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INTEGRATEDSUSTAINABLE URBANWATER,ENERGY, ANDSOLIDSMANAGEMENT
VladimirNovotny
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Names:Novotny,Vladimir,1938-author.
Title:Integratedsustainableurbanwater,energy,andsolidsmanagement: achievingtriplenet-zeroadverseimpactgoalsandresiliencyoffuture communities/VladimirNovotny,NortheasternUniversity.
Description:Hoboken,NJ,USA:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,2020.|Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2019045370(print)|LCCN2019045371(ebook)|ISBN 9781119593652(hardback)|ISBN9781119593690(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119593669(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Municipalengineering.|Environmentalpolicy.|Urban ecology(Sociology)|Water-supply.|Plannedcommunities.|Sustainable development.
Classification:LCCTD159.N682020(print)|LCCTD159(ebook)|DDC 363.6—dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019045370
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019045371
Coverimage:Wiley
Coverdesign:CourtesyofBullittCenter
Setin10/12ptandTimesTenLTStdbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India 10987654321
INTEGRATEDSUSTAINABLEURBANWATER,ENERGY,ANDSOLIDS MANAGEMENT 1
1SUSTAINABILITYGOALSFORURBANWATERANDSOLIDWASTE SYSTEMS 3
1.1IntroductiontoUrbanSustainability / 3
1.2HistoricandCurrentUrbanParadigms / 8 ParadigmsofUrbanization / 9
1.3GlobalClimateChanges / 14
1.4NeedforaParadigmShifttoSustainability / 16
1.5PopulationIncrease,Urbanization,andtheRiseof Megalopolises / 19
WasteAccumulation / 23
BriefOutlookTowardtheFuture / 23
1.6WhatIsaSustainableEcocity? / 24
ImpactofGlobalWarmingandContinuingOveruseofResources / 28
TheUN2015ResolutionofSustainability / 28
2THENEWPARADIGMOFURBANWATER,ENERGY,ANDRESOURCES MANAGEMENT 31
2.1TheSearchforaNewParadigm / 31
2.2FromLineartoHybridUrbanMetabolism / 33 CircularEconomy / 37
2.3UrbanResilienceandAdaptationtoClimateChange / 40
EngineeringandInfrastructureHazardsandDisasterResilience / 42 SocioecologicalorGovernanceResilience / 48
3GOALSANDCRITERIAOFURBANSUSTAINABILITY 51
3.1ReviewofExistingSustainabilityCriteria / 51
LEEDCriteriaforBuildingsandSubdivisions / 53
TripleNet-Zero(TNZ)Goals / 54
WaterFootprint / 56
GHG(CarbonDioxide)Net-ZeroFootprintGoal / 58
Water/EnergyNexus / 60
EcologicalFootprint / 60
3.2ZeroSolidWastetoLandfillGoalandFootprint / 61
LandfillGas(LFG) / 64
ExportingGarbage / 68
SwedishRecyclingRevolution / 68
3.3ImportanceofRecyclingversusCombustingorLandfilling / 69
4ORIGINOFHYDROGENENERGY,GHGEMISSIONS, ANDCLIMATICCHANGES
4.1IntroductiontoEnergy / 73 EnergyDefinitionsandUnits / 73 GreenhouseGases(GHGs) / 76
4.2HydrogenEnergy / 79
BlueandGreenSourcesofHydrogenonEarth / 79 HydrogenasaSourceofEnergy / 84 VisionofHydrogenRoleinthe(Near)Future / 89
4.3CarbonDioxideSequesteringandReuse / 91
StoppingtheAtmosphericCO2 IncreaseandReversing theTrend / 91 SequesteringCO2 / 93 Non-CCUSReuseofCarbonDioxide / 96 Recycling / 97
4.4SolarandWindBluePower / 98 SolarPower / 98 WindPower / 103 GreenandBlueEnergyStorage / 106
4.5Food/Water/Energy/ClimateNexus / 108
4.6WorldandUSEnergyOutlook / 110
5DECENTRALIZEDHIERARCHICALURBANWATER,USEDWATER,
SOLIDS,ANDENERGYMANAGEMENTSYSTEMS 117
5.1EconomyofScaleDogmaForcedCentralizedManagement 45YearsAgo / 117
5.2DistributedBuildingandClusterLevelDesignsand Management / 119 ClusterorNeighborhoodLevelWaterandEnergy Recovery / 121
5.3FlowSeparation:GrayWaterReclamationandReuse / 126 TapaSewer,KeeptheLiquid,andSelltheSolids / 132 IntegratedDistrictWaterandEnergyProvidingLoop / 136 EnergySavingsandGHGReductionbyGrayWaterReuse inClusters / 137
6BIOPHILICSUSTAINABLELANDSCAPEANDLOWIMPACT DEVELOPMENT 141
6.1UrbanNatureandBiophilicDesigns / 141 BiophilicDesigns / 142
6.2Low-ImpactDevelopment / 144
ClassificationofLID(SUDS)Practices / 149
6.3Restoring,Daylighting,andCreatingUrbanWaterBodies / 165
StreamRestoration / 165 Waterscapes / 169
VerticalForestsandSystems / 170
6.4BiophilicUrbanBiomassManagementandCarbon Sequestering / 171
LawnsandGrassClippings / 172
OtherVegetation / 172
7BUILDINGBLOCKSOFTHEREGIONALINTEGRATEDRESOURCES RECOVERYFACILITY(IRRF) 175
7.1TraditionalAerobicTreatment / 175
GHGEmissionsfromTraditionalRegionalWater/ResourcesRecovery Facilities / 178
7.2Energy-ProducingTreatment / 179
AnaerobicDigestionandDecomposition / 179
ComparisonofAerobicandAnaerobicTreatmentandEnergyRecovery (Use)Processes / 182
