https://ebookmass.com/product/biojet-fuel-in-aviationapplications-cheng-tung-chong/
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...
Production Processes of Renewable Aviation Fuel: Present Technologies and Future Trends Claudia Gutiérrez-Antonio
https://ebookmass.com/product/production-processes-of-renewableaviation-fuel-present-technologies-and-future-trends-claudiagutierrez-antonio/ ebookmass.com
Harty’s Endodontics in Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Edition Chong
https://ebookmass.com/product/hartys-endodontics-in-clinicalpractice-7th-ed-edition-chong/
ebookmass.com
Safety Management Systems in Aviation 2nd Edition
https://ebookmass.com/product/safety-management-systems-inaviation-2nd-edition/
ebookmass.com
Oxford grammar 360°. Student book without key | English for Italians Aa. Vv.
https://ebookmass.com/product/oxford-grammar-360-student-book-withoutkey-english-for-italians-aa-vv/
ebookmass.com
Cowboy Fire Kim Redford https://ebookmass.com/product/cowboy-fire-kim-redford/
ebookmass.com
The Platform Society: Public Values in a Connective World José Van Dijck
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-platform-society-public-values-in-aconnective-world-jose-van-dijck/
ebookmass.com
Protect Your Queen: A Standalone Bodyguard Romance (Barkada Book 1) Molly Briar
https://ebookmass.com/product/protect-your-queen-a-standalonebodyguard-romance-barkada-book-1-molly-briar/
ebookmass.com
Project Management Absolute Beginner's Guide 5th Edition Greg Horine
https://ebookmass.com/product/project-management-absolute-beginnersguide-5th-edition-greg-horine/
ebookmass.com
Commodification and Its Discontents 1st Edition Nicholas Abercrombie
https://ebookmass.com/product/commodification-and-its-discontents-1stedition-nicholas-abercrombie/
ebookmass.com
Sector 1st Edition Edition Subhankar Das
https://ebookmass.com/product/digital-entertainment-the-nextevolution-in-service-sector-1st-edition-edition-subhankar-das/
ebookmass.com
BIOJETFUELIN AVIATION APPLICATIONS Thispageintentionallyleftblank
BIOJETFUELIN AVIATION CHENGTUNGCHONG JO-HANNG
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
Copyright © 2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyany means,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformation storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Details onhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissions policiesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier. com/permissions.
Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedunder copyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthis fieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearch andexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledge inevaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperiments describedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfulof theirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea professionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasa matterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978-0-12-822854-8
ForinformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisitour websiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: MatthewDeans
AcquisitionsEditor: CarrieBolger
EditorialProjectManager: AleksandraPackowska
ProductionProjectManager: PrasannaKalyanaraman
CoverDesigner: GregHarris
TypesetbyTNQTechnologies
Preface vii Acknowledgmentsxi
1.GlobalAviationandBiojetFuelPolicies,Legislations, Initiatives,andRoadmaps1
1.1 Introduction1
1.2 Global InternationalCivilAgencyOrganization1
1.3 EuropeanUnion16
1.4 UnitedKingdom34
1.5 Scandinavia40
1.6 UnitedStatesofAmerica41
1.7 Canada57
1.8 Mexico60
1.9 Brazil60 1.10 Argentina66 1.11 China67 1.12 Malaysia70 1.13 Japan71 1.14 Indonesia73 1.15 Australia74
1.16 Summary75 References76
2.Biojetfuelproductionpathways81
2.1 Introduction81
2.2 Oil-to-jet81
2.3 Alcohol-to-jet104
2.4 Gas-to-jet112
2.5 Sugar-to-jet128
2.6 Summary135 References135
