithvernacularandclimate change,whereabackgroundofgreenandenvironmentalthinkinghasbeen embeddedinvernaculararchitectureformanycenturies.Meanwhile,it concludedthatsustainablecircularresilientdesignbalanceseconomics, equity,andenvironmentalimpactsthatcanbeseenandfeltovertheshort andlongterm.Havingsaidallthat,Iwishyouapleasantreadingjourney.

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Introduction

Inthecomingchaptersthetermscircularityandcirculardesignwillbe repetitive.So,totakeyouinaneasyrideinthiscirculararchitecturedesign journey,webetterstartbytalkingaboutcirculareconomyorinshort(CE). WhilethereisnostandarddefinitionfortheCEmodel,ithasbeendefined byseveralorganizationsastheoppositeofthelineareconomy(LE)andit canbeexplainedasasystemicapproachtoeconomicdevelopmentdesigned toachievesustainableeconomytobenefitbusinessesingeneral,society,and theenvironmentatlarge.Incontrast,lineareconomymodelthatwefollow nowgloballymainlyfollows “take-make-dispose” concept.TheCEis moresensitivetowardnaturalresourcesandrawmaterialsandactina restorativeandregenerativeway.Theaimistodissociateeconomicgrowth fromtheconsumptionoflimitednaturalresourceswehaveonourplanet. CEmodelaimstodesignoutthewasteandpollutiontogetherwith keepingtheproductsandmaterialsinuseforaslongaspossibleandto regeneratenaturalsystems.CEhasadoptedseveralprincipleswhichare lackinginourlinearindustrialeconomy.Onemainprincipleistoshorten theloopformanufacturingactivityandtransportation;meaningthesmaller theloop,themoreprofitableandresourceefficientitis.Itisevenbetter iftheloopscanhavenobeginningandnoend,anditkeepscirculating.CE alsoseekscontinuedownershipforproductsasitisverycost-effective strategy.Whenreuse,repair,andremanufacturearemadewithoutany changeofownership,itsavesalmostdoublethetransaction.CEisnot necessarilyconsideredanewconceptbutratheronethatcombinesvarious previouspreexistingprinciplesforclosingmaterialloops,reducingenergy andmainlyreducingrawmaterialwasteandelongatingthelifespanof commoditiesthroughregularmaintenanceandrepair.Ascirculareconomy conceptscanbeintegratedinthescaleofbuildings,products,andcomponents,theconnectioncamelikecirculararchitecture.

CirculararchitecturetakesfromCEtheinspirationinworkingwithtwo mainaspects:circularmaterialusageandcirculardesigninadditionto workingonbothtechnicalandbiologicalcycles.Asconsumptionhappens inbiologicalcycles,itfeedsbackintothenaturalsystemthroughcompostingandalike.Thetechnicalcyclesworkonrecoveryandrestorative mechanismsformaterialsandproductsthroughrepair,reuse,recycle,and remanufacturingloops.Inanotherwords,thecirculardesignisconcerned

