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AdvancesinPollutionResearch
BiologicalApproaches toControlling Pollutants
Editedby SunilKumar
FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology, ShriRamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki, UttarPradesh,India
MuhammadZaffarHashmi DepartmentofChemistry,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad, Islamabad,Pakistan
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Contributors
JafarAli
DepartmentofBiotechnology,UniversityofSialkot,Sialkot,Punjab,Pakistan; ResearchCenterforEco-environmentalSciences,ChineseAcademyof Sciences,Haidian,Beijing,PRChina
MahwishAli
DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,NationalUniversityofMedicalSciences (NUMS),Rawalpindi,Punjab,Pakisan
R.Anandan
DepartmentofGeneticsandPlantBreeding,FacultyofAgriculture,Annamalai University,Chidambaram,TamilNadu,India
KaterinaAtkovska
FacultyofTechnologyandMetallurgy,Ss.CyrilandMethodiusUniversity,Skopje, RepublicofNorthMacedonia
ShehlaBatool
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,FacultyofBiologicalSciences, Quaid-i-AzamUniversity,Islamabad,Punjab,Pakistan
ParomitaChakraborty
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology, Kancheepuram,TamilNadu,India;SRMResearchInstitute,SRMInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Kancheepuram,TamilNadu,India
RatiChandra
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
TanushriChatterji
DepartmentofMicrobiology,BabuBanarasiDasCollegeofDentalSciences, BabuBanarasiDasUniversity,UttarPradesh,Lucknow,India
BarbaraClasen
DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,StateUniversityofRioGrandedoSul, PortoAlegre,RS,Brazil
AkhileshDubey
DepartmentofBiologicalSciencesandEngineering,NetajiSubhasUniversityof Technology,Delhi,India
AbidaFarooqi
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,FacultyofBiologicalSciences, Quaid-i-AzamUniversity,Islamabad,Punjab,Pakistan
MrinmoyGarai
MaterialsScienceCentre,IndianInstituteofTechnology(IIT),Kharagpur,West Bengal,India
R.K.Gaur
DepartmentofBiotechnology,DeenDayalUpadhyayUniversity,Gorakhpur,Uttar Pradesh,India
V.Geethu
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,NewHorizonCollegeofEngineering,Bangalore, Karnataka,India
SaimaGul
DepartmentofChemistry,IslamiaCollegePeshawar,Peshawar,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,Paksitan
NeerajGupta
FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
MuhammadZaffarHashmi
DepartmentofChemistry,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Islamabad,Pakistan
SajjadHussain
FacultyofMaterialsandChemicalEngineering,GIKInstituteofEngineering Sciences&Technology,Topi,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan;Faculdadede Engenharias,ArquiteturaeUrbanismoeGeografia,UniversidadeFederalde MatoGrossodoSul,CidadeUniversita ´ ria,CampoGrande,MS,Brazil
PankajKumarJain
IndiraGandhiCentreforHumanEcology,EnvironmentalandPopulationStudies, DepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceUniversityofRajasthan,Jaipur,Rajasthan, India
GulsarBanuJainullabudeen
CentralInstituteforCottonResearch,RegionalStation,Coimbatore,TamilNadu, India
SupreetKadkol
DepartmentofZoology,SriVenkataramanaSwamyCollege,DakshinaKannada, Karnataka,India
MuhammadKaleem
DepartmentofPlantSciences,Quaid-i-AzamUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
VadivelKarthika
DepartmentofCropManagement,KumaraguruInstituteofAgriculture,Erode, TamilNadu,India
HammadKhan
FacultyofMaterialsandChemicalEngineering,GIKInstituteofEngineering Sciences&Technology,Topi,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
IbrarKhan
DepartmentofMicrobiology,AbbottabadUniversityofScience&Technology, Havelian,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
AbeerKhan
DepartmentofBiotechnology,UniversityofSialkot,Sialkot,Punjab,Pakistan
KhurramImranKhan
FacultyofMaterialsandChemicalEngineering,GIKInstituteofEngineering Sciences&Technology,Topi,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
SabirKhan
SaoPauloStateUniversity(UNESP),InstituteofChemistry,Araraquara, Sa ˜ oPaulo,Brazil
AnandKumar
DepartmentofBiotechnology,FacultyofEngineeringandTechnology,Rama University,Kanpur,UttarPradesh,India
SunilKumar
FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
StefanKuvendziev
FacultyofTechnologyandMetallurgy,Ss.CyrilandMethodiusUniversity,Skopje, RepublicofNorthMacedonia
KirilLisichkov
FacultyofTechnologyandMetallurgy,Ss.CyrilandMethodiusUniversity,Skopje, RepublicofNorthMacedonia
AroosaMalik
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,FacultyofBiologicalSciences, Quaid-i-AzamUniversity,Islamabad,Punjab,Pakistan
SaradaPrasannaMallick
DepartmentofBiotechnology,KoneruLakshmaiahEducationFoundation, Guntur,AndhraPradesh,India
MirkoMarinkovski
FacultyofTechnologyandMetallurgy,Ss.CyrilandMethodiusUniversity,Skopje, RepublicofNorthMacedonia
NehaMaurya
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
HamdijeMemedi
DepartmentofChemistry,FacultyofNaturalSciencesandMathematics, UniversityofTetovo,Tetovo,RepublicofNorthMacedonia
BhawanaMudgil
TGT,NaturalScience,SarvodayaVidyalaya,Rohini,Delhi,India
AbdulSamadMumtaz
DepartmentofPlantSciences,Quaid-i-AzamUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
M.Muthukumaran
PGandResearchDepartmentofBotany,RamakrishnaMissionVivekananda College(Autonomous),AffiliatedtotheUniversityofMadras,Chennai,Tamil Nadu,India
ArunkumarNagarathinam
DepartmentofMicrobiology,SchoolofAgricultureandAnimalSciences, TheGandhigramRuralInstitute,Dindigul,TamilNadu,India
S.Nalini
