Bionanotechnology:Emerging Applicationsof Bionanomaterials
Editedby
AhmedBarhoum
NanoStrucResearchGroup,ChemistryDepartment,Facultyof Science,HelwanUniversity,AinHelwan,Cairo,Egypt;Schoolof ChemicalSciences,FraunhoferProjectCentre,DublinCityUniversity, Dublin,Ireland
JaisonJeevanandam
CQM-CentrodeQuı´micadaMadeira,MMRG,Universidadeda Madeira,CampusdaPenteada,Funchal,Portugal
MichaelK.Danquah ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversityofTennessee, Chattanooga,TN,UnitedStates
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Chapter1:BionanotechnologyandBionanomaterials:EmergingApplications,
JaisonJeevanandam,VedarethinamVadanasundari,SharadwataPan,AhmedBarhoumand MichaelK.Danquah
Chapter2:Smartbionanomaterialsfortheremovalofcontaminants
KanakalakshmiAnnamalai,HarismaRameshbabu,KarthikeyanMahendhranand MurugappanRamanathan
4Photocatalyticapplicationsofbionanomaterialsinpollutionabetment....................52
5Nanozymesforenzymaticdegradationofpollutants.................................................54
6Biogenicnanoparticlesintheremovalofhazardouscontaminants...........................55
SECTION2:Environmentalapplications
Chapter3:Bionanomaterials-mediatedseedprimingforsustainable agriculturalproduction.....................................................................................77 AnuragMalik,HimaniPunia,NirmalSinghandPradeepSingh Abbreviations.....................................................................................................................77
3Seedpriminganditsapplicationinagriculture............................................................81
4Applicationofdifferentprimingapproachesandprimingsubstances........................83
5Nanopriming:anovelwayforseedgerminationandseedlinggrowth.......................88
Chapter4:Reconnoiteringbionanomaterialsformitigationofabiotic stressinplants..............................................................................................101
HimaniPunia,JayantiTokas,AnuragMalikandShikhaYashveer Abbreviations...................................................................................................................101
2Bionanomaterials:anewfrontierinplantgrowthanddevelopment.........................104
3Mechanismofactionofdifferentbionanoparticlesinplants.....................................105
4Bionanomaterials:useunderdifferentstressconditions............................................109
4.1Bionanoparticlesunderdrought............................................................................110 4.2Bionanoparticlesundersalinity............................................................................115
SECTION3:Biomedicalapplications
Chapter5:Emergingapplicationsofbionanomaterialsinmedicine
DalapathiGugulothuandDharmendraKumarKhatri
2.2Otherinorganicbionanomaterials........................................................................133
Chapter6:Polymer-basedbionanomaterialsforbiomedicalapplications..............187 TabassumKhanandAkshitaChauhan 1Introduction..................................................................................................................
2Typesofpolymericnanomaterials..............................................................................189
2.1Naturalpolymericnanomaterials.........................................................................189 2.2Engineeredpolymericnanomaterials...................................................................190
2.3Biosynthesizedpolymericnanomaterials.............................................................191
2.4Chemosynthesispolymericnanomaterials...........................................................193
3Biofunctionalizednanocellulosicmaterials.................................................................194
3.1Nanocellulose-basedbiodegradablepolymers.....................................................194
3.2Nanocellulose-basedthermoplasticpolymers......................................................197
3.3Porousnanocellulosecomposites.........................................................................198
4Bioinspiredpolymericnanocomposites.......................................................................200
4.1Polymericnanocompositehydrogels....................................................................200
4.2Bioactivesilicate-basednanocomposites.............................................................201
4.3Bioinspiredhydroxyapatitenanocomposites........................................................202
4.4BioinspiredRosetteNanotubecomposites...........................................................202
4.5Graphene-enhancedpolymericnanocomposites..................................................202
4.6Polymericnanocompositesloadedwithmetallicnanoparticles..........................203
4.7Mechanicallystiffinterpenetratingnetworks.......................................................203
4.8Spatiallycontrolledhydrogelnanocomposites....................................................204
5Biomedicalapplications...............................................................................................204
5.1Dentalandbiomedicalimplants...........................................................................205
5.2Targeteddrugdelivery..........................................................................................206
5.3Bionanomaterialsfortherapyofdefectivejointsandbones...............................207
5.4Bonetissueengineering........................................................................................208
5.5Biosensorplatforms..............................................................................................209
5.6Vaccinedevelopment............................................................................................210
5.7Fluorescentpolymericnanovehicles....................................................................211