withcircularmaterialsthatareconcernedwiththeselectionofmaterials thatarerenewable(biologicalcycles),orthatarepossiblyreusableaftertheir firstuse(technicalcycles).Morespecifically,circulardesignisdefinedasthe designofproductsandcomponentsorelementsthatcanbeeasilyassembled andthendisassembledattheendoftheirusetofacilitatetheirreuseinother projectsorreclaimedforotherpurposes.Furthermore,circularbuilding design(CBD)ismainlyconcernedwithbuildingsthataredesigned,planned,constructedthenoperated,andmaintainedwithcircularityandCE principlesinmind.Circularityinarchitecturedesignareimpededin buildings’ lifecyclestagesandthebuildingsmallcomponentandregardit fromcradletocradle.Thisalsoentailsensuringthatallmaterialsusedinthe buildingcanberecycledorcompostedattheendofitslifecyclelikethe naturalbiologicalcycles.Circularbuildingdesigniscomplexanddynamic becausecirculardesigninvolvesmanydifferentsystemsandcomponents, eachwithitsownlifecycle,functions,andcharacteristics.Allthathaveto beconsideredfrombuildingmaterialsresourcespassingthroughtheconstructionprocessthenoperationthenwhatisafterbuildingendoflife. CEandcirculardesignoncitylevelhaveanotherdimensionof complexity.Acircularcityimplantstheprinciplesofacirculareconomy acrossallitsfunctionsthroughestablishinganurbansystemthatisregenerative,accessiblebyallsocietycategoriesandisabundantbydesign.These citiesthatareplannedanddesignedbasedoncircularityinmindaimedto eradicatetheconceptofwasteonalllevels.Theykeepresourcesandassists attheirhighestvalueatalltimesandareempoweredbydigitaltechnology toachievethis.Acircularcityisacitythatisliveableandresilientlikeit’sall componentsandinfrastructurelikeenergysystemstomobilitysystemsand allitsbuiltandnon-builtplacesandspaces.Mainfeatureofcircularcities thattheydirectlyandindirectlyencouragetheircitizenstobemindfulin theirconsumptionpatternsanddissociatethecreationofvaluefromthe consumptionoflimitedtheplanetresourceswehave.

References

Adams,K.T.,Osmani,M.,&Thorpe,T.(2017)Thornback,J.Circulareconomyin construction:Currentawareness,challenges,andenablers. ProceedingsoftheInstitutionof CivilEngineers-WasteandResourceManagement170,15 24. Akhimien,N.G.,Latif,E.,&Hou,S.S.(2020).Applicationofcirculareconomyprinciples inbuildings:Asystematicreview. JournalofBuildingEngineering,38,102041. Benachio,G.L.F.,Freitas,M.D.C.D.,&Tavares,S.F.(2020).Circulareconomyinthe constructionindustry:Asystematicliteraturereview. JournalofCleanerProduction,260, 121046.

Cambier,C.,Galle,W.,&DeTemmerman,N.(2020).Researchanddevelopmentdirectionsfordesignsupporttoolsforcircularbuilding. Buildings,10,142. Çimen,O.(2021).Constructionandbuiltenvironmentincirculareconomy:Acomprehensiveliteraturereview. JournalofCleanerProduction,305,127180. CircleEconomy.(2018). TheCircularityGapReport Eberhardt,L.C.M.,Birgisdóttir,H.,&Birkved,M.(2018).Lifecycleassessmentofa Danishofﬁcebuildingdesignedfordisassembly. BuildingResearchandInformation,47, 666 680.

EllenMacArthurFoundation.(2013). TowardstheCircularEconomy-Opportunitiesforthe ConsumerGoodsSector (Vol.2).Availableonline: https://eco.nomia.pt/contents/ documentacao/tce-report-2013.pdf .

EllenMacarthurFoundation.(2017). CitiesintheCircularEconomy Aninitialexploration EllenMacarthurFoundationandGoogle.(2017). CitiesintheCircularEconomy:Theroleof digitaltechnology.Cowes. EuropeanCommission.(2019).Circulareconomyimplementationofthecirculareconomy actionplan.Availableonline: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/ Huuhka,S.,&Vestergaard,I.(2020).Buildingconservationandthecirculareconomy:A theoreticalconsideration. JournalofCulturalHeritageManagementandSustainableDevelopment,10,29 40. Kopnina,H.(2018).CirculareconomyandCradletoCradleineducationalpractice. Journal ofIntegrativeEnvironmentalScience,15,119 134. Pomponi,F.,&Moncaster,A.(2017).Circulareconomyforthebuiltenvironment:A researchframework. JournalofCleanerProduction,143,710 718.

Usefullinks

https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/ ﬁles/circular_cities_publication. pdf Introduction xiii

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CHAPTER1

Vernaculararchitectureand comfortattheextremes

Thischapterdiscussesclimateandcomfortattheextremes.Itservesasa foundationforthebookbystartingfromvernacularpassiveandlow-techand low-impactstrategiesandprogressingtosmarthigh-techsolutions.Thechapter closeswithadebatearoundsmartbuildingsandsmartinhabitants.