CentreforOceanResearch(DST-FISTSponsoredCentre),MoES Earth Science&TechnologyCell(MarineBiotechnologicalStudies),Col.Dr.Jeppiaar ResearchPark,SathyabamaInstitute ofScienceandTechnology,Chennai, TamilNadu,India
LiniNirmala
DepartmentofBiotechnology,MarIvaniosCollege,Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala, India
R.Parthasarathi
DepartmentofAgriculturalMicrobiology,FacultyofAgriculture,Annamalai University,Chidambaram,TamilNadu,India
BlagojPavlovski
FacultyofTechnologyandMetallurgy,Ss.CyrilandMethodiusUniversity,Skopje, RepublicofNorthMacedonia
M.Prakash
DepartmentofGeneticsandPlantBreeding,FacultyofAgriculture,Annamalai University,Chidambaram,TamilNadu,India
ZainabRafique
DepartmentofBiotechnology,UniversityofSialkot,Sialkot,Punjab,Pakistan
SanchoRajan
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology, Kancheepuram,TamilNadu,India
V.Ramamoorthy
DepartmentofPlantPathology,AgriculturalCollegeandResearchInstitute,Tamil NaduAgriculturalUniversity,Madurai,TamilNadu,India
ArianitA.Reka
DepartmentofChemistry,FacultyofNaturalSciencesandMathematics, UniversityofTetovo,Tetovo,RepublicofNorthMacedonia;NanoAlb,Albanian UnitofNanoscienceandNanotechnology,AcademyofSciencesofAlbania,Fan NoliSquare,Tirana,Albania
ShikhaSaxena
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
UdayakumarSekaran
DepartmentofPlantandEnvironmentalSciences,ClemsonUniversity,Clemson, SC,UnitedStates
ShreyaSharma
DepartmentofBiologicalSciencesandEngineering,NetajiSubhasUniversityof Technology,Delhi,India
ShubhraSharma
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
DeeptiSingh
FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
PramaEstherSoloman
IndiraGandhiCentreforHumanEcology,EnvironmentalandPopulationStudies, DepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceUniversityofRajasthan,Jaipur,Rajasthan, India
SwatiSrivastava
FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
ShreyaSrivastava
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
ShiburajSugathan
DepartmentofBotany,UniversityofKerala,Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala,India
M.Theradimani
DepartmentofPlantPathology,AgriculturalCollegeandResearchInstitute,Tamil NaduAgriculturalUniversity,Madurai,TamilNadu,India
SanaUllah
FacultyofMaterialsandChemicalEngineering,GIKInstituteofEngineering Sciences&Technology,Topi,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
SiddharthVats
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
K.S.Vinayaka
PlantBiologyLab.,DepartmentofBotany,SriVenkataramanaSwamyCollege, DakshinaKannada,Karnataka,India
HassanWaseem
DepartmentofBiotechnology,UniversityofSialkot,Sialkot,Punjab,Pakistan
ShriyamYadav
FacultyofBiotechnology,InstituteofBio-SciencesandTechnology,Shri RamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India
Acknowledgements
ThankstotheHigherEducationCommissionofPakistan’sNationalResearchProgram forUniversities,Projects7958and7964;andthePakistanScienceFoundation,Project PSF/Res/CP/C-CUI/Envr(151).ThanksarealsoduetothePakistanAcademyof Sciences,Project3-9/PAS/98,forfunding.
SunilKumarthankstheShriRamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki(UP), Indiaforcontinuoussupportandassistanceduringtheworkandscientificwriting.
Advancesin bioremediation: introduction,applications, andlimitations
AnandKumar1,SaradaPrasannaMallick2,DeeptiSingh3,NeerajGupta3 1DepartmentofBiotechnology,FacultyofEngineeringandTechnology,RamaUniversity,Kanpur, UttarPradesh,India; 2DepartmentofBiotechnology,KoneruLakshmaiahEducationFoundation, Guntur,AndhraPradesh,India; 3FacultyofBiosciences,InstituteofBiosciencesandTechnology, ShriRamswaroopMemorialUniversity,Barabanki,UttarPradesh,India Chapteroutline
1.2.1Solidwastemanagementandsewagetreatment....................................3
1.2.2Removaloftoxicmetalsfrompollutedwaterbodies..............................5
1.2.3Cleaningofoilspills...........................................................................5
1.2.4Removalofpesticidesfromagriculturefield.........................................7
1.2.4.1Remediationmethodsforpesticides
1.1 Introduction
Environmentalbiotechnologyisanoldfield;compostingandwastewatertreatments arecommonexamplesofolderenvironmentalbiotechnologies.Currentstudiesin ecologyandmolecularbiologypresentopportunitiesforextra-efficientbiological processes.Notableaccomplishmentsofthesestudiesincludethecleanupofpolluted waterandlandareas.Bioremediationisaprocessinwhichorganicwastesarebiologicallydegradedundercontrolledconditionstolevelsbelowtheconcentrationlimits establishedbyregulatoryauthoritiesortoinnocuousstates(Muelleretal.,1996). Inotherwords,bioremediationistheuseoflivingorganisms,mainlymicroorganisms, todegradeenvironmentalpollutantsintolesstoxicforms.Itmainlyusesbacteriaand fungiorplantstodegradeordetoxifysubstancesharmfultohumanhealthandthe environment.Themicroorganismsandplantsmaybenativetoacontaminatedarea orcollectedfromelsewhereandbroughttothecontaminatedsite.Pollutantsare
BiologicalApproachestoControllingPollutants. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824316-9.00003-3 Copyright © 2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
transformedbylivingorganismsbybiochemicalreactionsthatoccurasapartof theirmetabolicprocesses.Biodegradationofpollutantsisaconsequenceoftheactions ofmultipleorganisms.Whenmicroorganismsareaddedtoacontaminatedsiteto supplementandimprovedegradation,theprocessisknownasbioaugmentation.In thebioremediationprocess,microorganismsenzymaticallyattackpollutantsand convertthemtoharmlessproducts.Bioremediationcanbeeffectiveonlywhenenvironmentalconditionsallowmicrobialgrowthandactivity;itsapplicationoften involvesthemanipulationofenvironmentalparameterstoallowmicrobialgrowth anddegradationtoproceedatafasterrate.