3.Propertyspecificationsofalternativejetfuels143
3.1 Introduction143
3.2 Jetfuelspecifications144
3.3 Jetfuelfromnonconventionalsources148
3.4 Propertiesofsyntheticjetfuel153
3.5 Performancecharacteristicsofaviationturbinefuels158
3.6 Additivesforalternativejetfuels164
3.7 Jetfuelcertificationprocess168
3.8 Summary172 References173
4.Combustionperformanceofbiojetfuels175
4.1 Introduction175
4.2 Principlesofaircraftemissions176
4.3 Componentorrigtestforalternativejetfuel180
4.4 Flighttest200
4.5 Fundamentalcombustionproperties202
4.6 Summary222 References223
5.Economicsofbiojetfuels231
5.1 Introduction231
5.2 Biojetfuelprices231
5.3 Potentialfeedstock255
5.4 Globalbiojetfuelproduction270
5.5 Barrierstocommercialization272
5.6 Summary282 References283
6.Sustainabilityofaviationbiofuels287
6.1 Introduction287
6.2 Lifecycleassessmentofaviationjetfuel288
6.3 Alternativejetfuelproductionpathway294
6.4 Lifecyclegreenhousegasemissionsfordifferent productionpathways297
6.5 LifecycleemissionsvaluesforCORSIAeligiblefuel302
6.6 Comparisonofgreenhousegasemissionperformance303
6.7 Energybalanceanalysis308
6.8 Energy water foodnexus310
6.9 Summary331 References332 Index 337
Preface Biojetfuelisanemergingrenewableenergyforaviationapplicationsthat willsoonbecomeanessentialpartoftheaeronauticalsector.Thisparadigm shiftmeantthatthestudyofbiojetfuelisincreasinglybecomingpartof mainstreamelectivecoursesforundergraduatestudentspursuingdegreesin chemicalengineering,mechanicalengineering,andsustainableenergy engineering.Thisbookisintendedforusebytheaforementioned undergraduate students,withemphasisplacedtogivestudentsaholisticviewin termsofthetechnical,economical,political,andsocialaspectsofbiojetfuel. Thetextisalsointendedasagatewayfor postgraduate degreestudiesoras supplementarytextforintroductorycoursesintoalternativefuels.
Thephilosophybehindthisbookisforittobethedefinitive “first” bookforreaderswantingtoknowaboutthebasicfundamentalandpracticalissuesonbiojetfuels.Thissupportstheauthors’ maingoalsinwriting thebook,whichistoprovideacomprehensivebookforuseinclassrooms andalsoforself-study.Thus,thebookiswritteninanaccessiblemannerto encouragereaderstodevelopdeepunderstandingonthesubjectmatter,by linkingupscientificknowledge,establishedfacts,latestreal-worlddata,and viewpointsonbiojetfuels.
Inadditiontostudentsandresearchers,theauthorsareexpectingthis book, BiojetFuelinAviationApplications:Production,UsageandImpact ofBiofuels,willalsoappealacademicspreparingfornewcoursestousherin theageofsustainablefuels,governmentofficialsinchargeofenergyand environmentalpolicies,industrialplayersdesiringthekeep-upwiththekey knowledgeaboutthefutureofaviationfuels,andgeneralpublicwithan inquisitivemind.
Bookorganizationbychapter Theauthorsarrangedthechaptersinalogicalmannertobringreaders throughajourneyofunderstandingtherationalebehindtheriseofbiojet fuelaroundtheworld,followedbythebulktechnoeconomicalconcerns, andculminatinginitssustainabilityimpactsonplanetEarth.Thefollowing paragraphsprovideinsightsontheensuingchapters:
Chapter1 addressesthebiojetfuelpolicies,legislations,initiatives,and roadmapsforglobalaviation.Inthischapter,readerswilllearnaboutthe
simultaneouseffortsbyindividualgovernmentsaroundtheworldto decarbonisetheirdomesticaviationsectorandhowtheycombinedtheir effortsforinternational flightsthroughtheCarbonOffsetandReduction SchemeforInternationalAviation(CORSIA).Themarket-basedmeasures, mandates,fuelstandards,initiatives,reportingtools,andlegallybinding commitmentsallsynergisticallyhelptosupportthetop-downdevelopment ofthebiojetfuelindustry.
Theprimarygoalof Chapter2 istoprovidereaders firmgrasponthe productionmethods,primarilycategorizedasoil-to-jet,alcohol-to-jet,gasto-jet,andsugar-to-jetmethods.Eachofthebroadercategoriescontains productionpathways,manyofwhichpertainingtotheASTMD7566 approvedpathways.Thechapteralsodiscusseshowthecurrentbiojet productionprocesseshavedevelopedtoimprovetheiryieldsandwhere theyareinthetechnologymaturitycurve.
