Why Study Epidemiology/Epizoology and Forecasting of Crop Pests? 346
Where to Use Forecast Models? 346
Regional Forecasting for Crop Protection Advisories 347
Short-Range Weather Forecasting from Agromet Station Observations Using a Genetic Algorithm – A Case Study 348
Forecasting Podfly in Late Pigeonpea – A Case Study 349
Model for Qualitative Data – Logistic Model 349
Models for Quantitative Data 350
Qualitative Model Results 350 Quantitative Model Results 351
Why Use a Computer-Based Decision Support System? 353
Why Use Remote Sensing in the Forecasting of Crop Pests? 354
Coping with Climate Change and Sustaining Accurate Forecasts 357 References 357
15. Designer Oil Crops
MUKHLESUR RAHMAN, MONIKA MICHALAK DE JIMÉNEZ
Introduction 361
Biotechnology and Metabolic Engineering of Designer Oil Crops 364
Conclusions 371 References 372
16. Genetic Improvement of Rapeseed Mustard through Induced Mutations
VINOD CHOUDHARY, SANJAY J. JAMBHULKAR
Introduction 377
Mutations for Morphological Traits 377 Early-Flowering Mutations 380 References 385
17. Pollination Interventions
UMA SHANKAR, DHARAM P. ABROL
Introduction 391
Rapeseed Mustard and Canola (Brassica spp.) 393
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.; Family Compositae) 402
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.; Family Asteraceae) 407
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.; Family Pedaliaceae) 407
Linseed/Flax (Linum usitatissimum L., Family Linaceae) 409
Pollination Management 412
Number of Colonies Required for Pollination 413
Pollination Recommendations 414
Conclusions and Future Strategies 414
References 415
18. Breeding Oilseed Crops for Climate Change
ABDULLAH A. JARADAT
Introduction 421
Future of Oilseed Production: Impact of Climate Change 422
Global Genetic Resources and Genetic Diversity of Oilseed Crops 424
Breeding of Oilseed Crops for Abiotic Stress:
Learning From Past Experience 425 Can Carbon in Oilseed Crops Help Mitigate Climate Change? 426
Interaction Between Abiotic and Biotic Stresses: Impact on Oilseed Crops 428
Designing Oilseed Crops for a Changing Climate 429
Breeding Objectives of Oilseed Crops Under a Changing Climate 445
Prebreeding of Oilseed Crops for Climate Change 450
Breeding and Selection Strategies Under Changing Climates 455
Innovative Breeding Strategies to Combat Climate Change 460
Future of Oilseed Breeding for Climate Change 464
References 465
19. Possibilities of Sustainable Oil Processing
BERTRAND MATTHÄUS
Introduction 473
Oil Processing 475
Removal of the Solvent 493
Removal of Suspended Material 495
Refining Process 496
New Concepts of Seed Processing 514
Waste Treatment 516
Final Conclusions 517
References 518
20. Integrated Pest Management
DHARAM P. ABROL, UMA SHANKAR
Introduction 523
Scenario of Oilseed Crops Throughout the World 523
The Scenario of Oilseed Crops in India 525
Constraints in Oilseed Crop Production 526
Important Insect Pests of Oilseed Crops 527
Conclusions and Future Strategies 545
References 545
Subject Index 551
List of Contributors
Dharam P. Abrol Faculty of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu, Shalimar, J&K, India
Ganesh Kumar Agrawal Research Laboratory for Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB), Kathmandu, Nepal
Mothilal Alagirisamy All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Groundnut, Division of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Regional Research Station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Vridhachalam, India
Basharat Ali Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Vincent Arondel Membrane Biogenesis Laboratory, UMR5200 CNRS, University of Bordeaux, France
Bimal Kumar Bhattacharya Crop Inventory and Agro-ecosystem Division, Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India
Rajani Bisen Project Coordinating Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Chirantan Chattopadhyay National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India
Vinod Choudhary Nuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
Peng Cui Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Monika Michalak de Jiménez Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
Aurora Díaz Unidad de Hortofruticultura, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón (IA2) (CITAUniversidad de Zaragoza), Av. Montañana, Zaragoza, Spain
Maho-Yalen J. Edson Department of Biological Sciences, Higher Teachers’ Training College, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Youmbi Emmanuel Department of Plant Biology, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde; Tissue Culture Laboratory, Centre Africain de Recherche sur Bananiers et Plantains (CARBAP), Njombé, Cameroun
Muhammad A. Farooq Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Ngando-Ebongue G. Frank Selection and Genetic Improvement Section, Specialized Centre for Oil Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Douala, Cameroon