Bioremediationtechniquesaretypicallymoreeconomicallyfeasiblethantraditionalmethodssuchasincinerationbecausesomepollutantscanbetreatedonsite, thusminimizingexposurerisksforcleanuppersonnelorpotentiallywiderexposure asaresultoftransportationaccidents.Becausebioremediationisbasedonnatural attenuationofpollutants,itisconsideredmoreacceptablethanothertechnologies.
Mostbioremediationsystemsarerununderaerobicconditions,butrunninga systemunderanaerobicconditionsmaypermitmicrobialorganismstodegrade otherwiserecalcitrantmolecules(ColbergandYoung,1995).Aswithothertechnologies,bioremediationhasitslimitations.
Somepollutantssuchashigharomatichydrocarbonsandchlorinatedorganics areresistanttomicrobialattack.Theyaredegradedeitherslowlyornotatall;hence, itisnoteasytopredicttheratesofcleanupforabioremediationexercise;thereare nowaystopredictwhetheracontaminantcanbedegraded.
Thetraditionalmethodofremediationhasbeentoexcavatepollutedsoiland eliminateittoalandfillandtreatthepollutedareasofalocation.Themethods havesomedisadvantages.Anapproachsuperiortotheseconventionalmethodsis toentirelydestroythepollutantsifpossibleoratleastconvertthemtonondangerous substances.Severaltoolshavebeenusedincludingincinerationandmanytypesof chemicaldecomposition(e.g.,base-catalyzeddechlorinationandUVoxidation). Theymaybeveryefficientatminimizingthedegreeofpollutantsbuthavemany disadvantages,primarilytheirtechnologicalcomplexity,thepriceforsmall-scale application,andinparticular,incineration,whichincreasestheexposuretopollutantsforboththeworkersonlocationandnearbyresidents(Vidali,2001).
Soilpollutantswithpetroleumhydrocarbons,halogenatedorganicchemicals, persistentorganicpollutants,andtoxicmetalsareacrucialworldwideproblem disturbinghumanandecologicalhealth.Overthelasthalfcentury,scientificand industrialadvancementshaveledtothegrowthofmanybrownfields;principally, theseareplacedinthecenterofhighlypopulatedcitiesworldwide.Reestablishing andregeneratingcitiesinasustainablewayforbeneficialusesarekeyprioritiesfor allindustrializednations.Bioremediationisbelievedtobeasafe,cost-effective, competent,andsustainabletechnologyforrestoringcontaminatedsites(Megharaj andNaidu,2017).
Ithasbeenreportedthatmanymicroorganismscanbiodegradepollutants. However,thepaceofbiodegradationdependsonthephysiologicalconditionof themicroorganisms,whicharesusceptibletovariableenvironmentalfactors.Itis identifiedthatimmobilizationincreasesmicroorganismresistancetounfavorable environmentalimpacts.
Bioremediationisnoninvasive,eco-friendly,lessexpensivethanconventional methods,andfurthermore,isapermanentsolutionthatcanresultinthedegradation ortransformationofenvironmentalpollutantsintorisk-freeorlesstoxicforms.Soil bioremediationcanbecarriedoutattheplaceofcontaminationorinaspeciallypreparedplace.Insitutechnologyisusedwhenthereisnopossibilitytotransfer pollutedsoil forexample,whenpollutantsaffectanextensivearea.
Therearethreebasicmethodsofinsitubioremediationwithmicroorganisms: naturalattenuation,biostimulation,andbioaugmentation(Dzioneketal.,2016).
1.2 Applicationsofbioremediation
Ecologicalpollutionanditsremediationareleadingconcernsacrosstheglobe.An enormousnumberofcontaminantssuchasfertilizers,pesticides,hazardoushydrocarbons(oilywaste),toxicheavymetals,anddyesarethekeyagentsresponsiblefor environmentaldamage.Bioremediationisanenvironment-orientedprocessthatdegradeshighlytoxichazardoussubstancesintolesstoxicforms.