1.1Vernaculararchitectureandclimatechange

TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)believesthat mostofthewarminginrecentdecades(withatleast90%certainty)isthe endresultofenergy-relatedhumanactivitiesandmainlybecauseofcarbon dioxideemittedfromburningfossilfuels.Knowledgeofthelikelyeffectsof climatechangepredictsthatextremeweatherconditions,includinghigher summertemperatures,willfollowasoneofthemainconsequences.The increaseinsummeraveragetemperaturescouldbeintensiﬁedinurbanareas wherecitiesreplacenaturallandcoverwithmanmadebuildingmaterials andstructures.Thebuildingsectorconsumesone-sixthoftheplanet’sfresh water,one-fourthofthewoodharvest,andtwo-ﬁfthsofglobalfossilfuel productionandmanufacturedmaterials.Giventhatthebuildingsectorisa resource-abusivesector,architectureisoneofthemaintargetsfor ecologicallyreformedthinkingtosavethecominggenerationfromcatastrophicclimateconsequences.Globalenergydemandisexpectedto continuetoincreaseatleastasfastasthecurrentrate,andcouldpotentially doubleby2050.

Today,wegenerallyacknowledgethatthebuildingsectorconsumes aboutone-thirdofthetotalenergyconsumptionworldwide,althoughthis ﬁguremayvaryaccordingtothebuildingtypeandlocation.Thebuilding sectorhasamajorimpactontheenvironmentandtheavailablenatural resources.Withtheincreasingglobalconcernsaboutenergyandresources andtheassociatedclimatechange,architectshaveamajorresponsibilityto designbuildingsthatareenvironmentallyconsciousandresilient.The

CircularDesignforZeroEmissionArchitectureandBuildingPractice ISBN978-0-12-820079-7

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820079-7.00003-8

increasingglobalenergyandenvironmentalchallengesdemandaconsiderablerevolutionofbuildingdesignstrategiesandconstructionmethods.It hadbeenwitnessedduringthelastfewdecadesthattherehasbeenarisein therateofurbanizationinparallelwiththegrowingincreasesintheaverage standardofliving.Facingthethreatofglobalwarmingandthedepletionof fossilfuelshasforcedmanycountriestoapplystrategiesforenergyconsumptionalongwithsustainabledevelopment.

Most20th-centurybuildings,especiallyinthedevelopingpartsofthe worldandintheurbansouthernhemisphere,arenotadaptable,evenfor thecurrentclimateconditionswitha1.5degreesriseintheglobalaverage temperature.Thesebuildingsrelymainlyonmechanicalcoolingand heatingandaredependentonair-conditioningsystemsandelectricity.The challengeisinbuildingsthataredesignedandbuiltwithpoorbuilding envelopeswithoutsufﬁcientinsulationorshadingandthathavealarge portionofover-glazing,andontopusingvastamountsofenergytoprovide thermalcomfortusingenergy-hungrymeans.Themajorityoftheelectricitysupplyinmanypartsoftheworld,evenindevelopedcountries, remainsreliantonfossilfuelsanditisincreasinglyunabletoadapttothe seeminglyunavoidablewarmingclimate.Aseriousproblemwillbecoping withtheincreaseinthehighdemandforelectricitywiththeincreasing summertemperatures.Withelectricityblackouts,peoplewillbeunableto stayinmanybuildingsiftheair-conditioningsystemgoesoff,andbuildings willberapidlyuninhabitableduetosoaringinternaltemperatures,making thebuildingsfeellikeassaunasorovens.Themostvulnerablewillbe childrenandtheelderly,andwewillbefacinga10-foldincreasedmortality ratebecauseofindoorheatstresses.