AcidFermentationandItsHydrogenProduction / 184
AnaerobicTreatment / 188
7.3TripleNet-Zero:COFFutureDirectionandIntegratedResourceRecovery Facilities / 189
GoalsoftheFutureIRRFsandEnablingTechnologies / 190 EnergyRecoveryinaCentralizedConceptwithAnaerobicTreatmentand DigestionastheCoreTechnology / 192
AnaerobicEnergyProductionandRecoveryUnitsandProcesses / 194
HighRateAnaerobicTreatmentSystems / 195
7.4Co-DigestionofSludgewithOtherOrganicMatter / 203
7.5ConversionofChemicalandSensibleEnergyinUsedWaterinto ElectricityandHeat / 207
8INTEGRATINGGASIFICATIONANDDEVELOPINGANINTEGRATED “WASTETOENERGY”POWERPLANT
8.1TraditionalWaste-to-EnergySystems / 211 Incineration / 212
HeatEnergytoDrytheSolids / 215
8.2PyrolysisandGasification / 216
GasificationofDigestedResidualUsedWaterSolidswithMSW / 218
GasificationofMunicipalSolidWastes(MSW) / 221
8.3ConvertingBiogastoElectricity / 232
SteamMethaneReforming(SMR)toSyngasandThentoHydrogen / 234
8.4MicrobialFuelCells(MFCs)andMicrobialElectrolysisCells(MECs) / 235
MicrobialFuelCells(MFCs) / 236
ModificationsofMFCstoMECsforHydrogenProduction / 238
HybridFermentationandtheMECSystem / 241
8.5HydrogenYieldPotentialbyIndirectGasification / 242
SourcesofEnergyHydrogen / 244
MaximizingHydrogenEnergyYieldbySelectingtheProper Technologies / 249
8.6HydrogenFuelCells / 249
MoltenCarbonateFuelCells(MCFCs) / 250 SolidOxideFuelCells(SOFCs) / 253
ProducingHydrogenandOxygenbyElectrolysis / 254 GasSeparation / 256
8.7TheIRRFPowerPlant / 257
Hydrogen-CO2 Separator / 260
CarbonDioxideSequesteringinanIRRF / 262
CarbonDioxideCaptureandConcentrationbytheMoltenCarbonate FuelCell / 264
9NUTRIENTRECOVERY
9.1TheNeedtoRecover,NotJustRemoveNutrients / 265
9.2BiologicalNutrientRemovalandRecovery / 267
TraditionalNutrientRemovalProcesses / 267 Anammox / 268
PhosphorusBiologicalRemovalandLimitedRecovery / 270
MECCanRecoverStruvite / 272
9.3UnitProcessesRecoveringNutrients / 273
UrineSeparation / 273
NutrientSeparation / 274
PhytoseparationofNutrients / 275
ChemicalRemovalandRecoveryofNutrients / 283
PhosphorusFlowintheDistributedUrbanSystem / 285 NutrientsinGasifierAsh / 286
10BUILDINGTHESUSTAINABLEINTEGRATEDSYSTEM
10.1AssemblingtheSystem / 291
Concepts,BuildingBlocks,andInputs / 291
10.2UpgradingTraditionalSystemstoCitiesoftheFuture / 295
Milwaukee(Wisconsin)Plan / 295
DanishBillundBioRefinery / 296
IntegratingMSW / 299
10.3VisionaryMid-Twenty-FirstCenturyRegionalResourceRecovery Alternative / 304
ThePowerPlant / 309
10.4Water–EnergyNexusandResourceRecoveryofThreeAlternative Designs / 311
ThreeAlternatives / 311
InputstotheAnalyses / 315
CO2 /Kw-hRatiofortheAlternatives / 319
DiscussionandResults / 321
11CLOSINGTHEQUESTTOWARDTRIPLENET-ZEROURBANSYSTEMS
11.1CommunitySelf-RelianceonTMZSystemforPowerandRecovering Resources / 337
11.2EconomicBenefitsandApproximateCostsofthe2040+ Integrated Water/Energy/MSWManagement / 341
CostofGreenandBlueEnergiesIsDecreasing / 342
11.3CanItBeDoneinTimetoSavetheEarthfromIrreversible Damage? / 349
Political-EconomicalTools / 349
TheProcesstoAchievetheGoals / 351
PREFACE
Thisbookisnotareminiscenceofthepast;itisanoutlookintoanearfuture.Itventures therewithsuggestedsolutionstoavoidthedarkconsequencesofdangeroustrendsthat theEarthisnowundergoingandthatareexpectedtoincreaseifnothingisdonetoreduce emissionsofgreenhousegases,impactsofexcessiveplasticsuse,andwastegenerationand pollutionbychemicals,andtocontrolthedevastatingeffectsofthesetrends.
IwasbornattheonsetofWorldWarIIinasmallindustrializedcountryincentral Europe–Czechoslovakia(todaytheCzechRepublic).Ilivedthroughsomeoftheenvironmentalandeconomicapocalypsesofthewar,terribleenvironmentalpollution,and economicandpoliticalstrugglesofmynativecountrythatformanyyears,alongwiththe restoftheindustrializedworld,embarkedonunrestrictedeconomicdevelopmentand disregardedtheenvironmentandsoundenvironmentallyfriendlyeconomics.Afterthe sufferinganddevastationofWorldWarII,inthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury manycountriesexperiencedterriblepollutioncatastrophes,whichresultedinmercury poisoninginJapan,riversonfire(theCuyahogaRiverinCleveland,Ohio),thedying ofLakeErieandsomeotherGreatLakesduetoexcessiveuseofindustrialfertilizers, unrestrictedindustrialexpansionresultingincontaminatedbrownfields,andthe Silent Spring (asdescribedinRachelCarson’sbookonthedisappearanceofbirdsduetotoxic pollution)causedbycontaminationoftheenvironmentbychemicals.