5.8Fluorescentbioimaging.........................................................................................211
5.9Stemcellimaging.................................................................................................212
2Overviewofbionanocomposites.................................................................................229
3Photocatalyticactivityofmetalbionanocomposites..................................................231
3.1TiO2 bionanocomposites.......................................................................................231
3.2Mixedmetaloxidebionanocomposites................................................................232
3.3Polymer metalandgraphenemetalbionanocomposites....................................235
3.4Othermetalbionanocomposites...........................................................................236
4Biomedicalapplicationsofphotocatalyticmetalbionanocomposites.......................236
4.1Drugdelivery........................................................................................................237
4.2Biosensorandbioimaging....................................................................................240
4.3Boneandcartilagetissuesengineering................................................................241
4.4Antimicrobialandantioxidantagents..................................................................245
4.5Otherbiomedicalapplications..............................................................................248
5Conclusion....................................................................................................................
Chapter8:Bionanomaterialsforwoundhealingapplications..............................259 ItishaChummun,HonitaRamphul,DhanjayJhurryandArchanaBhaw-Luximon
Listofabbreviations........................................................................................................259 1Introduction..................................................................................................................
2Challengesofskinandskeletaltissuewounds...........................................................262
2.1Burns.....................................................................................................................263
2.2Diabeticwounds....................................................................................................264
2.3Bonefracture.........................................................................................................266
2.4Ligamentandtendondamage..............................................................................267
3Nanobiomaterialsusedasscaffoldsforskinandskeletaltissueregeneration..........269
3.1Cellulose-basedscaffolds......................................................................................269
3.2Seaweedspolysaccharide-basedscaffolds............................................................274
3.3Sucrose-basedscaffolds........................................................................................279
4Peptidehydrogelsforwoundhealing..........................................................................280
5Nanobiomaterialsandnaturalmoleculestoenhancebiologicalperformance..........284
Chapter9:Polymericbionanomaterialsfordiabetesapplications........................305 AristeidisPapagiannopoulos,EvdokiaStefanopoulou,EleniVlassiandStergiosPispas
1Introduction..................................................................................................................
2Deliveryofantidiabeticmedicinesusingnanoparticles.............................................307
2.1Chitosan-basednanoparticles................................................................................307
2.2Nanoparticlesofothernaturallyoccurringbiopolymers.....................................313
2.3Nanoparticlesofsyntheticbiopolymers...............................................................316
3Hydrogelsemployedforthetreatmentofdiabetes....................................................318
4Futureprospects...........................................................................................................325
SECTION4:Constructionsandotherapplications
Chapter10:Nanohydrogelsfortargeteddrugdeliverysystems...........................333 LalitaDevi,HiteshChopraandPunamGaba
1Introduction..................................................................................................................
2Structureofnanoparticle hydrogelcomposites.........................................................334
2.1Nano-andmicrogelcomposites...........................................................................334
2.2Macroscopichydrogelcomposites.......................................................................334
3Synthesismethod.........................................................................................................335
3.1Bulkpolymerization..............................................................................................336
3.2Solutionpolymerization........................................................................................336
2.1Thermalquenchingofbiphasicliquidsviaspinodal
5Applicationsofbijels...................................................................................................377
5.1Accessingtheliquiddomainsofbijelsfordifferentapplications......................377
Chapter12:Arevolutionarybreakthroughofbionanomaterialsintissue engineeringandregenerativemedicine..............................................................399
PremShankar,JaidipJagtap,GauravSharma,GuruPrasadSharma,JitendraSingh, MadhuriParashar,GauravKumar,SonamMittal,ManishKumarSharma,KapileshJadhav andDeepakParashar
1Introduction..................................................................................................................