Rafaqat A. Gill Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Ntsomboh-Ntsefong Godswill Selection and Genetic Improvement Section, Specialized Centre for Oil Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Douala; Department of Plant Biology, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Nancy Gupta School of Biotechnology, Sher-eKashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu, J&K, India
Rameshwer Dass Gupta Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
Surinder Kumar Gupta Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
Faisal Islam Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Surabhi Jain Project Coordinating Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Sanjay J. Jambhulkar Nuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
Abdullah A. Jaradat USDA-ARS and Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
Yalcin Kaya Engineering Faculty, Department of Genetic and Bioengineering, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
Tabi-Mbi Kingsley Selection and Genetic Improvement Section, Specialized Centre for Oil Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Douala; Department of Plant Biology, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Amrender Kumar Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India
Jitendra Kumar Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Vinod Kumar Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Sewar, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India
Bell J. Martin Department of Plant Biology, University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Bertrand Matthäus Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Department for Quality and Safety of Cereals, Working Group for Lipid Research, Detmold, Germany
Suhel Mehandi Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Rakeeb Ahmad Mir School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, BGSB University, Rajouri, India
Amrendra Kumar Mishra Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India
Ullah Najeeb Department of Plant and Food Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Eveleigh, NSW, Australia
Muslima Nazir Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Jamia Hamdard University, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi, India
Nandini Nimbkar Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, Phaltan, Maharashtra, India
Anand Kumar Panday Project Coordinating Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Vankat R. Pandey Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Aditya Pratap Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Mukhlesur Rahman Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
Randeep Rakwal Research Laboratory for Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB), Kathmandu, Nepal; Organization for Educational Initiatives, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
A.R.G. Ranganatha Project Coordinating Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Uma Shankar Faculty of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu, Shalimar, J&K, India
Shikha Sharma Project Coordinating Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Preface
Oilseed crops are grown under varied agroclimatic situations ranging from tropical to temperate regions of the world and are vital commodity in trade and commerce. World population continues to increase, thus creating an increasing demand of oil and its varied products. Despite the fact that technological advances made in all the major crops, the need and opportunities to increase the production and oil yield are as great as they have ever been. It has been possible only due to the increase in area under each crop as well as high-yielding varieties. Current breeding effort worldwide are focused on sustainable production and higher oil yield per unit area of land with a view to maximizing returns. Besides oil yield, breeding populations with many traits such as fatty acids, vitamins, high carotene etc. are identified in various oil crops for industrial/pharmaceutical purposes. Technological advances have also been made in each crop to create value addition to make the production sustainable.
The book includes 20 chapters, which have been well prepared by leading scientists of the world with vast experience and whose contributions are well known over the world. Chapters 1 and 2 deal with new strategies for oilseed production and breeding for sustainable production: heavy metal tolerance while Chapters 3–12 deal with breeding brassicas, sunflower, groundnut, sesame, niger, safflower, coconut, oilpalm, and olive for sustainable production. Chapter 13 describes a new approach – OMICS for sustainable
production followed by a chapter on forecasting diseases and insect-pests for value added agroadvisory system (Chapter 14). Designer oilcrops (Chapter 15) is the most important chapter, which describes various technological advances till date to make production sustainable. Chapters 16 and 17 describe genetic improvement through mutation breeding and pollination interventions, respectively. Breeding for climate change followed by oil technology is presented in Chapters 18 and 19 and integrated pest management in Chapter 20. Above all, breeding oil crops for climate change and designer oil crops have added new dimensions in this book.