1.2.1 Solidwastemanagementandsewagetreatment
Solidwastemanagementisagloballyacknowledgedenvironmentalconcern.Asa consequenceofcivilization,urbanization,andindustrialization,alargeamountof wasteisproducedanddumpedintotheenvironmentthroughouttheyear.All overtheworld,wastegenerationlevelsareincreasing.In2016,somereportsstate thattheworld’surbanareasproduced2.0billiontonsofmunicipalsolidwaste, equivalenttoafootprintof0.74kgperpersonperday(Pandeyetal.,2019).Bioremediationisknownasaneffectiveapproachtominimizingresidualcontaminants andrestoringpollutedsitesbacktotheiroriginalforms.Bioremediationoffersa goodopportunitytoresolvetheissueofsolidwastemanagementofunwanteddetoxifyingcomponentsandharmfuldumps(SaxenaandBharagava,2015).Thewaste managementsystemincludeslandfarming,composting,andsoilpiles.Itishighly efficientintheremediationoforganicwastes,hazardousdomesticwaste,industrial effluents,municipalsolid,andsewagewastes.Becauseoftheircomparativelyless expensiveandecologicalimplications,itensuresattractiveandmoreconventional decontaminatingtechniques(Muangchindaetal.,2018; Bharagavaetal.,2017). Compostingisacontrolledtransformationofdecomposableorganicwastesmatter
intostableinorganicby-productswiththehelpofmicrobes.Compostingisoneof thesafestapproachestosolidwastemanagement.Itisanaerobicprocessandconvertsseveralcomplexdecayablewastematerialsintonaturalproductsthatcanbe usedsafelyandbeneficiallyasorganicfertilizersandsoilconditioners.Thiscomprisesdetoxifyingandmineralization,whereinthewastehasbeenconsistently reformedintobasicnaturalsubstances.Ithasassistedinthepreventionofgreenhouseimpactsbymitigatingtheproductionofgasessuchasmethane,whereascarbondioxideisreleasedbycomposting,whichisminimalcomparedwithalternative methodsofwastemanagement(Ayilaraetal.,2020).Meanwhile,ifenvironmental pollutionissteady,biodegradationiscommonlysustainedwithinseveralstagesby utilizingvariousenzymesormicrobialresidents.Microorganismshaveimmensely enhancedtherehabilitationofpollutedhabitatsbymoppingupwasteinanecologicallysaferwayincludingtheproductionofreliableoutcomes(Pandeetal.,2020). Landfillingraisestheaerobicdegradationapproachbyassistingthedevelopmentof microbesthatnaturallyoccur(Shinde,2018).Biopilesareamixtureoflandfarming andcomposting.Inbiopiles,artificiallyengineeredcellsaredevelopedasoxygenatedmanuredpiles,andfurtheractionisretainedbyaddingcomposttothepolluted soil.Biopilesareusedintheeliminationofpetroleumhydrocarbons(PHCs)andalso controlthephysicallossesofcontaminantsthroughevaporationandleaching;therefore,biopilingisapureformoflandfarming(Shinde,2018).Groundwaterquality hasemergedasanessentialissueofthiserabecauseofthegrowingscarcityofwater resources.Deteriorationofwaterqualityassociatedwithanthropogenicactivitiesor naturalcalamitieshavecausedpotentialenvironmentaleffectsandhealthhazards. Sewageeffluentsareoneoftheleadingsourcesofconsecutiveinputoftheseharmful emissionsintotheaquaticenvironment.Miscellaneousremovalofindisposedwastewatershasaharmfulhealthimpactonmarineandterrestriallivingthings.Untreated wastewatermainlyconsistsoforganochlorine,nitrogenousandphosphoruscompounds,andcausativemicrobialagentssuchasbacteria,viruses,andprotozoa thathavetoxicologicalimpactsonhumanhealth(Goutametal.,2018; Bharagava etal.,2017; Saxenaetal.,2018).Agroupofresearchershasestablishedaninnovativesewagetreatmentschemethatwouldsignificantlyeliminateconventionalcontaminatesandretrieveadvantageousresourcesthatareinsewagetreatmentplants (STPs)andeffluenttreatmentplants.TheprimarymissionofSTPestablishment istotransformhouseholdwastewaterconveniently,andthesecondaryaimisto restoreandrecyclethewastewaterlaterinsewageeffluenttreatment(Raychoudhury andPrajapati,2020).Ligninolyticenzymessuchasligninperoxidase,manganese peroxidase(MnP),andlaccasehavebeenreportedinthedegradationanddetoxificationofmanycontaminantsfrommetropolitanwastewaters.Forexample,byaligninolyticenzyme-producingbacterium, Aeromonashydrophila,thatcauses biodegradationofthecrystalvioletdyeisolatedfromtextilewastewatereffluent (Bharagavaetal.,2018).
1.2.2 Removaloftoxicmetalsfrompollutedwaterbodies
Theaccumulationoftoxicmetalsintheatmospherehasbecomeanemergingissue globally.Duetothelargeandpersistentnatureandnonbiodegradablepropertiesof toxicmetals,itcausesbioaccumulationinthefoodchainthatleadstoadverseenvironmentalconditionsandhealthrisksfromtheiracutetoxicessenceinbiota(Teles etal.,2018).Thesetoxicmetalswidelyassociatedwithanthropogenicactivities, suchlikefossilfuelcombusting,uncontrolledusageofagrochemicals,tannery, mining,electroplating,dyeing,andpigmentmanufacturerindustries,fertilizers/pesticides,anddischargeofwastewatereffluentsandseveralotherindustrialandagriculturaloperations,aresubsequentlydischargedinhugeamountsintothe surroundingenvironmentdailythroughwastewatereffluents.Thesteadinessoftoxic metalshasprovenitselftobevigorousandhasriseninattentioninrecentyears (Osundekoetal.,2014).Therefore,bioremediationisessentialtopreventtoxic metalmilitarizationorleachingintoecologicalstrataandtoencouragetheirlineages.Therehavebeenseveralreportsontheapplicationofbiofilmsintheremoval oftoxicmetals.Biofilmworksasanefficientbioremediationtoolalongwithabiologicalstabilizingmediator.Biofilmshavegreattoleranceofnoxiousinorganic componentsattheirlethalconcentrations.Microalgaeareoftenusedforbiological cultivationtreatmentorsewagetreatment.Thecapacityofalgae-basedtreatmentsis moreefficientinremovingradioactivecompounds,pathogenicmicroorganisms,and heavymetalsfromwastewater.Consequently,microbeshaveawidevarietyoftechniquesofmetalremovalthathavegreatermetalbiosorptionpotential(Tarekegn etal.,2020).Thebiologicalcharacteristicsofmicrobescouldberectifiedbythe existenceofheavymetals.Differentgroupsofbio-basedconstituentsincludingbacteria,fungi,yeast,andalgaehavebeenexploredasbiosorbentsforaccumulating persistentorganiccontaminantsandtoxicmetalsbybioremediation(Golaetal., 2016; Barquilhaetal.,2017).Owingtotheabundantqualityofmicroorganism andtheircost-effectiveness,researchershaveinvestigatedmanytechniquesasadvantageousinthedismissalofheavymetalionsforcontaminatedsites,would-be biosorption,biotransformation,orbioaccumulation(Balajietal.,2016; Jaafari andYaghmaeian,2019).Alistofmicroorganismsfortheremovalofheavymetals isshownin Table1.1.