Allextremeclimateandweatherconditionshavethepotentialtocreate damagetoexistingbuildingsandincreaseriskstovulnerablepeople.Aswe stilldesignandbuildasusual,therewillbeincreasingthreatstothebuilt environmentwhentheweatherconditionsbecomemoreharshandextreme, bothinhotandcoldclimates.Forexample,whenstartinganewdesign project,thecustomisthatweuseclimateorweather filesforrecentyears whenwerunbuildingsimulations,insteadofusingprojectedclimateand weather filesforthecoming20 30years,oreven50years.Designingwith climateresilienceinmindshouldbeanorm.Anexampleconcerningextreme climateeventsis flooding.Floodingisoneofthemostfrequentandpotentiallymostdamagingeventsrelatedtoextremeweatherthatpeopleand buildingsneedprotectionfrom.Thekeyissue,fromadesignstandpoint,isto understandthedifferencesbetweenvariousclimateandweatherextreme

eventsandthewaystohelpinassessing,quantifying,andaddressinga building’spotentialconcernsandcopingmechanisms.Consequently,inhabitantsinextremeclimatesrequireanindoorenvironmentthatisboth comfortableandthatuseslowenergyandreleaseslowemissions.

Energyconservationissuesandenvironmentalproblemsinrecentyearshave increasedinterestintraditionalandvernaculararchitecture,whichiswellknown foritsenergy-savingandenergy-efﬁcientdesigns.Localinhabitantsofeach regionoftheworldoverthousandsofyearshavedevelopedmethodologiesand systemsforadaptationandimprovingtheeffectsoftheextremesoftheirlocal climaticconditions.Vernacularbuildingshaveevolvedmethodsovertheages throughtrialanderror.Becauseoftheenvironmentalsolutionsdevisedoverthe years,thesebuildingshavemanagedtomeetday-to-dayrequirementswhile maintainingthermalcomfort.Localinhabitantsfollowtrial-and-errormethods toreachefﬁcientandclimaticallyadaptiveurbanandarchitecturalsolutions. Theirclosecontacttonaturehastransformedtherelationshipbetweenhumans andenvironmentintoarespectfultreatmentofnatureasamodelandmentor. Theconstantimprovementofarchitecturalsolutionsthroughsharingof knowledgefromonegenerationtothenextcreatessustainableconsiderations withethicalresponsibilitytowardthesurroundingenvironment.Theneedfor andscarcityofresourceshavebeenthedrivingforcesforcreativesolutionsand formaximumuseofperpetualsolarandwindenergy.Theyknewhowto conserveenergythrougheffectivebuildingdesign.Theydesignedbuilding envelopesthatwerehighlyadaptabletoconductive,convective,andradiative heattransferwhilefullyimplementingpassivedesign.

1.2Learningfromvernaculararchitecture

Vernaculararchitectureovertheyearshasshownpracticalexamplesof energy-efﬁcientandenvironment-consciousdesign.Vernacularsettlements aredesignedandbuiltusinglow-impactbuildingmaterialsthathaveshown qualityanddurabilityoftheirresilientarchitecturalandurbanformsover thecenturies.Theuseoflocalmaterialsandconstructiontechniquesisa maincharacteristicofvernaculararchitectureandprovidesanidentityfactor andawaytorecognizeclimaticandregionaldifferences.Thisisthe oppositemethodtomodernconstructionwithnewindustrialstandardized materialsthatoftentimesleadtohomogenous-lookingbuildingsworldwide,thatarealsoilladaptedtothelocalclimate,localculture,andarchitecturetradition.Mostcommonbuildingdesignsnowarebuildingswith largeglassfaçadesurfaces.Theconsequencesarethatthebuildingenvelopes

arevulnerabletooutdoortemperature fluctuations,andthemainsourceof achievingindoorthermalcomfortisair-conditioningsystems.Returningto theadvantagesofusingnaturallocalmaterialsaswasthecasewith vernaculararchitecture,we findseveralenvironmental,social,andeconomicbenefits.Assustainabilitystandsonthosethreelegs,sovernacular methodsarebestsuitedasasourceofinspirationasasustainablewayof creatingbuildings.