2Historyandpresentstatus............................................................................................401
3Multidimensionalbioprintingoftissuesandorgans...................................................404
3.1Bioprintingtechniques..........................................................................................405
3.2Applicationsofmultidimensionalbioprintedtissues andorgans.............................................................................................................405
4Bioprintingandbiomodelingofphysicalandchemicalfoundation..........................407
4.1Physicalintersections............................................................................................408
4.2Chemicalintersections..........................................................................................409
7.3Bioengineeringofthebodyorgans....................................................................424
7.4Naturaloraccidentaldamagetobody...............................................................424 7.5Sportsmedicine...................................................................................................424
7.6Partialortotaljointreplacements......................................................................424
7.7Organ-on-a-chip..................................................................................................425
7.8Treatmentofcancerbyusingmultidimensionalmodels..................................425
7.9Personalizedmedicine........................................................................................426
7.10Tissueengineeringandregenerativemedicineinbasicand medicalresearch..................................................................................................426
8Regulatoryaffairsintissueengineeringandregenerativemedicine.........................427
9Conclusionandfutureperspective..............................................................................432
MonirehGanjali,MansourehGanjali,MohammadMahdiAdibSereshki,NavidAhmadinasab, ArashGhalandarzadeh,AlaaA.A.AljabaliandAhmedBarhoum
3.1Polymericnanocompositedrugdelivery..............................................................448
Chapter14:BionanomaterialsfordiagnosisandtherapyofSARS-CoV-2............469 SoubantikaPalchoudhuryandSnigdhaPalchaudhury
1Introduction..................................................................................................................
1Introduction................................................................................................................491
Contributors
MohammadMahdiAdibSereshki DepartmentofHematologyandOncology,IranUniversityof MedicalSciences,Tehran,Iran
NavidAhmadinasab DepartmentofModernTechnologies,MangroveResearchCenter,University ofHormozgan,BandarAbbas,Iran
AlaaA.A.Aljabali FacultyofPharmacy,DepartmentofPharmaceuticsandPharmaceuticalTechnology,YarmoukUniversity,Irbid,Jordan
KanakalakshmiAnnamalai DepartmentofZoologyandMicrobiology,ThiagarajarCollege, Madurai,TamilNadu,India
AhmedBarhoum NanoStrucResearchGroup,ChemistryDepartment,FacultyofScience, HelwanUniversity,AinHelwan,Cairo,Egypt;SchoolofChemicalSciences,FraunhoferProject Centre,DublinCityUniversity,Dublin,Ireland
ArchanaBhaw-Luximon Biomaterials,DrugDeliveryandNanotechnologyUnit,Centrefor BiomedicalandBiomaterialsResearch(CBBR),MSIRIBuilding,UniversityofMauritius,Re ´ duit, Mauritius
StephenBoakye-Ansah RowanUniversity,HenryM.RowanCollegeofEngineering,Department ofChemicalEngineering,Glassboro,NJ,UnitedStates;EmergingTechnologies,DuPontElectronics &Imaging,Marlborough,MA,UnitedStates