1.2.3 Cleaningofoilspills
Currently,amajorchallengeisthecleanupofaquaticresourcescontaminatedbyoil. Thiscontaminationiscausedbyregularshipments,tankers,pipelines,wastewater drainagefromindustries,refineries,disposal,andoilspills.Oilspillsreleasepetroleumhydrocarbonsintothemarineenvironment,whichposesanenormousthreatto aquaticmicroflora.Oilspillsmayexhibitanimmenseecologicalandcommercial effect.Estimatesarethatmorethan250,000seabirdsdiedfromtheExxon-Valdez
Table1.1 Namesofmicrobialspeciesandtoxicchemicalstheyremove.
NameofthespeciesRemovalelementsReferences
G. metallireducens
Bacillussubtilis
Acinetobacter sp.and Arthrobacter sp.
Desulfovibriodesulfuricans
Bacilluspumilus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,and Brevibacterium
Aspergillusniger, Rhizopusoryzae, Saccharomycescerevisiae,and Penicilliumchrysogenum
Manganese(Mn) Gavrilescu(2004)
Lead(Pb),chromium (Cr),andcadmium(Cd)
Abioyeetal.(2018)
Chromium(Cr) Puyenetal.(2012)
Copper(Cu)and nickel(Ni)
Cadmium(Cd)and lead(Pb)
Samarthetal. (2012)
Singhetal.(2013)
ChromiumCr(VI) Igirietal.(2018)
PseudomonasgenusK1andAK9,Arsenic(As) Satyapaetal.(2018)
Agaricusbisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus
ChromiumCr,Copper (Cu),andlead(Pb) Frutosetal.(2016)
oilspillin1989andthattheDeepwaterHorizonoilspilldisasterexpenseexceeds US$61billion(Lietal.,2016).Variousbiologicalandchemicaltechniquesareavailabletorespondtotheoilspills,butamongthem,bioremediationiscertifiedasa promisingapproachforthetreatmentofoilspills.Bioremediationismoreenvironmentallyfriendlythanconventionaltechniquesandmoreeconomicalwithless destructiveinfluencesontheenvironment.Bioremediationforoilspillscanbe handledintwodistinctways(Doshietal.,2018).Thesecomprisebioaugmentation thatintroducesnaturalorgeneticallymanipulatedoil-degradingmicroorganismsto thepollutedareaorenvironmentaswellasbiostimulationthatentailsadditional nourishmenttotheaffectedzonetosupportthecurrentoil-degradingmicrobes. Emergingbioaugmentationmethodsareledbymanipulatedmicrobesespecially foramendmentofcatalyticproperties,ametabolicpassagescheme,enlargement ofthesubstraterate,anddevelopinggeneresistancethroughcatabolicoperations. Theuseofbiosurfactantisanotheralternative,convenienttechniquethatimproves bioremediationbyminimizingthesurfaceenergy(HaritashandKaushik,2009). Certainpolymericsubstancesmaybeincludedtodevelopimmobilizationin microbialstrainsandconsequentlyamplifythedegradationrate.Biosurfactantis anattractiveapproachtodegradehazardoussubstancesandprotectthemarine environment,whereasseveralseagoingbacteriaandmicroalgaestrainscanproduce biosurfactantsduringgrowthonhydrocarbons.Microbialremediationaction possessesaprominentroleinthecleanupofanoilspill.Microbialspeciesthat areknownasanexcellentdegraderofhydrocarbonsubstancesareclassifiedas Acinetobacter, Marinobacter, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus,and Roseobacter (McGenityetal.,2012).Laccase-containingligninolyticfungiarerecognizedas
excellentdegradersforpolyaromatichydrocarbon(Garcı´a-Delgadoetal.,2015). Agriculturalwastematerialssuchlikecotton,kapok,andricestrawareplentiful andoptimallyusedasgreatoilsorbentsforthetreatmentofoilspills.Insome reports,bananapeelhasshownahighoilsorptioncapacityforcrudeandgasoils (El-Dinetal.,2018).Severalreportshaveconsideredtheremediationofoilspills throughbioelectrochemicalsystems(BESs).BESshaveappearedasaninteresting schemetotransformthechemicalenergyoforganicwastesintosustainableelectricalenergyorhydrogenorvaluablebulkchemicalproducts.InBES,adifferent groupofelectroactivebacteriahaveevolvedandpotentiallyfunctionasthecatalyst. Thepolymericoil-basedabsorbentschallengemanydrawbacksofexpensive,secondarycontaminationandecologicaldeterioration.Microbialfuelcellsareanovel approachfortheutilizationofwasteforthegenerationofbioelectricityasanovel waytomodifychemicalenergyintoelectricityconcurrentwithcontaminantdegradation(Srikanthetal.,2018).