Oneofthegreatestenvironmentaladvantagesofusinglocalnatural materialsasinvernaculararchitecture(suchasearth,straw,reeds,wood, hemp,etc.)isthattheyarelessenergyintensiveintheproductionprocess andconsequentlyhavelowerembodiedenergyandCO2 emissions. Moreover,astheyarenaturalmaterials,oftenorganic,theyareconsidered renewableandbiodegradable.Fromacompletelife-cycleperspective (“cradletocradle”)theyhavealowenvironmentalimpactduring manufacturing,construction,maintenance,andoperations,andalsoafter endoflife(demolition).Anotherenvironmentaladvantageisthatthereis noneedfordistanttransportation,astheyarelocallysourcedfromnearby placesorarelativelycloseproximity.Asitisthenorminthevernacularway ofchoosingtherightnaturalmaterial,itisthematerialsaroundwhereyou aregoingtobuildthatareused.HassanFathy,thefamousEgyptianarchitect,usedtosay, “Buildyourarchitecturefromwhatisbeneathyour feet”;meaningusethelocalmaterialsthatareunderyourfeettoconstruct yourbuildings.Thesematerialsarealwayssuitableforthelocalclimateand aredurableandresilient.Youneedtoadapttheconstructiontechniques andmethodsbasedonthechoiceofmaterialsaroundyou,nottheopposite.

In Table1.1,acomparativeoverviewofdifferentnaturalmaterialsand industrialmaterialsshowingdifferencesinUvalues,embodiedcarbon,and globalwarmingpotentialforeachisprovided.Thisprovidesaconnection withtheimpactofeachmaterialanditsperformancewhenselectedfor construction.

Ifwewanttomakeaquickcomparisonbetweenhousesbuiltfrom earth(adobeinthiscase),onewithstraw(strawbaletechnique),andone usingaconventionaltechnique(reinforcedconcreteandindustrialbricks), forevery100m2 ofbuiltareaadobehousingpresentedanembodiedenergy of475GJ,astrawhouseof280GJ,whiletheconventionalhousinghad 720GJ.Those ﬁguresareaverageandmayvarybasedonthecontextand methodsofmanufactureandconstruction.Thatisjusttoprovideanideaof thedifferencesthatcanreachhalfoftheenvironmentalburdenwhenwe choosenaturallocalmaterials.Asfortheeconomicbeneﬁts,localnatural

Table1.1 Uvalueinconnectiontoglobalwarmingpotentialandembodiedenergy duringmaterialproduction.

Material

Straw(52cm)0.2

Hempconcrete(30cm)0.22

Timber(7cm)1.1457.71058.88

Firedperforatedbricks0.343574245

Rammedearth1.347.7596

Compressedearthblocks0.1630.393.94

Note:Valuespresentedinthistablemayvarydependingonthemethodsofcalculationsand databaseusedforvaluesforlifecycleassessment.Thetableisprovidedforaholisticoverviewfor materialsimpact.

materials,especiallybio-basedmaterialslikestraw,reeds,andhemp,some areconsideredagriculturewaste.Inmanypartsoftheworld,theyaretaken fromfarmersfreeofchargerequiringonlythecostofhandlingandtransportationfromfarmlands.Theconstructiontechniquesusingnaturalmartialsareoftenaffordable(depending,ofcourse,onlaborprice)asmany techniquesremainlaborintensive.However,therearenewtechnologies nowthatcanproducestrawwalls,strawpanels,rammedearthwalls,and manyothers.Inthedevelopedworld,manhourscanbeexpensive,andso usingmachineryorhightechnologyinmaterialproductionisfavored.In otherpartsoftheworld,involvinglocallaborisonewaytoencouragethe localpopulation’sinvolvementandtopromoteforsocialengagement. Distributingthecostofthebuildingprocesstoseverallocalstakeholdersfor materialproductionisnotonlymoreeconomicbutalsoenablessociallyfair distributionandhelpsincreatingjobopportunities(Figs.1.1and1.2).