Chapter3 highlightsthecharacteristicsofbiojetfuelthatdistinguishit fromconventionaljetaviationfuel.Thiscoversthetypicalchemical composition,physicochemicalproperties,andtheircompatibilitywith present-dayaviationsectorinfrastructureandusageinjetengines.Readers willunderstandthesignificanceofthe “drop-in” requirementofbiojetfuel inblendswithfossiljetfuel.
Thistiesinwith Chapter4 wheretheneatandblendedbiojetfuel performancesundercombustionarethekeyfocuses.Themechanismsof biojetfuelspray,combustion,andemissionsformationarefundamentally discussedandvalidatedbyresearchdata.Thisiscomplementedbythe myriadof flighttestsconductedaroundtheworldusingthevariousbiojet fuels.
Chapter5 emphasizesontheeconomicsofbiojetfuelandidentifiesthe practicalfactorsaffectingthesupply demandscenariosuchascrudeoil prices,biojetfuelproductioncosts,feedstockprices,taxation,andsubsidies. Inadditiontoeconomicconcerns,theavailabilityoffeedstocksandbarriers tocommercializationarealsohighlighted.Thechapteralsoplaced importanceonthepostpandemiccostissuesandtherecentdevelopmentof pricediscoveryforbiojetfuel.
The finalchapter, Chapter6,providesanoverviewofpertinentissues pertainingsustainabilityandenergybalanceviaalifecycleassessment(LCA) methodology.Thisisaugmentedwithaholisticviewusinganenergy water food(EWF)nexusapproachtoresourcemanagement.Thetrue impactsofbiojetfuelarefullyelucidatedinthischapter.
Consistentchapterorganization Whilethebookisintendedtobereadinthearrangedorder,theauthors purposefullywroteeachchapterinaself-containedmanner.Thisallows readerstoapproachthechaptersinanyorderandwillstillgainthesame insightsasthosefaithfullyfollowingthechaptersasintended.Withineach chapters,thestructureorderstartswithageneralintroduction,followedby themaincontentswhichcoverthemostsalientinformation,andending withachaptersummarytoprovidereaderswiththetake-homemessages. Eachchapterusesnumeroustablesand figuresinterspersedwithtextto providedataforcomparison,revealtrends,summarizeconcepts,illustrate concepts,andsupportconclusions.
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Acknowledgments Theauthorswouldliketothankandacknowledgethecontributionsof Elsevieranditsstafffortheprofessionalsupportprovidedinthepreparation ofthisbook.Inparticular,wewouldwantduerecognitiontobegivento CarrieBolger,AcquisitionEditor,whoprovidedguidanceduringthebook proposalstageleadingtotheprojectbeingapproved;AleksandraPackowska,EditorialProjectManager,whoprovidedtop-notchprofessional supportandencouragementthroughoutthewritingprocess;Rajaganapathy EssakiPandyan,PayeeInformationManager,andKavithaBalasundram, CopyrightsCoordinator,forsheddinglightonpublishing-relatedmatters.
Wewouldalsoliketoexpressourappreciationtothebookproposal andmanuscriptreviewers.Theirremarksandcommentshelpustogain focusonthetopicstowriteandalsoimprovethequalityofthebook.
Finally,wewouldalsowanttoconveyheartfeltthankstoourfamily, Stella,HoeJayandChenXi(ChengTungChong)andWongMinhChjiat IsabelleandEinsteinNgGiNeer(Jo-HanNg)fortheircontinuedpatience, abundanceinsupport,andunconditionallovethroughoutthisproject.
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
CHAPTER1 GlobalAviationandBiojetFuel Policies,Legislations,Initiatives, andRoadmaps 1.1Introduction Emissionsfromaviationcontributeto2.0%ofthetotalglobalCO2 emissions.Whiletheproportionisrelativelysmallcomparedwithother formsoftransport,airtravelpercapitaemissionsisamongthehighestwith aviationcontributingto12%ofCO2 fromalltransportsources.Also worryingisthereleaseofemissionsathigheraltitudesascomparedwith otherpollutionmethods,leadingtogreaterglobalwarmingeffects.