I am highly indebted to all my contributors especially Professor W.J. Zhou, Crop Science Institute, Hangzhou, China, Abdullah A. Jaradat, USDA-ARS, University of Minnesota, USA, Mukhlesur Rahman, North Dakota State University, USA, and Bertrand Matthäus, Max Rubner-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Detmold, Germany for their ready response. I am indeed grateful to Nancy Maragioglio, Senior Acquisitions Editor, Julia Haynes, Senior Project Manager, S&T Books, Elsevier, Academic Press for making every effort to make this book valuable for readers. Lastly, I owe a lot to my wife Dr Neena Gupta and both my kids, Kavya and Kanav for their patience during the preparation of this manuscript.
Editor Surinder Kumar Gupta
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1 Strategies for Increasing the Production of Oilseed on a Sustainable Basis
Rameshwer Dass Gupta*, Surinder Kumar Gupta**
*Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
**Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
INTRODUCTION
Among the oilseed crops, soybean is the major contributor to the world’s oilseed economy followed by rapeseed mustard, cotton, peanut, and sunflower. The most important tropical oilseeds are the coconut, palm kernels, and groundnut. The major oilseed-producing areas are in temperate zones. America and Europe together account for more than 60% of the world production of oilseed whereas substantially small production (<5%) comes from tropical areas such as Africa, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Both oilseed and oil production have consistently increased over the years to meet the ever increasing demand for vegetable oils. Among the oilseeds, soybean is the chief oilseed crop. Brassica spp. is the second largest oilseed crop after soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), surpassing peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), and cottonseed (Gossypium hirsutum L.) over the last two decades (FAO, 2010; Agricultural Outlook 2010–19). Palms are grown predominantly in the tropical areas of the world as perennial trees and are an important source of vegetable oil. About twothirds of the total fat oil production is supplied by oilseeds, with palm oil having a maximum share of 33%. Copra, cotton, palm, peanut, rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower are the oilseed crops, which dominate the international markets for trade purposes. India has agroecological conditions that favor growing nine oilseed crops (Hegde and Sudhakara Babu, 2000). These oilseed crops consist of seven edible oilseeds – groundnut, rapeseed mustard, soybean, sunflower, sesame, safflower, and niger – and two nonedible
Breeding Oilseed Crops for Sustainable Production. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801309-0.00001-X
2. Timely weed control. In rain-fed situations, water is often the most critical factor in determining the potential yield of oilseed and other crops. As weeds can compete with oilseed crops for soil moisture and plant nutrients, effective weed control is important, especially before sowing. This is because weed growth at the early stages of crop growth has a considerable effect on the availability of soil moisture to crops. The reduction in oilseed crop yields varies between 20% and 60%, depending on the type of soil, season, and intensity of weed infestation. Integrated weed management (i.e., the use of herbicides in conjunction with other control methods mechanical, cultural, or agronomic) should be followed (Dubey et al., 2011) for soybean crops. It is important to keep weeds under check until at least 25–30 days after sowing so that they can establish well and withstand competition from weeds without being affected adversely. Thinning crop plants soon after germination, thereby retaining an optimum population, and removing weeds by one or two intercultivation methods can reduce the adverse influence of weeds on both crop growth and yield.
3. Seed selection and seed rate. The seeds used for sowing should have at least 80–85% germination capacity. Quality and certified seeds should always be used. Seed rate which depends upon the germination percentage, seed size, and time of sowing should be selected according to the recommendations given on the packet and practices formulated by the state agricultural universities, state departments of agriculture, and Indian Council of Agricultural Research stations. For example, the G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (Pantnagar) has recommended using 75–80 kg ha–1 of seed in the case of soybean, giving 80–85% germination. Under late sowing conditions the seed rate may be raised to 100 kg ha–1.