AbdelwahebChatti LaboratoryofBiochemistryandMolecularBiology,UniversityofCarthage, FacultyofSciencesofBizerte,Jarzouna,Tunisia
AkshitaChauhan DepartmentofQualityAssurance,SVKM’sDr.BhanubenNanavatiCollegeof Pharmacy,Mumbai,Maharashtra,India
HiteshChopra ChitkaraCollegeofPharmacy,ChitkaraUniversity,Rajpura,Punjab,India
ItishaChummun Biomaterials,DrugDeliveryandNanotechnologyUnit,CentreforBiomedical andBiomaterialsResearch(CBBR),MSIRIBuilding,UniversityofMauritius,Re ´ duit,Mauritius
MichaelK.Danquah ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversityofTennessee,Chattanooga, TN,UnitedStates
LalitaDevi DepartmentofPharmaceutics,AmarShaheedBabaAjitSinghJujharSinghMemorial CollegeofPharmacy,Ropar,Punjab,India
PunamGaba DepartmentofPharmaceutics,AmarShaheedBabaAjitSinghJujharSinghMemorialCollegeofPharmacy,Ropar,Punjab,India
MansourehGanjali NourZohaMaterialsEngineeringResearchGroup(NMERG),Tehran,Iran
MonirehGanjali BioengineeringResearchGroup,NanotechnologyandAdvancedMaterials Department,MaterialsandEnergyResearchCenter(MERC),Tehran,Iran
ArashGhalandarzadeh SchoolofMetallurgyandMaterialsEngineering,IranUniversityof ScienceandTechnology(IUST),Tehran,Iran
DalapathiGugulothu BalajiInstituteofPharmaceuticalSciences,BalajiGroupofInstitutions, WarangalRural,Telangana,India
SelmaHamimed LaboratoryofBiochemistryandMolecularBiology,UniversityofCarthage, FacultyofSciencesofBizerte,Jarzouna,Tunisia
KapileshJadhav SchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,JaipurNationalUniversity,Jaipur, Rajasthan,India
JaidipJagtap DepartmentofBiomedicalEngineering,MedicalCollegeofWisconsin,Milwaukee, WI,UnitedStates
JaisonJeevanandam CQM-CentrodeQuı´micadaMadeira,MMRG,UniversidadedaMadeira, CampusdaPenteada,Funchal,Portugal
DhanjayJhurry UniversityofMauritius,Re ´ duit,Mauritius
TabassumKhan DepartmentofPharmaceuticalChemistryandQualityAssurance,SVKM’sDr. BhanubenNanavatiCollegeofPharmacy,Mumbai,Maharashtra,India
DharmendraKumarKhatri NationalInstituteofPharmaceuticalEducationandResearch, Hyderabad,India
GauravKumar DepartmentofBiochemistry,UniversityofDelhi,NewDelhi,Delhi,India
KarthikeyanMahendhran DepartmentofZoologyandMicrobiology,ThiagarajarCollege, Madurai,TamilNadu,India
AnuragMalik DepartmentofSeedScience&Technology,CollegeofAgriculture,CCSHaryana AgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
SonamMittal SchoolofBiotechnology,JawaharlalNehruUniversity,NewDelhi,Delhi,India
SnigdhaPalchaudhury DepartmentofGeology,PresidencyUniversity,Kolkata,WestBengal, India
SoubantikaPalchoudhury ChemicalandMaterialsEngineering,UniversityofDayton,Dayton, OH,UnitedStates
SharadwataPan TUMSchoolofLifeSciences,TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Freising, Germany
AristeidisPapagiannopoulos TheoreticalandPhysicalChemistryInstitute,NationalHellenic ResearchFoundation,Athens,Greece
DeepakParashar SchoolofLifeSciences,JaipurNationalUniversity,Jaipur,Rajasthan,India; DepartmentofObstetricsandGynecology,MedicalCollegeofWisconsin,Milwaukee,WI,United States
MadhuriParashar SchoolofLifeSciences,JaipurNationalUniversity,Jaipur,Rajasthan,India; DivisionofHematologyandOncology,DepartmentofInternalMedicine,UniversityofTexas SouthwesternMedicalCenter,Dallas,TX,UnitedStates
StergiosPispas TheoreticalandPhysicalChemistryInstitute,NationalHellenicResearchFoundation,Athens,Greece
HimaniPunia DepartmentofBiochemistry,CollegeofBasicSciences&Humanities,CCSHaryanaAgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
MurugappanRamanathan DepartmentofZoologyandMicrobiology,ThiagarajarCollege, Madurai,TamilNadu,India
HarismaRameshbabu DepartmentofZoologyandMicrobiology,ThiagarajarCollege,Madurai, TamilNadu,India