1.2.4 Removalofpesticidesfromagriculturefield
Asweknow,thesoilisconsideredthetoplayerofourEarth’ssurfacewhereplants cangrow,containingmineralsandrocksparticlesthataremixedwiththedecayed organicmatter.Soilplaysseveralessentialrolesinprovidingthebasisforbiomass aswellasfoodproduction.OneofthemostsevereproblemsfortheEarthispollution,whichmeansanychangetakesplaceonelementsinvolvedinthecomposition ofitbecauseofhumanactivities.Soilsarecontaminatedbyheavymetals,plants, humanity,pesticides,herbicides,andcontinuousfarmingandareduetoseveraltoxic chemicalsandindustrialwastes.Agriculturalexpansioninallcountriesandregions oftheworldbecauseoftheriseindemandforfoodhasresultedinincrementalpopulationgrowth,andathreatoccursfromthisagriculturalexpansiononsoilexpansion.Otherissuesregardingagriculturalexpansionaswellassoildepletionhave emerged,namelytheextensiveuseofagriculturalpesticidesandfertilizers(Hossain etal.,2015; DamalasandKoutroubas,2016).
Soilisreportedasanonrenewablenaturalresource;thetimerequiredintheformationof1cmofforestsoilisestimatedtobe200 400years.FromtheSecond WorldWaronwards,pesticideshavebeenconsideredusefulinincreasingtheproductionofagricultureandfoodpreservationqualityforsometime.Pesticidesare helpfulinbenefitingagriculturebyincreasingproductionaswellasfightingmany humanandplantdiseases.Supercriticalextractionisconsideredapromisingmethod fortheremediationofsoil,suchastheremovaloforganiccompoundssuchasPAHs andPCBs.Superficialextractiongetsmuchattentionasapromisingmethodforthe remediationofsoilcontaminants.Whenthedispersionofpesticidestakesplacein theenvironment,theybecomepollutantswithecologicaleffectsthatrequireremediation(DamalasandEleftherohorinos,2011; Purnomoetal.,2020).
Thebiologicalprocesshasbeendemonstratedtobeanexcellentmethodforthe remediationofpesticidesincomparisonwithtraditionaltechniquesthroughseveral useful,important,andadvantageouspropertiessuchassimplicityofdesign,low initialoperatingcost,economics,comfortofoperation,andintensiveeffectsontoxic substances.Biosorbentsusedinpesticideremovalhavebeenobtainedfromseveral sourcessuchasplantbiomass,industrialby-products,andagriculturalwastesand havehadvariousdegreeofsuccessintheapplicationofpesticideeffluenttreatment (Tranetal.,2020; Purnomoetal.,2020).
1.2.4.1 Remediationmethodsforpesticides
Bioremediationisawellknown,effective,andeco-friendlymethodforremovalof soilcontamination.Bioremediationisacomplexprocessforsoildecontamination. Severalmethods,suchasphytoremediationandmicrobialandfungalremediation, areconsideredmaincomponentsofbioremediation(OdukkathilandVasudevan, 2016).Bioremediationreducesthepesticidesinthesoilbyenhancingthebiological degradationprocessviaseveralmetabolicreactionsofmicroorganisms(Reddyand Antwi,2016).Pesticidecontaminationinthesoilisconsideredanonpointsource, andseveralchemicalmethodsareusedforremediationofthesecontaminations (MorilloandVillaverde,2017).Thesechemicalmethodshavedisadvantagesdue toaddingadditionalsecondarypollutantstothesoil.Hence,bioremediationis consideredasafemethodcomparedwithchemicalremediationmethods(Wang etal.,2016).
Phytoremediationofsoilcontaminationsuchastoxicpesticidesbasedontheuptakeofpollutantsisaccomplishedusingplants(monocotsanddicots),vegetation, plantroots,andrhizospheremicroorganisms.Thebacterialbioremediationismainly basedontheutilizationofpesticidemoleculesandconvertsthemintoanontoxic substance.Somebacterialspeciessecreteextracellularenzymes,andthesesecreted enzymesareresponsibleforthedegradationofpesticidemolecules.Thebacterial specieshavingP450cytochromegenescaneffectivelyparticipateintheaerobic bioremediationofpesticides(Dasetal.,2015).
Electrokineticsoilflushing(EKSF)isarecentandeffectivemethodusedforthe remediationofsoilindifferentways(Trelluetal.,2016).Inthismethod,ahighelectricfieldisappliedtopollutedsoil.Whencontaminatedsoilcomesincontactwith theelectricfield,thepollutantsaretransferredintoflushingfluid,whichcanbe treatedwithseveralmethodssuchaselectroosmosis,electrophoresis,etc.The removalofpesticidesusingEKSFisconsideredahottopicofremediation(Vieira etal.,2016).Recently,EKSFhasbeencombinedwithotherremediationtechniques likebioremediation,anditshowsbetterresultsforpesticideremovalfromagriculturefields.
1.3
Limitationsofbioremediation
Bioremediationisaneco-friendlyandcost-effectivemethodforremovalofseveral pollutantssuchaspesticides,heavymetals,anddyes.Amongtheseadvantages,this methodhasmanydisadvantages.Biosorptionisknownasextractionofpollutants usingseveralbiosorbents.Thepollutantsareadsorbedonthesurfaceofthebiosorbentthroughfunctionalgroupspresentonitssurface.Thismethodrequiresa numberofstepsthatmakethismethodmorecomplex.Thesestepsincludepreparationandprocessingofbiosorbent.Asystembiologyapproachbybioremediationis shownin Fig.1.1.