4. Proper timing and methods of sowing. Broadcasting seeds at the convenience of farmers, with little or no thought for time and conditions, has been another reason for poor crop stands. Crops can be affected not only by droughts and rain but also by pests and diseases during their important stages of growth if sowing is not done at the right time. Hence, adherence to scheduled times of sowing and plowing in rows to deposit seeds in moist zones ensures better germination, crop growth, and yield. Furthermore, the optimum depth of seed placement avoids consumption of seeds by birds – something that is very common in broadcast crop seeds.
In northern India, where irrigation facilities are available, soybean can be sown during the second fortnight of June. On the other hand, where irrigation facilities are not available, it should be sown during the first fortnight of July.
5. Crop and varietal selection. Most competing profitable oilseed crops for a region and season can be selected as per their ecological requirements. For instance, safflower and soybean crops for the postrainy season in the Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh are competitive and profitable compared with rabi sorghum, gram, and wheat. Under dryland situations, crops and their varieties have to be selected to suit the effective growing season as determined by rainfall and soil type (Hegde and Sudhakara Babu, 2000).
According to Kachroo and Sharma (2008), instead of enhancing oilseed crop acreage, especially sunflower, the motive must be to increase productivity by using good-quality seeds of high-yielding varieties and by adopting the latest technology. Likewise, to harvest a good soybean yield, farmers should grow only improved and recommended varieties according to their location (Saxena, 2008). Varietal selection should be based on the growing area and varietal characters. Most soybean varieties are resistant to disease. Soybean varieties suitable for different agroclimatic regions of India are shown in Table 1.1. The
TABLE 1.1
Region
Suitable
Soybean Varieties for Different Regions of India
Recommended varieties
Hilly regions of northern India (lower and mid-hills) VL Soya-2, 21, 47, PK-327, Pusa-16, 20, 24, PS-1042, 1092
North Indian plains (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, eastern and western Uttar Pradesh, and western Bihar)
Central India (Bundelkhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat, western and northern Maharashtra)
Northeast India (Assam, West Bengal, parts of Bihar, Meghalaya)
South India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, South Maharashtra)
performance of various groundnut cultivars grown in the red lateritic and alluvial soils of West Bengal, Orissa, and Assam are shown in Table 1.2. Recently, Pant Rai-20, a boldseeded variety of mustard, has been released by the State Variety Release Committee of Uttarakhand (Bhajan et al., 2013). This variety is the result of the concerted efforts of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (Pantnagar). It is a medium-maturing variety under Uttarakhand conditions with a greater yield than Kranti.
6. Crop rotation. The growing order in which chosen cultivated crops follow one another, in a set cycle, on the same field, over a definite period of time is termed crop rotation. The period may vary from 1 year to 3 years or even more. Rotations are planned carefully after considering the nature of the soil, climate, irrigation, demand in the market, and price. The main advantages of appropriate rotations are that the soil is managed properly regarding tillage and soil fertility is replenished by including a restorative leguminous
TABLE 1.2 Performance of Groundnut Cultivars in the Eastern States of India
Source: Ghosh (1999).
crop in between the exhaustive cereal or fibrous crops. For example, growing a rabi summer groundnut crop in rice fallows has been found to be very effective in replenishing the nitrogen content of the soil. Similarly, when a soybean oilseed crop is rotated between a maize and wheat-cropping sequence during the kharif (monsoon) season, the nitrogen content of the soil is increased. This is explained due to both of these crops belonging to the leguminous family, which is known to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Apart from these advantages, the possibility of some soils developing soil toxicity is removed by crop rotation and a healthier soil condition is therefore maintained. Soil microorganisms are able to play their full part in enriching the soil because of their action on soil organic matter. Crop rotation provides a good chance to eradicate weeds and help destroy fungal diseases and insect pests. In the red soils of the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, growing of sunflower rotated with groundnut has been found to be a promising crop sequence since 2000. In this cropping sequence the farmers of the area grow one rain-fed crop followed by a second crop watered from wells, tanks, or canal systems. The summer sunflower has emerged as a potential crop in this area after the harvest of cereals, pulses, oilseed castor, and groundnut (Reddy, 2000). Of these two oilseed crops, growing of groundnut was found to be more profitable in the sunflower and groundnut sequence.