Afterthat,pushedbythestrongenvironmentalmovementintheearly1970s,theUS CongresspassedtheCleanWaterandCleanAirActs,followedattheendofthecenturyby similarlegislativeactsinmostdevelopedcountries.Thesedevelopmentsopenedthepath tothecleanupoftheenvironment.However,despitethisprogressduringthelastthree decadesofthecentury,itwasrealizedthatthefragmentedwater/stormwater/solidwaste managementsystemstillthreatenedtheuseofresourcesforfuturegenerations.Inaddition, methaneemissionsfromlandfillswerestillveryhigh,uncontrolled,andnowexceedthose relatedtowatersupplyandsewagedisposal.Enormousquantitiesofwasteplasticshave accumulatedinwaterresourcesandoceansandthemassofdiscardedplasticsisexpected toincreaseifnothingisdonetocontrolit.Furthermore,attheendofthepreviouscentury andthebeginningofthenewmillennium,societiesrealizedthedangerofglobalwarming that,ifnotaddressedandabated,wouldbytheendofthiscenturychangetheecologyof theEarthandthreatenlifeasweknowitinmanypartsoftheworld.
Afterpublishingseveralbooksoverseveraldecades(thefirstappearedin1980),this bookisspecialtotheauthor.Mostofthepreviousbooksdescribedthestate-of-the-art knowledgeonwaterquality,nonpoint(diffuse)pollution,urbandrainage,andwater conservation.However,inthismillennium,scientists,politicians,industrialists,andthe informedpublichaverealizedthattheriseofglobalwarminggasconcentrationsinthe atmospheremustbestoppedandeventuallyreversed.Amongothersocialandeconomic
changes,thiswillrequireachangeintheparadigmofwater,stormwater,solidwaste,air pollutioncontrol,andenergymanagement.Furthermore,thechangewillnotonlyhave beneficialeffectsontheenvironment,butitwillalsobringtremendouseconomicbenefits. Large-scaleuseofrenewableenergythattenyearsagowasexpensiveandunrealisticis explodinginEurope(Germany,Austria,Poland,France,Sweden,andothers)andAsia (Singapore,China,andRepublicofKorea),whichalreadyhavecommunitiesthatclaimto havesustainablenet-zerogreenhousegas(GHG)impactbyimplementinggreen(energy fromwaste,vegetationbiomass,andsludgedigestionmethane)andblue(hydro,solar, wind)energy.Israel,Singapore,andAustraliaareleadersinwaterconservationandreuse. However,theeffortsarestillfragmented,andenvironmentalengineeringisstilldivided betweenwatersupply,drainage,andliquidandsolidwasteresortsandtheseresortsrarely cooperate.Urbanlandscapearchitectsandcityandindustrialplannersurgentlyneed guidanceofwhatiswrongwiththepastandcurrentsystems,whattoimprove,andwhatis economicallypossibleinthenearandmoredistantfuturetoachieveurbansustainability.
Implementingwaterandmaterialsreuse,recyclingresources,currentlyconsideredwaste, andderivingalargeportionofcommunityenergyandsomeresourceneedsfromlocalgreen andbluesourcesarenowbecomingnear-futurereality.Thereisasynergybetweenresources inwaterandsolidwastesystemsthatcanbeharnessed.Thenewtechnologiesleadingto zeroGHGemissionsrapidlyevolvingintheautomobileindustriesarehighlyapplicableand alreadybeingappliedtoothersectorsbutnotyettourbanwater/stormwater/solidwaste management.Thesetechnologieshaveapotentialnotonlytodramaticallyreduceurban GHGemissionstonet-zeroorbetter(negativeGHGemissions)buttheycouldalsomake citiesself-reliantongreenandblueenergysourcesthattoalargedegreecanbederived fromwasteresources.
Switchingtohydrogenasanenergysourceandcarrieropensarealpossibilityofgeneratingelectricitybyultra-cleanandveryefficienthydrogenfuelcells,whichtodayareopening newpossibilitiesandrevolutionizingmanysegmentsoftheeconomy. Fuelcellsareanenergy user’sdream:anefficient,combustionless,virtuallypollution-freepowersource,capableof beingsitedindowntownurbanareasorinremoteregionsthatrunsalmostsilentlyandhas fewmovingparts (USDepartmentofEnergy).Theauthorofthisbookarguesanddocumentsthatthesenewconceptsarehighlycompatibleandadaptabletousedwaterandwaste solidsdisposal.
Ideasandexamplesofthesustainableandresilienturbanlandscapeprovidingwater storagewhereinstormandcombinedsewersbecomeobsoleteandsanitarysewersmuch smaller,arealsopresented.Stormwaterisnotwaste;itisthethirdbestsourceofwater forcommunities,andreusingitlocallyalsosavesenergy.The“triplenet-zero”goal(no wasteofwater,net-zeroGHGemissions,andnowastetolandfills)featuredinthisbook isachallengeleadingtointegrationofwater,used(waste)water,solidswaste,andenergy managementthatisafoundationofthefuturesustainableurbanandsuburbanareas.This conceptualideawasalsoachallengetotheauthor,whoattemptedtousehis50yearsof experiencetoproveordisprovewhetherthesegoalsarerealistic.
Inthelate1980s,theauthorledasmallinternationalteamofexpertstoprepare anEnglish-languageadaptationofKarlImhoff’s TaschenbuchderStadtentwässerung (PocketbookofUrbanSewage).FounderofEuropeansewagemanagement,KarlImhoff wrotethefirsteditionofthisbookin1906foragrowingaudienceofplanners,students,and engineersembarkingonimplementinganemergingandchallengingparadigmofsewage ofcitiesplaguedatthattimebyextremepollutionofurbanwatersandpollutingindustrial activities(miningandsteelmillsinGermany’sRuhrindustrialarea).Evencitystreets wereseverelyimpactedbypollutionfromsolidwastesandhorsemanure.Theoriginal
Taschenbuch hasbeentranslatedandusedbyengineersofurbanwater/wastewater managementofmanycountriesfordecadesasatriedandtestedworkaid.IntheUSit wasfirstintroducedbythepioneerofUSenvironmentalengineering(atthattimeknown assanitaryengineering),GordonM.Fair(K.ImhoffandG.MFair, SewageTreatment, JohnWiley&Sons,1956)andrevisedandadaptedagainin1989(V.Novotny,K.R.Imhoff etal., HandbookofUrbanDrainageandWastewaterDisposal, Wiley).Thiscompactbut comprehensiveguidehasbeencontinuouslyupdatedandrepublished,mostrecentlythe 32ndGermaneditionin2007(preparedbyKlausImhoffwithcoauthors).Ithasprovided fundamentalengineering/planningguidanceinEuropeandinmanytranslationselsewhere togenerationsofstudentsandprofessionals.