Policiesandlegislationsregardingbiojetfuelwillplaykeyrolesin shapingtheindustryandsteerthemarketadoptionofthealternative aviationfueltosupplantitsfossilcounterparts.Favorablepoliciescouldbe introducedtoprovide financialincentivestoattractinvestmentintothe nascentmarket,whilelegislationswillprovidemandatesforlegallybinding commitments.Theyarefrequentlycombinedwhengovernmentsneedto encourageandregulateanewsectorofnationalimportance.
Comprehensiveregulatoryframeworkforbiojetfuelsatinternational andnationallevelsiscrucialtoimproveenergysecurity,improveenvironmentalsustainability,growthesectorforeconomicwell-being,linking upstakeholdersandresolvetechnicaldifficulties.Itwillimprovethe chancesofbreakingstatusquoandprovideasmoothpathtowardthemass adoptionofbiojetfuelfortheaviationindustry.
1.2Global InternationalCivilAgencyOrganization 1.2.1CarbonOffsetandReductionSchemeforInternational Aviation
Fromthe2%oftotalglobalCO2 emissions,internationalaviationemissions accountfor1.3%oftheglobalCO2 emissions,whiledomesticaviation contributestotheother0.7%(DeaneandPye,2018).Theformerfalls
BiojetFuelinAviationApplications ISBN978-0-12-822854-8
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822854-8.00004-4
undertheresponsibilityoftheInternationalCivilAgencyOrganization (ICAO)as flightscrossinternationalboundaries,whilethelatterisreported undertheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (UNFCCC)withtheresponsibilitiesheldbythecountriescoveredunder theframework.Assuch,emissionsproducedfromtheinternationalaviation categoryarenotincludedundertheParisAgreement’sNationallyDeterminedContributions(NDCs).
ICAOisinfluentialontheglobalstagesinceitsinceptionin1944under theChicagoConvention,ithasgrowntohave193contractingstates agreeingtomultilateralconventions.Inthe1970s,ICAOtackledaviationrelatedenvironmentalissuesthroughtheCommitteeonAircraftNoise (CAN)andCommitteeonAircraftEngineEmissions(CAEE),whichwere formedin1970and1977,respectively(ICAO,2019f).Thesetechnical committeesoftheICAOcouncilthendevelopedStandardsandRecommendedPractices(SARPs)todealwithaircraftnoiseandcontrolofaircraft engineemissions,whichwereparkedunderSARPsAnnex16.In1983, theCommitteeonAviationEnvironmentalProtection(CAEP)wasformed tomergeandsupersedebothCANandCAEE.TheCAEPfocuseson boththeoriginalaimsofCAN(foraircraftnoise)andCAEE(foraircraft emissions),whicharethencombinedforamoregeneralcoverageofaviation environmentalimpacts.
FuelrequirementsarespecifiedintheSARPsAnnex6,ofwhichthe varioussovereignnationalaviationauthoritiesorregulatingauthoritiescould adjusttobettermatchtheneedsandcharacteristicsoftheirairspace.Statesare expectedtoundertakemeasurestocomplytothestandardportionofthe SARPsorimmediately fileadifferenceiftheyimplementanydeviation, whilebeingrecommendedonthebestpracticesfortheRecommended PracticeoftheSARPs.ThefocusoftheSARPswithrespecttofuelcovers primarilyonmatterssuchassufficiencytocomplete flights,fuelcontingency requirements,in-flightfuelchecks,andfuelemergencysituation.The SARPsdonotspecifybiojetfuelsperse.Ultimately,theSARPsonly concernthemselveswith flightoperating-relatedStateSafetyProgrammes (SSP)andSafetyManagementSystems(SMS)byserviceproviders.
However,toaddresstheannualincreaseintotalglobalCO2 emissions, ICAOadoptedaglobalcarbon-offsetschemeinOctober2016for nondomesticaviationundertheCarbonOffsetandReductionSchemefor InternationalAviation(CORSIA).CORSIAisformedunderWorking Group4(WG4)ofCAEP.Underthescheme,aircraftoperatorsoperating withinsigneecountriesareencouragedtooffsettheiremissionsagainstthe
averagelevelofinternationalaviationCO2 emissionsfortheyears2019and 2020.Aircraftoperatorsarerequiredtomonitoremissionsonallinternational flightroutesandoffsetemissionsbypurchasingeligibleemissions units.Theeligibleemissionsunitsneedtobegeneratedbyemissions reductionprojectsinothersectorssuchastherenewableenergysector.This meantthatbiojetaviationfuelcouldgenerateeligibleemissionsunitsused forcarbonoffsetting.