GROWING HEAT AND DROUGHT-RESISTANT MUSTARD VARIETIES
Traditionally grown in Rajasthan, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh, heat and drought-tolerant mustard varieties developed by public sector institutions during the last few years have made a debut in the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the current rabi (dry) season (Anon., 2014). Two such heat and drought-resistant varieties, Pusa-21 and Pusa-29 developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), were sown on a trial basis in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These varieties possess not only the ability to tolerate higher temperatures in October, but also possess low erucic acid, which lessens pungency in the oil and is considered healthy. If these new varieties are accepted by the farmers of southern India, the country’s annual mustard production is expected to rise during the next few years, which may reduce the dependence on edible oil imports.
The country’s annual mustard production has been around 6.6–8.0 million tons over the last 5 years. This sustained production is attributed to early-sown, heat and drought-tolerant varieties such as Pusa (25, 27, and 28), Vijay, Mahak, and Agrani, developed by the IARI. It is important to mention that most of the country’s mustard oil consumption is in the eastern and northern parts of the country.
Keeping in mind these points, farmers are encouraged to grow heat and drought-resistant varieties of mustard wherever conditions are suitable to sustain mustard production.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Integrated nutrient management consists of the judicious use of chemical fertilizers in combination with organic manures, industrial and crop wastes, and biological nitrogenfixing organisms.
is a positive interaction with N and P. Thus, combined and optimum applications of N and P always ameliorate sesame yield. The application of 20 kg K2O ha–1 increased yield ranging from 55–60% under the subtropical soil conditions of Himachal Pradesh (Sharma et al., 1998). At Parbhani, on black cotton soil with a slightly alkaline pH (7.6), the highest grain yield of summer sesame was obtained with a combined application of 120 kg N and 175 kg P2O5 ha–1. This was statistically on par with application of 120 kg N and 175 kg P2O5 ha–1, which was recorded by application of 120 kg N and 50 kg P2O5 ha–1
Linseed is mainly cultivated in three states in India: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. To get a maximum yield of linseed (i.e., to the extent of getting 16 q ha–1), 96 kg of N, 13 kg of P, and 72 kg of K ha–1 are required to be added. However, Dixit and Sharma (1993) found that the response of linseed crops to added K was only measurable up to 60 kg K2O ha–1 under Himachal soil conditions. Potassium applications of up to 60 kg K2O ha–1 also proved beneficial to linseed crops grown in the temperate zone soils of Kangra in Himachal Pradesh (Sharma et al , 1998). Crop response to applied K is attributed to the light, textured nature of these soils, to poor organic matter, to low cation exchange capacity, and to their being poorly buffered with respect to K saturation.
Castor
Under unirrigated conditions, castor crops should be fertilized with 40 kg N, P2O5, and K2O ha–1 basally and 10 kg N ha–1 as a top dressing. Use of a single super phosphate (SSP) not only fulfills the requirement for P but also supplies Ca, Mg, and S to the crop. However, for irrigated castor raised in North Gujarat a split application of 120 kg N ha–1 (40 kg basal + 30 kg N at 30 and 70 days after sowing + 20 kg N at 100 days after sowing) is recommended as it was found to give the maximum return per rupee invested (Anon., 1997, 2000).