Thisbookattemptsasimilarmission:toprovidefundamentalinformationandguidelines tostudents,planners,politicians,andotherstakeholderstoimplementthenewparadigmof sustainableintegratedwater/stormwater/solidwasteandenergyinfrastructuresconcepts. Thisshiftisasmuchormorerevolutionaryastheshiftfromtheuncontrolledwastedisposalatthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytothewastewater“fastconveyance–end ofpipetreatmentparadigm”andengineeredsolidwastelandfillingthatdominatedtheend ofthelastcentury.Therevolutiontowardthenewparadigmofhowcitiesandhomesare builtisalreadyinprogress.Inthenext20–30years,mosthomesandcommercialhouses incountriesadheringtotheParis21Agreementwillhavephotovoltaicsolarpanels.Very soonFrance,Sweden,Denmark,Norway,Singapore,Austria,Israel,Iceland,Germany,and possiblyothercountrieswillsoonbenet-zeroGHG-impactcountries.Largewindenergy farmsandsolarenergypowerplantsarealreadyubiquitousinsomeEUcountries,China, India,Israel,Australia,theUS,andothercountries.
Since2005Ihavebeenamemberoftheinternationalteamandafoundingmemberofthe InternationalWaterAssociation(IWA)committeeofscientists,whichundertheauspices oftheIWAorganizedandpromotedthe“CitiesoftheFuture”program.Consequently,this bookprovidesinformationintheinternationalcontext.Theuniquenessofthisbookisin integrationofused(waste)watertreatment,municipalsolidwaste,andsuburbanagricultureorganicwastecollection,anddisposalintoonesystemofwater,solidwaste,energy, andresourcesmanagementandrecuperation.Inthissystem,gasificationofawiderangeof wasteorganicsolids,includingplastics,producingsyngas,replaceslandfillingandenvironmentallydamagingandinefficientincineration.Reformingsyngasandmethanetohydrogen andsubsequentpowerproductionbyhydrogenfuelcellpowerplants(2030–2050horizon) produceswithhighefficiencyblueelectricity,heat,resourcesfromwaste,andevensome ultracleanwater.
Thisbookpresentstheconceptsanddesignsoftheintegratedsustainablewater,energy, solidsmanagement,andresourcerecoveryinthe“CitiesoftheFuture.”Beginningwith definingurbansustainability,thetextpresentshistoricscientificgeologicalandecological reasonswhyhumansmustreducethepresentlevelsofgreenhousegasesintheatmosphere toavoidcatastrophicconsequencesofglobalwarming.Thebookintroducestheconcepts ofsustainabletriplenet-zeroadverseimpactcommunitiesanddescribesmethodologies towardmeetingsustainabilitygoals.Itguidesusersthroughthelatestemergingtechnologiesofurbanwater,energy,andsolidwastemanagementdisposaltotherealizationthat watermustbeconserved,andthatstormwaterandsolidwasteareresources.Thisbook doesnotdirectlycoverthewater/energynexusoftheindustrial,agricultural,oreventransportationsectors.However,thecirculareconomyofcitiesisexpectedtohavesignificant directandindirecteffectsontheproductionsectorandswitchingtohydrogenenergywill affecttransportationandothersectors,asisalreadyhappeninginIceland,Germany,and elsewhere.
The2018reportsoftheInternationalPanelonClimaticChange(IPCC,2018)and the13USgovernmentscientificagencies(USGlobalChangeResearchProgram,2018a, b)confirmedwhatscientistsandscientificresearchhavebeenfindingandwarning aboutfordecades:thatifwater,solids,andenergymanagementandothereconomic practicescontinuepracticingbusinessasusual,atmospherictemperaturewillcontinue toriseandthedamagestotheplanet’secology–thefrequencyofcatastrophicstorms, floods,droughts,andwildfires,andthemeltingofarticiceandglaciers–willcontinue tomagnifyandwithinagenerationwillreachapointofnoreturn.Theinnocentpeoplegreatlyimpactedbytheseadversechangesandcatastrophesincludestheauthor’s children,grandchildren,andfuturegenerations.Toavoidtheseriousandcatastrophic consequenceofglobalclimatechangeinthenearfuture(fromnowto2040),societiesmust implementradical,fast,yetverylogicalchangesoftheurbanparadigmfromfragmented wasteandexcessivewaterandenergyuseandsolidwastedisposaltointegratedsystems thatsavewater,produceexcessgreenandblueelectricity,andrecoverresourcesfrom usedwaterandsolidwastewithoutlandfilling.Recoveredwater,energy,andresources, includinghydrogenandhighconcentrationofCO2 gas,willhaveacommercialvalue,and incomeandsavingsachievedwiththenewparadigmmaypayforagreatpartofthecost ofimplementation.
Themaintechnicalobjectiveofthebookistosystematicallyprovethat,withinageneration,themovetotheurbansustainabilityparadigmwithtriplenet-zeroadverseimpactsis feasiblebothinnewandhistoriccommunitiesandtoprovethatthisnewparadigmisnota utopia,butitisarealisticgoalandevenanecessitybecauseofglobalwarming,population increases,andotherstresses.Thebookdoesnotclaimthatthepathstowardthesesustainabilitygoalsoutlinedinitaretheonlyway.Newtechnologiesunknowninthelastcentury arerapidlyemerging.Theauthortruststhatthisbookwillhelpinthemovementtowardthe sustainableCitiesoftheFuture.