HonitaRamphul Biomaterials,DrugDeliveryandNanotechnologyUnit,CentreforBiomedical andBiomaterialsResearch(CBBR),MSIRIBuilding,UniversityofMauritius,Re ´ duit,Mauritius
MatthewSchwenger RowanUniversity,HenryM.RowanCollegeofEngineering,Departmentof ChemicalEngineering,Glassboro,NJ,UnitedStates
PremShankar DepartmentofLaboratoryMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences,New Delhi,Delhi,India
GauravSharma AdvancedImagingResearchCenter,UniversityofTexasSouthwesternMedical Center,Dallas,TX,UnitedStates
GuruPrasadSharma BloodResearchInstitute,Milwaukee,WI,UnitedStates
ManishKumarSharma DepartmentofBiotechnology,IPCollege,Bulandshahr,UttarPradesh, India
NirmalSingh DepartmentofSeedScience&Technology,CollegeofAgriculture,CCSHaryana AgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
PradeepSingh DepartmentofSeedScience&Technology,CollegeofAgriculture,CCSHaryana AgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
JitendraSingh DepartmentofLaboratoryMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences,New Delhi,Delhi,India
EvdokiaStefanopoulou TheoreticalandPhysicalChemistryInstitute,NationalHellenicResearch Foundation,Athens,Greece;PhysicsDepartment,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens,Athens, Greece
JayantiTokas DepartmentofBiochemistry,CollegeofBasicSciences&Humanities,CCS HaryanaAgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
VedarethinamVadanasundari Med-XResearchInstitute,SchoolofBiomedicalEngineering, ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversityShanghai,China
EleniVlassi TheoreticalandPhysicalChemistryInstitute,NationalHellenicResearchFoundation, Athens,Greece
ShikhaYashveer DepartmentofMolecularBiology,BiotechnologyandBioinformatics,College ofBasicSciences&Humanities,CCSHaryanaAgriculturalUniversity,Hisar,Haryana,India
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BionanotechnologyandBionanomaterials: EmergingApplications,Market,and Commercialization
JaisonJeevanandam1,VedarethinamVadanasundari2,SharadwataPan3, AhmedBarhoum4, 5,MichaelK.Danquah6
1CQM-CentrodeQuı´micadaMadeira,MMRG,UniversidadedaMadeira,CampusdaPenteada, Funchal,Portugal; 2Med-XResearchInstitute,SchoolofBiomedicalEngineering,ShanghaiJiaoTong UniversityShanghai,China; 3TUMSchoolofLifeSciences,TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Freising, Germany; 4NanoStrucResearchGroup,ChemistryDepartment,FacultyofScience,Helwan University,AinHelwan,Cairo,Egypt; 5SchoolofChemicalSciences,FraunhoferProjectCentre, DublinCityUniversity,Dublin,Ireland; 6ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversityofTennessee, Chattanooga,TN,UnitedStates
1.Introduction
Exhaustive,perpetualresearchinvestigationscouldbenotedatpresentwithrespectto nanomaterials(NMs),withwidespread,extensiveapplicationsstretchingfrombiomedical engineeringtoelectronics[1].Theaugmentedmechanical,optical,electrical,electronic, physicochemical,andthermalcharacteristicswithimprovedsurfacefeatures,andthelarge surface-to-volumeproportionofNMs,relativetoconventionalresources,havegained significantattention,towardtheiremploymentinnumeroussolicitations[2 4].These NMsarepreparedviaphysicalmethods,suchasballmilling[5],vapordeposition[6,7], laserablation[8],andchemicalsynthesismethodologies,suchassol-gel[9], coprecipitation[10],polyol[11],hydrothermal[12],andsolvothermalmethods[13].Even thoughthesesynthesisapproachesarebeneficialinfabricatingsmaller-sizedNMswith distinctmorphology,toxicitycorrespondingtotheseoftensurfacefromthehazardous chemicalsincorporatedduringtheirmanufacturing[14,15].Thus,biologicalsynthesis approachesareutilizedforthefabricationofNMstoreducetheirtoxicitytowardhumans andtheenvironment,whichhasledtotheevolutionofbionanomaterials(BNMs).