Oneofthemainchallengesinusingvernacularmaterialsandconstructionmethodsincontemporarybuildingpracticeisthebuildingcodesand standards.Notallcountries,eveninthedevelopedworld,havedeveloped codesandstandardstouseearthorstraw,forexample.Wearestillbehind, andmorepressureisneededonpolicymakersanddecisionmakerstocreate andenforcenewlawsandregulationsforusingrenewablematerialsand buildingmethodsthatcausenearlyzeroemissionsandhavenearlyzero environmentalimpact.Inmanypilotprojects,ithasbeenproventohave

Figure1.1 PrecastrammedearthwallsbyMartinRauchinSwitzerland.Thewallsare castedbasedonthedesiredthickness,normally45cm.Theycanbecastedasa sandwichwithaninsulationlayerinbetween.

positiveenvironmentalimpactsandnegativecarbonemissionsduetothe carbonsequestrationpropertiesofrenewablebio-basedmaterials(Fig.1.3).

Theinterestininvestigating,studying,andresearchingthenegative impactsofbuildingsontheenvironmentstartedaroundthe1960swhen interestinthisenvironmentallyconsciousapproachtoarchitecturewasnot mainstream.Oneofthemainliteraturesthattackledsuchissueswas “Design withClimate” byVictorOlgyay(1963).Atthattimethenotionoflooking criticallyatbuildingdesignandconnectingbuildingdesigntoclimate started.Togetherwithconsideringhumancomfortinbuildings,italso investigatedthepotentialthatvernacularandindigenousdesignoffers. Lately,therehasbeenahugerelianceonenergy-consumingtechnologyin theformofactiveheating,cooling,andventilationandlightingsystemsto

Figure1.2 Ecococoonstrawpanelsaredesignedtobehandyforassembly.

Figure1.3 TheminuscarbonandplusenergyhouseinLund,Sweden.Aproofof conceptforanegative-carbonbuildingduetotheuseofbio-basedmaterials(mainly straw).

achievehumancomfortinourmodernbuildings.Theefficiencyofthe buildingisevaluatedonthebasisoftheinteractionbetweenenergyconsumption,indoorclimateconditions,andimpactontheexternalenvironment.Severalresearcheshaveshownthatvernacularbuildingsprovide acceptablethermalcomfortincomparisontocontemporarybuildings whicharerelativelypoorfromathermalperformancepointofview,and theindoorthermalcomfortisverylow.Atthetimewhenbuildingswere mainlydependentonmechanicalsystemsforheatingandcooling,Victor Olgyaystartedtodiscussthebioclimaticapproachesand “comfortzone,” andhedefinedenvironmentalbuildingperformanceintermsofpassive designprinciplesthatadditionallyrelatedperformancetohumancomfort. Energy-efficientdesignisdesignthatminimizestheenergyconsumptionof buildingsbyusingnaturalmeasurestoimprovecomfortconditions.

Improvedenergyefﬁciencyinnewresidentialbuildingshasrecently beensoughtacrossthedevelopingworldthroughchangingrequirementsin buildingand/orplanningregulations.Itisanattempttomeetclimate changemitigationgoals.Thedesignofanenergy-consciousbuilding

requiresacarefulanalysisandevaluationofallproposeddesignalternatives throughoutthedifferentdesignstages.Theaimbehinddesigningan energy-consciousbuildingisminimizingtherequiredenergyforheating, cooling,andlighting,andtherelianceonenergyfrompollutingand nonrenewablefuels.Thiscanbeachievedbytheuseofarangeofdifferent vernacularpassivedesignstrategiesandfeaturesthatcanimproveand enhancethebuilding’sthermalperformance.