Thisbookisinnowayaproductofonlyoneperson.Itcontainstheknowledge andideasofmanyexpertsandvisionaries,personallystartingwiththelateprofessor PeterKrenkel,arenownedexpertonwaterqualitymanagement,whoinvitedme–at thattimeayoungscientistjuststartingout–toVanderbiltUniversityinNashville, Tennessee,duringthetimeofcrisisintheauthor’snativecountry50yearsago.Also significantisthelateProfessorW.WesEckenfelder,Jr.,whotaughtmethecraftof wastewatertreatmentanddisposaldesignasateacherandfirstUSemployer.Workon adaptationofthe Taschenbuch withIng-DrKlausR.Imhoff,DirectorofRuhrverband WaterandSewageManagementAgencyinGermany,introducedmetoregionalurban integratedwaterandsewagemanagement.PastpresidentsoftheInternationalWater Association,ProfessorsPetrGrau,LászlóSomlyody,andGlenDaigger,andIWApast ExecutiveDirectorsAnthonyMilburn,PaulReiter,andcurrentExecutiveDirector ProfessorKalaVairavamoorthy,withwhomIcollaborated,createdtheIWA“Citiesof theFuture”programandshouldalsobeacknowledged,alongwithmanyinternational scientistsnowparticipatingintheCitiesoftheFuturemovement.Thesescientificleaders areapartofmanythousandsofscientistsofallageswhodiscoveredthedangerofoveruse offossilfuels,theensuingglobalwarming,andtheunsustainabilityofthewaycitiesand industriesuseenergyandresources.Thousandsofvisionariesofallagesandprofessional organizationsarecommittedtothegoalsofachievingthetriplenet-zeroadverse-impact communities,transportation,andindustrialproductionandareworkingonsolutions.And finally,Imustmentionmyformergraduatestudents,whoarenowuniversityprofessors anddepartmentleaders,presidents,vicepresidents,andleadersinlargeengineeringand researchcompaniesandcitygovernments.
However,thisbookismainlydedicatedtothecurrentandnextgenerationofscientists, engineers,politicalleaders,andallthosewhowillbesavingtheEarthfromthedamages ofglobalwarmingandenvironmentaldegradationcausedbytheirancestors.Thanksand appreciationgoalsotomywifeandlife-longpartnerforhersupportandcollaboration. Workingunderadifferentparadigmofeconomicdevelopment,theseancestorseliminatedfamineandpovertyinmostcountries,haveflowntotheMoon,cleanedupthewater andairinsomecities,andkepttheworldmostlyatpeacenowformorethan75years. Therealizationthatunlimiteddevelopmentandurbanizationarenotsustainableandmay severelydamagetheEarth’secosystemsandhumanityoccurredlater.Nowisthetime tomaketheworldsustainableandliveableforthisandfuturegenerations.Thegoalsof sustainableCitiesoftheFuturearerealisticandachievableinageneration.
VladimirNovotny,February2019
IntegratedSustainableUrban Water,Energy,andSolids Management
VladimirNovotny
BOOKVISION
Provideguidanceonachievingsustainableintegratedwater,energy,andresource recoveryinurbanareas.Thereisdiscussionofdrainageinfrastructuresconnectedto receivingwatersandprotectingormimickingnature,andbeingresilienttonaturaland anthropogenicstresses,includingextremeevents.Itoutlineshowtoreduceemissions ofgreenhousegasestonetzerolevelbywaterconservation,recycling,andgenerating blueandgreenenergyfromwaste,complementedbyinstallingsolarpowerinhouses andwindpowerincommunities,withthegoalofprovidinggoodqualityofnatural andreclaimedwaterfordiverseusesandblueandgreenenergytopresentandfuture generations.Urbansustainabilitywillconsidermunicipalsolidwasteasasourceof energyandresourcesandeliminatetheneedforlandfills.
AchievingTripleNet-ZeroAdverseImpactGoalsandResiliencyofFutureSustainable Communities
SUSTAINABILITYGOALSFOR URBANWATERANDSOLID WASTESYSTEMS
1.1INTRODUCTIONTOURBANSUSTAINABILITY
Thistreatiseproposesandpresentsanintegratedandsustainablesystemofurbanwater, used(waste)water,wastesolidsmanagementthatwouldsaveandprotectqualityofwater, recoverenergyandotherresourcesfromwastesolidsandminimizeoreliminatetheneed forlandfills.Thesystem,becauseitpromotesprovidingmorestorageofwaterandresources duringthetimesofexcessandsafeconveyanceduringcatastrophicevents,alsoenhances theresiliencyofurbansystemsagainstextremeeventssuchasfloodingandseveredroughts, whichareexpectedtobecomemoresevereandfrequent.Technologiestoachievethisgoal areavailableandtheirusewillbeprofitable.
Urbandevelopmentand,specifically,economicconceptsinmostofthetwentiethcentury andbeforefollowedtheideathatdevelopmentanduseofresourcesshouldbemaximized atminimumcostwithoutconsideringtheimpactonfuturegenerationsandimpactofthe adverseeffectsontheenvironment.Insomecountries,smokingindustrialstackswereasign ofprogress.Thisunrestricteddevelopmentanddisregardfortheimpactontheenvironment andcitypopulationledtoenvironmentalandhumancatastrophessuchasepidemicsdueto dirtyair,poisonedwater,anddevastatingsoillosses(dustbowlconditions).