BNMsareclassifiedintotwotypes:naturallyoccurringBNMs,andNMssynthesized basedonnaturalproductsorbiomolecules[16].NaturalBNMsaresynthesizedby extractingnaturalmaterials,suchascellulose,chitin,andchitosan,fromplantsorliving
Bionanotechnology:EmergingApplicationsofBionanomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823915-5.00009-5 Copyright © 2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
organisms[17].Ontheotherhand,theNMs,forinstance,metaloxide,metal,polymeric, andcarbon-basedNMs,synthesizedbasedonbiomoleculesandnaturalproducts,could alsobeperceivedasBNMs[16,18,19].TheseBNMsarewidelyutilizedinnumerous applications,comparedwithconventionalNMs,duetotheirless/notoxicity, biocompatibility,bioavailability,andbioreactivity[20].Thischapterlaysanoutlineof evolvingapplicationsofBNMs,includingenergyproduction,conversion,storage,and electricalandelectronicapplicationproperties.Inaddition,themarket,regulation,and commercializationofBNMsarealsodiscussed.
2.Bionanomaterials:emergingapplications
Recently,BNMshaveshownenoughpotentialwithsignificantadvantagestoward numerousapplications,whichcouldbecreditedtotheirnon/lesstoxicnature, biocompatibility,bioavailability,andpotentialimprovementintheirproperties,compared withconventionalNMs[18,19,21,22].Initially,BNMsarefabricatedwithpotential biomedicalapplications.However,later,theyaretransformedtobeserviceabletoward diversesectorsofapplications[20].TheenvironmentalamenabilityoftheBNMshas madethembeneficialinenergyproduction,conversion,andstorageapplications[23]. RecentstudieshaveshownthatBNMspossessenhancedelectricalandelectronic properties,comparedwithconventionalNMs[24].Ingeneral,BNMsarefabricatedand utilizedtowardawiderangeofbiomedicalapplications,includingtargeteddrugtransport [25],woundorlesiontherapy[26],tissueengineering[27],medicalimplants[16],and biosensors[28].ThedemandforenvironmentallyfriendlyNMsinelectronics[29],andthe elevatedtoxicityofconventionalNMstowardtheenvironment[18,19,30,31],hasmade BNMsapotentialsubstitutetowardultramodernapplicationsinelectricalsandelectronics, suchaswearabletechnology[32].Inaddition,theseBNMsarewidelyemployed,orunder extensivestudy,toshowcasetheirextraordinarypotentialtowardenergyproduction[33], energyconversion[34],energystorage[35],biofuelcells(BFCs)[36],biodiesel[37],and ascatalysts[38].Furthermore,thesenovelbiogenicNMsareidentifiedtobevaluable towardairfiltration[39],wastewatertreatment[40],desalination[41],soiltreatment [18,19,42,43],andplantprotection[44].Moreover,theBNMsarehighlybeneficialin agriculture,aspotentialpesticides[45],orasfertilizers[46],aswellasinfood preservation[47],andfoodstorage[48].Equally,BNMsalsodemonstratepotential benefitsinoilrecovery[17],textile[49],automotive[50],paper[51],andwood[52] industriesviavariousspecificapplications.