Use of Inorganics and Organics
Gobi sarson and toria are the major rabi crops grown on the mid-hills of the northwestern Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh. These crops significantly responded to 120 kg N ha–1 in manured plots and 80 kg N ha–1 in unmanured plots on acidic silty clay loam soil (a type of alfisol) in the mid-hills of Palampur (Mankotia and Sharma, 1996). In another study, Mankotia and Sharma (1997) observed that the seed yield of gobi, sarson, and toria increased considerably, with the highest yield of 1733 kg ha–1 being obtained with 160 kg N ha–1 + 5 t FYM ha–1 (on a dry weight basis). This was about 54% higher than with a sole application of 160 kg N ha–1. The yield advantage (percent increase in seed yield) due to the application of FYM was 25, 37, and 42 kg seed ha–1 at 40, 80, and 120 kg N ha–1, respectively. The application of FYM results in better yields because it facilitates improved utilization of both applied and native mineralized soil N. The impact of FYM application on the response of crops to added P was similar that of N. The highest yield of 1546 kg ha–1 was obtained with an application of 35 kg P ha–1 + 5 t FYM ha–1 (Mandal et al., 2002).
Use of Inorganic Fertilizers and Biofertilizers
Indian mustard is responsive to chemical fertilizers. In view of the escalating prices of chemical fertilizers, there is dire need for alternative sources of nitrogenous and phosphatic
S deficiency (Kavitha et al., 2014). Close to 40–45% of the soil samples analyzed were found to be of low S status, requiring an application of S for sustainable management. This percentage increases in the cases of soils in which oilseed crops are grown. This is attributed to the following reasons:
1. Sulfur is essential for protein synthesis, primarily because S is a constituent of three Scontaining amino acids (cystine, homocysteine, and methionine) which are the building blocks of proteins. About 90% of plant S is present in these three amino acids.
2. Sulfur is essential for the synthesis of oils. This is why adequate sulfur is so crucial for oilseed crops and the activation of enzymes, which help in biochemical reactions within the plant.
3. Sulfur improves the protein content and oil percentage in seeds.
4. The effect of sulfur application on yield, and the various attributes of different oilseed crops, was studied in S-deficient soils under various Indian climatic conditions. It was found that:
a. Application of S at 60 kg ha–1 with gypsum into the groundnut-rice cropping system recorded the highest cumulative grain yield under Orissa soil conditions (Gupta et al , 2012). The highest oil content (47.1%) was also recorded after application of S at the same rate with gypsum. Oil content in the seeds of groundnut crops was also observed.
b. Application of 15, 30, and 45 kg S ha–1 with superphosphates in the raya–wheat cropping system, at different locations in Punjab, increased raya seed yield significantly over a control crop. However, the yield increase in wheat was not significant.
c. Oilseed crops such as sesame, safflower, linseed, and soybean were also found to be very responsive to S. Approximately 12 kg S are required to produce 1 t of oilseed.
d. Application of 10 kg S ha–1 under the rain-fed conditions of Andhra Pradesh, and 20 kg S ha–1 under irrigated conditions, via elemental S, showed an increase in castor yield when compared with a control crop.
e. Linseed crops responded markedly to S addition on the S-deficient soils of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Punjab (Gupta et al., 2012).
f. Application of 40 kg S ha–1 along with 112.5 kg N resulted in a significantly higher number of primary and secondary branches per plant (Thakur et al., 2008), as well as increases in the number of siliquae per plant, seeds per siliqua, and seed yield of gobhi sarson (B. napus ssp. oleifera var. annua) under the mid-hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh. However, oil content was not affected by S application. Contrary to this, oil content increased significantly with increasing levels of S in the case of rain-fed mustard on inceptisol soils in the mid-hill intermediate zones of Jammu and Kashmir (Sharma and Jalali, 2001).
g. A significant response in mustard crop was observed with 50 kg S ha–1 for seeds and 75 kg S ha–1 for straw and oil yields. The highest seed (2.47 t ha–1) and oil yields (0.99 t ha–1) were recorded for 75 kg S ha–1 in the cold arid region of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir (Thakur, 2008).
Application of 20–40 kg S ha–1 enhanced the S content of Indian mustard under the typic ustochrept soil of Gujarat. However, the highest S content in grain and straw (0.78 and 0.32%, respectively) from Indian mustard was recorded after 20 kg S ha–1 application (Mehta et al., 2013).
Although the optimum rates of S to be added depend upon such factors as the S status of soil, yield potential, nitrogen level in coarse textured soils with low sulfate retention