Thegravityoftheplightofthewaterandotherresourcesintheworldcitiesandtheir futureunderthebusinessasusual(BAU)scenariowerefeltandknownformorethana centurybuttheresponsewaseithertodonothingortoconverturbanstreamstoundergroundsewersoutofsight.Resistance,inertia,andthetraditionofpasturbanismparadigms basedonhardinfrastructuresandpavementsstillpersistandaredifficulttoovercome.But nomatterhowmanybillionswillbespentunderthelast-centuryparadigmofbuildingnew hardwater/wastewaterinfrastructureand/orfixingtheold,theecologicalgoalsoftheClean WaterActintheUS,theWaterFrameworkDirectiveinEuropeanCommunitycountries, andsimilarlawsinmanyothercountriesmaynotbemet.Thereisalsoaneedtobuildmany newcities;especiallyinAsiaandLatinAmerica,toaccommodateanticipatedpopulation increaseandfluxofpeoplefromruralareastothecities.Theproblemshavebeenmagnifiedbytheongoingglobalclimaticchanges,andgradualexhaustionofwaterandother resources.
Thereisanongoingdiscussiononwhatis“sustainability”andhowitdiffersfrom “economicprogress.”Isitincreasinglivingstandardsbymaximizingeconomicgains,even thoughitresultsinunsustainableuseofnaturalresources?Orisitthenaturalisticviewthat preservingnatureinitsoriginalstateissuperiortoeconomicdevelopment?Theauthor remembersthatinthe1950s,signsof“progress”intotalitarian“socialist”countrieswere smokingstacksofexpandingheavyindustries,cultivationofforests,drainingwetlands,and irrigatingvirginlandsanddesertsforagriculture,allwithheavyadverseimpactsonnatural resources.IntheUStheinfluxofEuropeanimmigrantsinthenineteenthcenturychanged Midwestforestsandprairiesintoagriculturallandsand,morerecently,industrialization andpopulationincreaserapidlychangedpristineandagriculturallandstourbanlandsand sprawl,oftenwithoutconsideringenvironmentalconsequences.
Theadvocatesofeconomyonlyconsiderationarguethatinafreecapitalistsocietya companyshouldhaveno“socialresponsibility.”“Theonlycorporateresponsibilityacompanyshouldhaveistomaximizeprofitsforitselfandforitsshareholders”(Friedman,2002). UnrestricteddevelopmentwasubiquitousintheUSandotherdevelopedcountriesandin manylargerdevelopingcountriesbeforeWorldWarIIandlasteduntilthreedecadesafter thewar.ButitwasalsoacharacteristicoftotalitariansocialisticsocietiesofthetwentiethcenturyinEuropeandAsia,althoughtheeconomythereinwasplannedanddictated bythegovernmentandnotbythemarket.Unrestrictedeconomicdevelopmentfocusing onlyonmaximizationofprofitsled–andstillleads–tohealthandecologicalcalamities andwidespreaddamagestoairandwaterqualityandpublichealth.Hence,thereisa“social”costofpollutioncausedbyunrestricteddevelopmentandproductionfocusingonlyon economicgains.
Atthebeginningofthenewmillennium,countriesaroundtheworldalmostuniversally agreedthatenvironmentsustainabilityandeconomicdevelopmentareinterconnected. However,argumentsthat“environmentalprosperity”overrides“environmentalsustainability”arestillbeingdiscussedandadvocatedinfewcountriesrichwithfossilfuel resources.Unrestrictedeconomicdevelopmentwouldcreate“environmentaldiseconomy” throughexcessiveairandwaterpollution,andwouldaccelerateglobalwarming.Inreality, therecannotbeeconomicprosperitywithenvironmentalsustainabilityunlessthecountry doesnothaveanenvironmenttobeginwithorwouldacceptascenariothatpartofalarge countrycanbeenvironmentallydevastatedsothatanotherpartcouldbeprosperous.In thedoomscenarioofthefutureunderthebusinessasusual(BAU)scenario,Rees(2014) arguesthatunderthecurrentglobalthreatofclimatechangeandlimitednonrenewable resourcesthese“resourcesfromhoneybeesthroughpetroleumtosongbirdsslipdownthe scalefromabundancetoscarcity.”Worldwide,peoplehaveyettoacknowledgethaton aplanetalreadyoverburdened,thereisnopossibilityofraisingeventhepresentworld populationtodevelopedcountrymaterialstandardssustainablywithknowntechnologies andavailableresources.Thissituationleadstoconflictsandunsustainablemigrationof people.Reesalsowarned,“Nocountry,howevervirtuous,canbesustainableonitsownor remaininsulatedfromglobalturmoil.”
Environmentaleconomistsarguethatmaximizingeconomicprofitswithoutconsideringenvironmentalconsequencesresultsin“externaldiseconomy,”whichisaneconomic activitythatimposesanegativeeconomiceffectsuchasairandwaterpollution,including carbonemissions,onanunrelatedthirdparty.Marketforcesalonecannotreducepollutionbytheunrestrictedproductionandurbandevelopment.Withoutregulations,upstream polluterswoulddisregarddownstreamimpactonecologyandusersofwater.Theproblemwithexternaldiseconomyeffectsofproductioncouldberesolvedbypublicpressure, litigation,taxation,andenforcementofgovernmentregulations,whichismosteffective.
Theissues,problems,andsolutionsoftheenvironmentaldiseconomyrelatedtopollution wereextensivelypresentedandsummarizedinNovotny(2003a).
Thesituationofunrestrictedeconomicthinkingpersistedalmosttothemiddleofthe secondhalfofthelastcenturywhilethediscoursewascontinuing.Thestartingpointof thenewsustainabilityconceptswastheworkoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironment, chairedbythenPrimeMinisterofNorwayG.Brundtland,whichdefinedsustainabilityas follows(Brundtlandetal.,1987):
Humanityhastheabilitytomakedevelopmentsustainable–toensurethatitmeetstheneedsof thepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds
TheBrundtlandcommission’sdefinition,whichhasbeengenerallyacceptedsincethe endofthelastcentury,doesnotdifferentiatebetweensustainabledevelopmentandsustainability.Thereportexpressesthedesireofsocietytouseandmanageresourcesonthe basesofeconomicsustainability,socialequity,intergenerationaljustice,andintrinsicvalue ofnature(Dilworth,2008)andmakestheintergenerationalpreservationofresourcesas paramountaseconomicdevelopment.Itisnowgenerallyagreedthatthesevaluesarenot mutuallyexclusive;theyoverlaptosomedegree.