3.Energyproduction,conversion,andstorage
Energyandenvironmentrepresenttwokeyfactorsforthelong-termsurvivalofhuman beings.Powergenerationviatheconversionofnaturalenergysourcestoelectricityhas beenofprimeinterest,oftenmanifestedandrealizedviatheincorporationofdiverse,
versatiletechnologies.Severaltechniques,involvingtheexploitationofthermoelectric, photovoltaic,andpiezoelectricmaterialshavebeendevelopedtowardpowergeneration [53 56].However,theadventandupsurgeofnanotechnologyhasgreatlyadvanceda plethoraofalternativeenergyapproaches.NMsplayakeyroleinprocessingfuelsfrom fossilfuelresources,suchasnaturalgas,coal,andpetroleum.Enlighteningtheefficiency offuelproductionfromrawmaterials,usingnanoparticles(NPs),ismorerobustthan manyofthesemiconductorsusedintraditionalapproaches[56 58].NMswithlarge surfaceareasinfluencethegenerationoffuelsviathereducedcollaborationoftheatoms attheirsurfaces,andtheirsitesofadsorption.Theyarealsosupportedinphotocatalytic hydrogenandsolarelectricitygeneration,aswellasthestorageofelectricenergywith lithium-ionbatteries(rechargeable)andsolid-statehydrogen[54,55].Nowadays,an efficientenergystoragesystem(EES)constitutesaforemostandprimarynecessityindaily life.Itcanbeclassifiedbythermal(heataccumulator);mechanical(spring,pumped storagepowerplant,andflywheel);chemical(battery,hydrogen,methane,andredoxflow battery);electrical(magneticsuperconductingenergystorage);andcapacitors(electrical engineering).Thestorageofelectricityisrelativelycomplexinconventionalmethods. Nonetheless,advancementinnanotechnologyissteadilycontributingtoanenhanced energyconversion,storage,andtransmission[59].Batteriesareofprimeimportance, pertainingtotheirapplicationsinelectronicdevicesandelectricvehicles.NMsarenot onlyinvolvedinenergyproduction,buttheyalsofacilitateenergystorageinseveral forms.Light-emittingNPs,suchasgoldorsilverNPs,fluorescentNMs,andquantum dots,aregenerallyexploitedtoheightenthesolarcellcapabilities.
3.1Biofuelcells
BFCsrepresentasubcategoryoffuelcells,wherethecatalystattheanodeand/orthe cathodepossessesabiologicalorigin.BFCsareperhapsthemostattractivepowersources forbiomedicalapparatuses,whicharecharacterizedbythegenerationofelectricalenergy fromchemicalenergyviabiochemicalreactions.Microbialfuelcells(MFCs),amore renownedformofBFCs,maypresentapotentialremedyforlackingelectrical infrastructureissues,andadditionallywithinthepurviewofcleanandrenewableenergy [60,61].BFCspossesstwoelectrodes(cathodeandanode).Bothoreitherofthem representbioelectrode/spossessingabiologicalenhancerorcatalyst(couldbeeitherliving entitiesorenzymes).Bioreactorsarerepresentedbyorganicsubstrates,whicharedirectly convertedintoelectricityusingthebiologicalsystem,facilitatedbytheinvolvementor presenceofsuchcatalysts[62,63].ThecatalystscouldbeorganicsubstratesorNMs producedbybiologicalresourcesforefficientoxidation[64 66].Organicsubstrates,such asorganicacids,carbohydrates,wastewater,andbodyfluids,areusedasfuelsthroughthe catabolicmetabolismofthebiosystemintheanodecompartment.Increasedelectronsare thentransferredtoanelectrode,traveltotheanode,andeventuallymigrateviatheexterior
loadcircuittothecathode,withareducedelectronacceptor.Thecathodereceivesthe diffusedprotonswithoxygenprovidedbyairorwater.BFCsarenecessitatedas subordinatefuels,actingasanarbitratorforthemigrationofelectrons[67].Thiselectron migrationprocedure,frombiocatalyststotheBFCanodes,couldbeeithermoderated (METormediatedelectrontransfer)ordirect(DETordirectelectrontransfer).BNMsas BFCs,includingtheirapplications,areshownin Fig.1.1
3.2Bionanomaterial-basedbiodiesel
Nanotechnologypossessesdiverseapplications.Particularly,enzymesthathavebeen widelyusedtohydrolyzebiomassformanufacturingbiofuels,forinstance,biogas, biodieselfromoilsandfats,andethanol[69].Inthisframework,NMsreplacethe enzymesleadingtoefficientcatalysisfromthemedium[70,71].BFCsmaybewidely classifiedintoeitherenzymaticfuelcells(EFCs)orMFCs,dependingontheemployed biocatalyst.NMshavestrategicusesinbiofuelproduction,whichcanbecreditedtotheir distinctivephysicochemicalfeatures.SeveralNPsarepredominantlyusedinbiofuel productionascatalyticsubstrates.Mostsignificantly,theselectednanosubstrates demonstratealargesurface-to-volumeproportion,quantum,andimmobilized characteristicsandaresmallerinsize.UsingNMs,biofuels(biohydrogen,biogas, biodiesel,andbioethanol)arereceivingmoreattentionfromresearchers[72 74].