Vernaculararchitectures,overcenturies,wereaninspiringsourcefor climate-responsiveandpassivebuildingtechnologiestransferredtomodern buildings.Overtheagesvernaculararchitecturehastendedtocounter climaticconditionsthroughusingpassiveandlow-energystrategiesto providehumancomfort.Suchstrategiesareexpressedfundamentallyinthe building’sforms,orientation,andbuildingmaterialsused.Vernaculararchitecturealsoprovesaneconomicalmodelforusinglocalbuildingresources.Therefore,itdemonstratestheapplicationofresource-efficient future-sustainabledesignbutitstillwouldbeunrealistictodiscardtotally thebenefitsmoderntechnologyofferstohelpensureabetterenvironment withinbuildings.Vernacularbuildingsinmanypartsoftheworldhave beenshownasexamplesonhowtodesignandbuildinalow-energyand carbon-neutralwaywithoutbeingfossilfuel-dependentinbuilding constructionandoperation.Generally,vernacularhousinghasadapted significantlywelltoclimaticconditionsindifferentlocationsbyusing low-energydesignprinciplesthatbasicallyensurehumancomfortand health.Naturalventilation,buildingorientation,buildingshape,andsolar shadingarethestrategiesmostcommonlyemployed,whereasearthcooling andhighthermalmassaretailoredstrategiesforoptimalcomfort.

Manyvernacularandtraditionaltechnologiesand/orstrategiesremain resilient,sustainable,andenergy-efﬁcientwithinourmodernexperience. Vernacularbuildingshaveadvantagesofpassivedesign,buttheyhavenot necessarilyalwayshadthehighestindoorenvironmentalquality especially whencomparedtotoday’sstandards.Somearecurrentlynolongerapplicableorproperlyfunctioninginthesamewayastheydidpreviouslydueto changesinclimatecharacteristics,orduetochangedculturalandecological situations.However,theessenceofvernacularclimatic-responsivestrategies andfundamentallow-impactprinciplesandtheirknow-howcanbeusedas asourceofinspiration.Therearefundamentallessonsandprinciplesof vernaculararchitecturethatcanbedevelopedorintegratedintodevelopmentprogramsincityplanninganddesign.Somestrategiescanbeusedin planningofnewsettlementsoreventoupgradeexistingones,letalonethe

highpotentialinusingvernacularknow-howforurbantransformationfora moreresilientandclimate-responsivefuture.

Withfewexceptions,contemporaryexamplesforlow-impactfossilfree constructionusingrenewablesmaterialsareeithersmallscale(oftentimesare perceivedashippiestyle)orrural.Thisgivesasignalthatmaterialsand techniquesaredismissedasirrelevanttolarge-scaleprojects.However,ifwe gobackintime,wewill ﬁndthathistoricallymanyofthelow-impact designandbuildingstrategieswereimplementedonalargescale.Weare inafortunatesituationnowadayswiththeadvancesoftechnologyand buildingconstructionmethods.However,theknowledgegapiswideand thereisalackofexperienceandtrust,inadditiontothebigmonopolyof usingindustrialmaterialsandsophisticatedpollutingtechnologyinconstruction.Thereisalsoanotherchallengeintheaestheticappearanceof buildingsconstructedwithrenewablenaturalmaterials.Theymaynotbe appealingintermsofmoderndesign.Anargumentinfavoroflow-impact constructionisthatchallengingtheconstructionstatusquo,usingunconventionaltechnicalandcontractualframeworks,candeliverimprovements andefﬁcienciesmeasuredinordersofmagnitude.Theuseofnaturalmaterialsandinnovativeconstructiontypesoftenenablesdrasticcostsaving. Low-costmaterialslikestrawandclayarebecomingincreasinglypopular amongself-buildersseekingaffordablebuildings.Self-builtanddo-ityourself(DIY),andsometimedo-it-ourselves(DIO)buildings,canbe executedatafractionofthecostofconventionalbuildings.