Howarth(2007)discussedtheviewsthatledtoformulationofsustainability.Onedefinitionof“sustainability”thattriedtomodifyunrestricteddevelopmentoflandanduseof naturalresourcesforeconomic“progress”wastheso-calledeconomic NetInvestmentRule, stating:
Adynamiceconomywillmaintainaconstantorincreasinglevelofpercapitautilityonlyifvalue ofnaturalresourcesinvestmentsinmanufacturedcapitalexceedthemonetarydepletiononan economy-widebasis
Incorporatingthelossofnaturalresourcesintoeconomicthinkingwasastepforward fromstrictlyeconomicmonetarybenefit/costanalyses.“Environmentalimpactstatements,” alongwitheconomicanalyses,wereattachedtostrictlymonetaryassessmentofbenefits andcostsofdevelopmentprojects.ThisconceptwasincludedintheUSintheNational EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA),passedbytheCongressin1969.NEPAwasoneof thefirstlawseverwrittenthatestablishedabroadnationalframeworkforprotectingour environment.NEPA’sbasicpolicyistoassurethatallbranchesofgovernmentconsider theenvironmentpriortoundertakinganymajorfederalactionthatsignificantlyaffectsthe environment.Unfortunately,NEPAwasmandatoryonlyforfederallyfinancedprojects, butsomestatespassedtheirownNEPA-likerules.Largeprivatedevelopmentswere excluded.TheweaknessoftheNEPAassessmentswastheinabilitytoincludeintangible environmentalgainsandlossesintotheeconomicanalyses.
Asindicatedpreviously,sustainabilityisevolvingfromgradualmerginganddiscourseof populationgroupsascribingtotwosocialviews(Novotnyetal.,2010a):
• Theanthropogenicviewsregardnatureasaresourcethatshouldbeusedanddevelopedforeconomicgains.
• Thebiocentricviewsregardpreservingandrestoringnatureasthegoalforhumans.
Mostpeoplesubscribetobothviews,meaningthattheywanttoincreasetheirlivingstandard,yettheydonotwanttoliveinapollutedorseverelydamagedenvironmentandwantto
preservethenatureandresourcesforthefuturegenerations.Protectionoftheenvironment andpublichealthisacognitivevalue.Inthesecondhalfofthelastcenturythisdualadherencetotwoseeminglycontradictingprinciplescouldhavebeenoneofthereasonsforurban sprawlbenefitingthosewhocouldaffordtoleavebehindthedeterioratingcitieswiththeir pollutedairandwaterandbe,foralimitedtime,closertothenature.Yet,thesamepeople participatedintheeconomicactivitiesinthecitiesthatcreatedtheproblem.Thisprocessof affluentpeopleleavingbehinddegradedandabandonedurbanzonesandpoorinhabitants isasocialproblemknownas environmentalinjustice, whichisstillrampantinshantytowns ofsomedevelopingcountriesandcanalsobeseenintheUSandotherdevelopedcountries Theremaybeotherreasonsforsuchintragenerationalinjustice,suchascrimeorqualityof education.
Howarth(2007)presentedtheargumentsandvariousviewsinthediscourseleading tothepresentthinkingandrules.Thenewmillenniumviewshavebeenexpressedinthe MillenniumEconomicAssessment(2005):
FairSharingPrinciple–Caterisparibus(latinfor“allotherthingsremainingequal”)–eachmemberofpresentandfuturesocietyisentitledtosharefairlythebenefitsderivedfromenvironmental resources.Specificstocksofenvironmentalresourcesshouldnotbedepletedwithoutrendering justcompensationtomembersofthefuturegenerations
Hence,theterm“sustainability”andadherencetoitsprinciplesisthehistoricalshift from“amaximumeconomicusemodel”thatunderstoodresourcestobemerelyraw materialsforproductionandsinksforthedisposalofwaste(apurelyanthropogenicview), toamorebiocentricoptimalmodelthatrecognizestheenvironmentasafiniteresource thatneedstobeconservedthroughpublicstakeholderinvolvementandgovernmental regulationinordertocreatealong-termrelationshipbetweeneconomyandnature. The“sustainability”isalsosalienttothe“landethic”(includingwaterandwatershed) expressedbyLeopold(2001),whoemphasizedabalancebetweenpreservingnatureand development.
Sustainabilityasaninterdisciplinaryscienceisstillemerging;nevertheless,strongercalls forsustainabledevelopmentanda“paradigmshift”fromthepublic,publicofficials,and inthemediahavebeenheardsincethe1990sandintensifiedinthenewmillennium.Peoplewhoarewellinformedcanalignthemselveswiththemovementtowardsustainability, which,however,maynotmeanthesamethingtodifferentpeople.Thecognitivevaluesof sustainabilityarerelatedto:
Preservationofhumansocietiestodayandinthefuture
Preservationofnatureandrestorationwherenatureisdamaged
Achievingandmaintaininggoodeconomicstatusofpresentandfuturegenerations
Minimizingoreliminatingriskstopublichealthandprovidinghealthyandgreenurban environment
Sustainabilityhasthreeinteractingdimensions:environmental,economic,andsocietal, andsustainabilitycanbeachievedonlywhenthesecomponentsarebalanced(Figure1.1). Achangeinonecompartmentofthetrinityofsustainabilityaffectstheothertwocompartments.Iftheyarenotbalanced,theoutcomescanbenumerous,suchaspollution andenvironmentaldegradationbutalsosocialinjusticeorunsustainabledevelopment (Novotny,2003a).