SynthesisofBNMstowardmanufacturingofbiodieselisdepictedin Fig.1.2.
NMs,intheformofnanocatalysts,actasperhapsthemostpopularreactionenhanceror catalystinbiofuel(especiallyinbiodiesel)production[76 78].Biodiesel,afattyacid methylester,isgenerallypreparedbytransesterificationofoils,whicharederivedfrom feedstocks(plants,animals,andmicroorganisms).Transesterificationinvolvesthepresence ofbothnanocatalystsandbiologicals.Whilethereactionofnanocatalystsissimilartothat oforganiccatalysts,itisimportanttoassesstheefficacyofthebiodieselmanufacturing methodology.Themixtureoffeedstocks/rawmaterials,nanocatalysts,andalcoholis homogenizedviashakerincubationtocompletethereactionoftransesterification[79,80].
Glycerolisaproduct,separatedfromthemediumbyafractionatingfunnel,andpurified byarotatoryevaporatorfunctioningunderreducedconditions.Theresidualmixtureand nanocatalystsareseparatedbycentrifugation.Basedonthenatureofthenanocatalyst systems,nanocatalystshavebeenclassifiedintocarbonscaffold-based,inorganic, magnetic,andmesoporousNMs,includingimmobilizedNMswithbiologicalcomponents [81 83].
3.3Metal/metaloxide basednanocatalysts
Productionofbiodieselhasprogressivelyinvolvedtheexploitationofsolid,metaloxide, ormetal-basedcatalysts(see Fig.1.3).Theyplayanimportantroleinhomogenous
Figure1.1
Bionanomaterialsasbiofuelcellsandtheirapplications[68]. ReprintedwithpermissionfromB. Sarkar,B.Mridha,S.Pareek,M.Sarkar,L.Thangavelu,Aflexiblebiofuelandbioenergyproductionsystem withtransportationdisruptionunderasustainablesupplychainnetwork,J.Clean.Prod.(2021)128079; ©Elsevier,2021.
Figure1.2
Differentpartsof Terminaliachebula utilizedtowardthefabricationofcopperoxidenanoparticles asbionanomaterialsforbiodieselproduction[75]. ReprintedwithpermissionfromK.V.Yatish,R.M. Prakash,C.Ningaraju,M.Sakar,R.GeethaBalakrishna,H.S.Lalithamba,Terminaliachebulaasanovel greensourceforthesynthesisofcopperoxidenanoparticlesandasfeedstockforbiodieselproductionandits applicationondieselengine,Energy(2021)215119165; ©Elsevier,2021.
catalysiswithcertainlimitationsinthereduction.Developingnewlymodifiedmetaloxide nanocatalyststowardhighstability,andimprovedcatalyticactivityofNMs,includingzinc oxide(ZnO)[86],magnesiumoxide calciumoxide(MgO CaO)[87],titaniumdioxide (TiO2)[88],ironoxide(Fe3O4)[89],andaluminumtrioxide(Al2O3)[90],enhancestheir manufacturingrate,therebyfacilitatinganefficientreactioncatalysisprocess. Furthermore,mixedmetaloxideNMs(alloy)showdecentinteractionswithmethanoland fattyacids.Inadditiontowithstandinghightemperatures,thetoleranceofthese nanocatalystshasalsoledtoenhancedproduction[91,92].
3.4Carbon-basednanocatalysts
Carbonmaterial basednanocatalysts,i.e.,reducedgrapheneoxide(rGO),carbon nanotubes(CNTs),andgraphene,possessnoteworthyphysicochemicalfeatureswith
Figure1.3 (A)Ironoxidenanoparticles[84],(B)Glycerolysistreatmentforenhancedbiodieselproduction[85].