Removalofpollutantsusinglivingbiomassofbacteria,fungi,andalgaeisalso consideredaneffectivemethod.However,severalproblemsoccurinthisprocess suchasculturemaintenanceanduseofgrowthmedia.Alongwiththesedisadvantages,bioremediationhasotherlimitationssuchasthefollowing:
•Bioremediationislimitedtothosecompoundsthatarebiodegradable.Notall compoundsaresusceptibletorapidandcompletedegradation.
•Therearesomeconcernsthattheproductsofbiodegradationmaybemore persistentortoxicthantheparentcompound.
•Biologicalprocessesareoftenhighlyspecific.Importantfactorsrequiredfor bioremediationincludethepresenceofmetabolicallycapablemicrobialpopulations,suitableenvironmentalgrowthconditions,andappropriatelevelsof nutrientsandcontaminants.
•Itisdifficulttoextrapolatefrombenchandpilot-scalestudiestofull-scalefield operations.
Theplansofmetabolicreconstructionapplicableforbioremediation. 1.3 Limitationsofbioremediation
FIGURE1.1
•Researchisneededtodevelopandengineerbioremediationtechnologiesthatare appropriateforsiteswithcomplexmixturesofcontaminantsthatarenotevenly dispersedintheenvironment.Contaminantsmaybepresentassolids,liquids, andgases.
•Bioremediationoftentakeslongerthanothertreatmentoptions,suchasexcavationandremovalofsoilorincineration.
•Regulatoryuncertaintyremainsregardingacceptableperformancecriteriafor bioremediation.Thereisnoaccepteddefinitionof“clean,”evaluatingperformanceofbioremediationisdifficult,andtherearenoacceptableendpointsfor bioremediationtreatment.
1.4 Conclusion
Bioremediationisaveryadmiredandpromisingtechnologyfortheremediationof environmentscontaminatedwithpetroleumhydrocarbon,Solidwastemanagement includessewagetreatment,removaloftoxicmetalsfrompollutedwaterbodies, cleanupofoilspills,andremovalofpesticidesinagriculturalsoil.
Petroleumpollutionhasbecomeasevereenvironmentalproblemthatcauses harmfulenvironmentaldamageandharmfulimpactsonhumanhealth.Thebioremediationisbasedonthemetaboliccapabilitiesofmicroorganismsandconsideredthe mostreliablesourcetoeliminatepollutants,especiallypetroleumanditsrecalcitrant compounds.Asreportedinpreviousstudies,severalbioremediationapproaches throughbioaugmentationandbiostimulationhavebeenperformedfortheremoval ofpetroleumpollution.
Adiversityofdangerouspollutantsinducingphenols,toxicazodyes,resins, pharmaceuticals,chlorinatedbiphenyls,heavymetals,acids/alkalis,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,etc.arebeingreleasedintowaterbodiesthathaveseverely deterioratedthewaterandsoilecosystem.Thebioremediationtechniquehasbeen proficientlyappliedforremovingenvironmentalpollutantsfromwaterandsoil. Thenumerousmethodologiesappliedinthebioremediationmethodareecologically soundandcost-effective(Shivalkaretal.,2021).
Theoccurrenceofheavymetalsandtheir toxicityposesaseriouschallengefor thetreatmentofwastewaterrunoffpriortoreleaseintonearbywaterbodies. Numerousremovaltechniqueshavebeendevelopedandarefunctionalforthe treatmentofthesewastestoeliminatet oxicmetalions.Sometechnologiessuch asmicrobe-assistedphytoremediation, ionexchange,membranefiltration,photocatalyticoxidationandreduction,andadsorptionhavetheirownadvantagesand disadvantagesovermetalionsequestra tionsfromenvironmentalmatrices.In recentyears,developmentsinadsorptionofheavymetalsfromaqueoussolutions havegainedtremendouspopularityamongthescientificcommunityasmethodsto treatindustrialwastewate r.Severaladsorbentssuchasclays,LDHs,zeolites,
carbonnanotubesandtheircomposites,activatedcarbons,biomass-derivedbiosorbents,inorganicnanomaterials,inorganicorganichybridnanocomposites,and magneticnanomaterialshavebeensynthesizedandinvestigatedfortheirabilityto sequestermetalionsfromwater.
Functionalizedmagneticnanoparticlesareverypromisingforapplicationsin catalysis,biolabeling,andbioseparation.Inliquid-phaseextractionofheavymetals anddyesinparticular,suchsmallandmagneticallyseparableparticlesmaybeuseful,astheycombinetheadvantagesofhighdispersion,highreactivity,highstability underacidicconditions,andeasyseparation.Inthischapter,wefocusedmainlyon recentdevelopmentsinthesynthesisofactiveadsorbentsandnanoparticles.Further, functionalizationandapplicationofmagneticnanoparticlesandtheirnanosorbents fortheseparationandpurificationofhazardousmetalionsfromtheenvironmentare discussedindetailinaseparatechapterinthisbook.
Thereleaseofwastewatercontainingtoxicmaterialsofheavymetalswithinthe ecosystemisoneofthemostseriousissuesforenvironmentalandhealthchallenges inoursociety.Therefore,thereisurgentneedforthedevelopmentofeco-friendly, efficient,novel,andcost-effectivemethodsfortheremovalofinorganicmetals(Pb, Cd,Cr,andHg)dischargedintotheenvironmentandtoprotecttheecosystem. Microbe-basedheavymetalshavederivedbioremediationasaforthcomingalternativetotraditionaltechniques.Heavymetalsarenonbiodegradableandmaybeharmfultomicrobes.Numerousmicroorganismshavebeendevelopedasdetoxifying methodstocountertheharmfuleffectsofinorganicmetals.Thischapterdiscussed biosorptioncapacitywithrespecttotheuseoffungi,algae,bacteria,genetically immobilizedmicrobialcells,andengineeredmicrobesfortheeliminationofheavy metals.Theapplicationofbiofilmhasshownsynergeticeffects,withamanyfold increaseintheremovalofheavymetalsasasustainableenvironmentaltechnology inthenearfuture.