Theinheritedandtimelessknowledgeofvernacularpassivearchitecture anddesigntechniquesremainskeytothefutureofresponsivedesignand planning.Itistheinspirationforeco-solutionsadvancementsthatmight onedayeliminateourdirectdependenceonenergy-abusiveandpolluting mechanicalsystems.Strategieslikenaturalventilationordaylightingdoso muchtoimprovethecomfortoftheinteriorenvironmentandcontribute towardabeneﬁcialsustainablefuture.Generally,thereshouldbeanas-built energymodelanditshouldbemaintainedandcalibratedtomatchchanges tothebuildingoperationovertime,especiallywhenitcomestochangesin occupancyandbuildingschedules.Westrivetomakeourbuildings, especiallyresidentialones,climate-neutral,andsoastrictlow-energy strategyisrequiredandapplyingvernacularpassivestrategiesistheeasiest waytoreduceenergyconsumptionandincreasecomfort,respectively.Itis oftenreferredtoasthelow-hangingfruitoftheclimatechangedebate. Passivearchitecturedesigntechniquesarethekeytothefutureof responsibledesignastheycanprovideanimportantfoundationfordesign

initiativesthatmightonedayalleviateourrelianceonenergy-abusive mechanicalcoolingsystemsthathavebecomedangerouslycommon worldwide.

Vernacularbuildingsalsousedtoperformwithouttheuseoffossilfuels. Withoutusingelectricity,vernacularbuildingscanbecategorizedasdark greenbuildingsandnonfuel-dependent,meaningthattheyareselfsufficientbuildingsintermsofenergy,ifcalculatedoveranannualcycle, astheyareconstructedwithoutanyharmfulsubstancesandthereisno harmfulwastegoingtolandfillafterdemolition.Nowadays,zeroornearly zeroimpactbuildingsaredesignedandbuiltineverycountry,especiallyin Europewiththenewmandates.Zeroenergymeansthatthebuildinghasall theenergy(electricity)supplyfromrenewablesourcesandtheoreticallyitis supposedtobefossil-free.Theplus-energybuildingsarethosethatproduce morethantheyconsume,withtheextraproductiontobeingexportedto thegridtobeusedwhenneededortobesoldorfedintothemain electricitygrid.Theoperationofthebuildingremainsoneofthemost energy-consumingareas,tocovertheneedforcoolingorheatingforcold andhotclimates,respectively.However,westillignoretheextractionof materialsphaseandtheconstructionphase,whichisnotfossil-free, energy-hungryphases,emission-producingphases,andalsonatural resources-abusivephases,especiallyforwater.Whenlookingatavernacular buildingprocessonewill findthatvernacularbuildingillustrateshow,from materialextractionuntilbuildingdemolition,wecangobeyondour moderndefinitionofzero-energybuildings(Fig.1.4).

Vernaculararchitectureisnotapasttradition,butitcontributesand inspiresnewmethods,solutions,andinnovationsforthefutureofalowimpact,sustainable,andconscious-builtenvironment.Itisalwaysconsideredthatwell-adaptedarchitectureformsbuildingsandconstructionstothe naturalandsocialconditionsofthespeciﬁclocationinwhichitexists. Moreover,vernaculararchitecturedemonstratestheeconomicaluseoflocal buildingresourcesandis,therefore,anidealresourceforfuturesustainable design.However,itmustbeadmittedthatbothatthedesignandimplementationstagestheprocessesofformalarchitectureandvernaculararchitectureareverydifferent.Thus,animportantissuetodayishow vernaculardesignscanandshouldrespondtomodernity.Howcanthey respondtothedemandsformodernlivingstandardsandcomfortlevels developedathighspeed.Howcanvernacularbuildingsrespondtotheneed forsustainability,recyclablematerials,andgreentechnologies.Ifvernacular passivedesignconsiderationsareappliedduringthedesignofthebuilding

Figure1.4 NashtifanvillageinIranhassomeofwhatarethoughttobetheearliest windmillsintheworld.Vernaculararchitectureservedasinspirationforproducing energyfromnaturalresources. (Photocredit:AliMalekabbasi.)