SOCIETY
Population, Lifestyle, Culture, Social organization
ImpactEnvironmentalServices
Natural resources
ENVIRONMENTECONOMY
Impacts Households, Industry, Transporation, Service Atmosphere, Land, Hydrosphere,
Biota
Figure1.1. Trinityoffactorsandimpactsdeterminingsustainability. Source: Adaptedfrom Brundtland(1987), Novotny(2003a).andAllan(2005).
Itturnedoutthattodaytherearehundredsofdefinitionsofsustainability(Maršálekat al.,2007).Mihelcicetal.(2003)pointedoutthatsustainabilityisnotmerelyapreference foreconomicdevelopmentwithsomeenvironmentalprotection(ananthropogenic developmentview),norpreservingnaturewith“green”development(abiocentricview). Sustainability,however,isnotlimitedonlytowaterorresourcesthatwouldbenefithumans. Theseriousthreatsfromclimatechangetohumansandotherspeciesaddothercomponents ofintegrity–atmosphereandmarinelife–thatarenowimpactedbygreenhousegases (GHG),airpollutionemissionsthatcauseglobalwarmingoftheatmosphere.Inadditionto globalwarming,GHGsintheatmospherecauseincreasedacidityofoceansthathasbeen associatedwithdyingcoralreefs,lossofglaciers,anddisappearingpolarice.Theseecologicalchangeswilladverselyaffectbothnonhumanorganismsandhumanbeings.Asahypothesis,thisauthor(Novotnyetal.,2010a),indefiningsustainabilityreflectingwater,resources, andsociety,suggestedthattheconceptofwaterbodyintegritydefinedintheCleanWater Act(PL92-500,USCongress1972)isuniversalandappliestotheenvironmentingeneral (i.e.,air,waterandsoil).Inadditiontononhumanorganisms,thisalsoconsidersdamagesto humans,substitutes“environment”for“water,”andredefinesenvironmentalintegrityas: theabilityoftheenvironment(air,waterandsoil)tosupportonregionalorglobalscalebalanced communitiesoforganismscomparabletothatofnaturalbiotaoftheregionandalsoprovide conditionsforunimpairedwellbeingofpresentandfuturehumangenerations
Sustainability wouldthenmean“restoration,preservationandmaintainingintegrityof theecology,environmentandresourcesforpresentandfuturegenerations.”Thissimple definitionrecognizesthefactthathumansareapartoftheecologicalsystemand,inaddition tobiota,theycanalsoimposeadamageuponthemselves.Accordingtothedefinitionsin theUSCleanWaterAct(Section5),“pollution”iscausedbyhumansortheiractionsand isdifferentiatedfromchangesofthequality(integrity)oftheenvironmentduetonatural
causessuchasnaturalCO2 contentoftheatmosphere,naturalerosion,weatheringofrocks, volcaniceruptions,andCO2 emissionsfromnaturalforestfiresorfromnaturalbiomass growthandrespirationprocessesconvertingorganiccarbontoCO2 .However,converting organiccarbonfromfossilsourcestoenergyandindustrialproductsbyhumansresultingin GHGemissionsisclearlypollutionthatimpairsintegrity.
1.2HISTORICANDCURRENTURBANPARADIGMS
Looselydefined,a paradigm isasetoftheoriesandassociatedrulesthatexplaintheway aparticularsubjectorbehaviorisunderstoodataparticulartime(Cambridgedictionary). Itisasetofassumptions,concepts,values,andpracticesbasedonscienceand/ortradition thatconstitutesawayofviewingrealitysharedbyacommunity.
Humanparadigmshavechangedovermillionsofyearsandcouldbelinkedto“revolutions”definedinthiscontextasamajorchangeinthewaypeoplegatheredandproduced food,builtsettlements,producedenergy,andinteractedassocieties.Intheseminalbook EngineeringResponsetoClimateChange, Watts(2013)quotedfroma1953bookbyGaldon Darwin(TheNextMillionYears), whichidentifiedfiverevolutions,eachhavingdifferent paradigms:
Useoffire–separatedhumansfromotherprimatesabout400,000yearsago Inventionofagriculture–allowedhumanstostopbeingnomadichunters
Urbanrevolution–organizedlargerhumansettlements,centerofcommerce7,500 yearsago
Scientificrevolution–understandingthenatureandonsetofIndustrialRevolution
Thefirstfourrevolutionsofhumandevelopmentwerefueledbyenergy,whichwasoriginallyderivedbyburningwoodorevendrieddungofdomesticanimals,butattheonsetof theindustrialrevolutionhumansstartedtousefossilfuel–coal,oil,andnaturalgas.Thefossilfuelenergiesintheindustrialperiodfueledunprecedentedpopulationincreases,which becameexponential,withrapidexpansionofagriculture,buildingcitiesandindustries,and fasttransportationbytrainsandaviation.
Morethansixtyyearsago,GaldonDarwinandothersquotedinWatts’sbook(Watts, 2013,Chapter1)envisionedthe“fifthrevolution”duringwhichthefossilsourcesof fuelwouldbeexhausted.Theyanticipatedthatthisrevolutionwouldoccurcenturies fromcurrenttimeandwouldslowdownthedevelopmentandreducepopulation.They didnotanticipatetheglobalclimaticchangesthattheburningoffossilfuelswould causeandtheconsequences.Theypredictedthatenergyduringandafterthefifthrevolutionwouldbeprovidedbysun,wind,tides,hydropower,andgeothermalsources. Before1950,nuclearpowerwasknownbutitsuseforenergyinsteadofformaking bombswasfuzzy.Today,theconsequencesoffossilfuelburningandotherindustrial uses(e.g.,makingfertilizers,steel,plastics,tires,chemicals)andtransportationhas becomeaseriousproblemandacauseofglobalclimatechange.Ithasbecomeevident thathumansaswellastheentireecosystemontheEarthareattheonsetofthefifth revolution,whichwillleadtodramaticreductionsoftheuseoffossilfuelnotbecause oftheirimmediateexhaustion,butbecauseofdamagingimpactstheyhaveonlifeon theEarth.