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Advancesinmicrobial managementofsoil 2
M.Theradimani,V.Ramamoorthy DepartmentofPlantPathology,AgriculturalCollegeandResearchInstitute,TamilNadu AgriculturalUniversity,Madurai,TamilNadu,India
Chapteroutline
2.1Introduction.......................................................................................................
2.2Principalfungalspeciesinmycoremediation.......................................................
2.2.1Whiterotfungi.................................................................................16
2.2.2Brownrotfungi................................................................................17
2.2.3Softrotfungi...................................................................................18 2.3Mechanismsinmycoremediation........................................................................
2.3.1Lignolyticenzymes...........................................................................19
2.3.2Lignindegradationoccursduringnutrientstarvation............................19
2.3.3Cellulolyticenzymes.........................................................................20
2.4Establishingmycoremediationsystems................................................................
2.5Factorsinfluencingmycoremediation...................................................................
2.5.1Carbonandnitrogensources.............................................................22
2.5.4Temperature....................................................................................23 2.5.5Moisturecontent..............................................................................23
2.1 Introduction
Thesoilecosystemiscomplexandheterogeneousbecauseitcomprisesinorganic andorganiccomponents,water,gases,andvariousfloraandfauna.Aftercropping, theresidualrecalcitrantcropwastesfromcropplants,trees,andwoodyplantsare dumpedinsoil.Inaddition,disposablewastematerialscontainingcelluloseare dumpedinsoilfromthepaperandpulp,textile,pesticide,andpharmaindustries. Thesecomplexorganicmaterialsinsoilshouldbemineralizedsothatthevarious nutrientsandmineralsarefreelyavailabletoplantsforincreasingcropproductivity. SoilhavingahighC:Nratioisnotsuitableforcropcultivation.Thus,thesoil
BiologicalApproachestoControllingPollutants. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824316-9.00018-5 Copyright © 2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
containingrichamountsoflignocellulosicmaterialshouldbemineralized,andthe C:Nratioshouldbereducedtoa10:1ratioforoptimumcultivationofcropsandtree plants.Forthat,asuitablemicrobialcommunityinthesoilecosystemshouldbe augmentedsothatmineralizationcanbecarriedouttoenrichcarbonandnitrogen levelsandacceleratethedevelopmentofheterogeneousmicrobialcommunities. Microbialdegradationofagrowasteisimportantforawidespectrumofsoilreactionsandfunctions,includingorganicmatterdecomposition,nutrientcycling,and substratestabilization(Huangetal.,2010; Valentı´netal.,2010).
Bioremediationreferstotheuseofmicrobialagents,suchasbacteria,fungi,and algae,toremoveorneutralizeorganicandinorganicwastesinthesoilecosystem. Mycoremediationisaformofbioremediationthatusesfungiasbiologicalagents forrectifyingthesoilecosystem.Mycoremediationisalsodesignatedasfungal bioremediationormushroombioremediation.Mycoremediationisofrecentorigin andgainingimportanceinbioremediationofcropresiduesthatarerichinlignocellulosicsubstances.Cropresiduesarecolonizedbyawidevarietyofmicroorganisms, mainlyfungiandbacteria.Theseorganismscausedecayanddegradationwithnegativeimpactsonstandingcropsandtreesandbeneficialeffectsbyrecyclingcropresiduesanddeadwoodandmineralizingthecomplexorganiclignocellulosicmatterto CO2 andwater.Isolationandapplicationofasuitablefungusthatdecomposesthe toxiccompoundefficientlyistheprimeneedofthemycoremediationprocess. Thispaperdescribesinanutshellthevariousfungiusedintheremediationofagrowasterichinlignocellulosicmaterial,themechanismsbywhichthefungiremediate agrowastes,establishmentofthemycoremediationprocess,andvariousfactors influencingthemycoremediationprocess.
2.2 Principalfungalspeciesinmycoremediation
2.2.1
Whiterotfungi
ManyBasidiomycetesfungiaretheimportantdegradersoflignocellulosicagriculturalwastesandtherebyrecyclecarbonandothernutrientsinthesoilecosystem. Mainlywoodytreesarerichinlignocellulosicmaterial,whichisquiterecalcitrant todegradationandlowinnitrogenandotheressentialnutrients.Wood-decaying fungidegradeligninandthecelluloseconstituentsofwood.Certainwooddecayingfungidegradebothligninandcelluloseandarecalledwhiterotfungi. Whiterotreferstothebleachedappearanceofwoodduetodegradationoflignin, cellulose,andhemicellulose. Phanerochaetechrysosporium isthemostimportant whiterotfungus.Otherwell-knownwhiterotfungiare Trametesversicolor, Pycnoporussanguineus, Lentinulaedodes (shiitakemushroom), Pleurotus spp.(oyster mushroom), Ganodermalucidum,and Ganodermaapplanatum, Phellinusigniarius, Irpexlacteus,and Phlebiaradiata (Peraltaetal.,2017).
Certainwhiterotfungicandegradebothligninandcellulosicconstituentsof woodsimultaneously(calledsimultaneousdegrader/simultaneouswhiterotfungi),