Thisrepresentsthebasisforcarbonneutralgrowthfrom2020onward, wherethebaselineissetforcomparisonagainstfutureyears(ICAO,2020a). ThedifferencebetweentheinternationalaviationCO2 emissionsas coveredbytheschemeandtheaveragebaselineemissionsofyears2019and 2020willrepresenttherequiredsectoroffsetinanyyearfrom2021onward.Thecarbonoffsetscanbeobtainedfromeitheremissionstrading schemeortheCleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM)asdefinedin Article12oftheKyotoProtocol.
Sixty-ninestates(asofMay24,2017)havestatedtheirintentionto voluntarilyparticipateintheschemefromtheoutset.Whiletheyrepresent morethan87%ofinternationalaviationactivities(DeaneandPye,2018), notablecountriessuchasIndiaandRussiaarenotcoveredunderCORSIA. Thispilotphasewillapplyfrom2021through2023.Thesubsequent first phaseandsecondphasewillapplyfrom2024through2026andfrom2027 through2035,respectively.Alongsidestatesvolunteeringinthepilotphase, additionalstatesmayalsooptintoparticipateinthe firstphase.All EuropeanUnion(EU)countrieswilljointheschemefromtheonset.The secondphaseismademandatoryforstateshavinganindividualshareof internationalaviationactivitiesonthebasisofrevenueton-kilometers (RTK)above0.5%oftotalRTKsin2018orislistedunderthecumulativeshare(fromhighesttolowest)ofRTKupto90%oftotalRTK. Exceptionsaregiventoleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs),smallisland developingstates(SIDSs),andlandlockeddevelopingcountries(LLDCs), althoughtheyareallowedtovoluntarilyparticipateinthesecondphase.
Fig.1.1 showsthestatesimplementingCORSIA(Openairlines,2018). Duringthe15-yearperiodof2021 35,CORSIAisenvisionedtooffset about80%oftotalemissionsabove2020levels.
1.2.2SustainableAviationFuels ICAOrecognizessustainableaviationfuels(SAFs)asanimportantelement toreduceaviationemissionsandalsotoeventuallyensurethesuccessof
Voluntarystates (from2021) IntegrationofCORSIA(in 2027)
Potentially exempt states
Figure1.1 StatesimplementingCORSIA. CORSIA,CarbonOffsetandReduction SchemeforInternationalAviation. (AdaptedfromOpenairlines,2018.CORSIA:Who NeedstoBeParticipatingintheScheme?. https://blog.openairlines.com/corsia-who-needsto-be-participating.)
CORSIA.Thisincludesappreciatingtheimportanceofbiojetfuel(under thegeneralumbrellaofalternativefuels)andurgesmemberstatestotake dueaccountofICAOpoliciesandguidanceonemissionsrelatedto environmentalprotectionandclimatechangeunderICAOResolution A38-18(ICAO,2013).AfurtherresolutionbyICAOunderResolution A40-18bytheICAOAssemblyalsoacknowledgestheneedtodevelop SAFinaneconomically,socially,andenvironmentallysustainablemanner. StatesarerequestedbyICAOtoassessthesustainabilityofallalternative fuelsforuseinaviation,wheretheyshouldachievenetgreenhousegas (GHG)emissionsreductiononalifecyclebasisandworktogetherthrough ICAOandotherrelevantinternationalbodiestoexchangeinformationand bestpracticesonthesustainabilityofalternativefuelsforaviation.ICAO alsopursuesthreekeyprogramswithregardtoSAF,namelytheICAO GlobalFrameworkforAviationAlternativeFuels(GFAAF),the2050 ICAOVision,andtheICAOStocktakingProcess(ICAO,2020b).
TheICAOGFAAFwasformulatedasthethentangibleproductofthe 2009ICAOConferenceonAviationAlternativeFuels.TheGFAAFisan onlinedatabasecontaininginformation,projects,andnewsannouncements ofaviationfuelsdatingbackto2005.Whilestatesandstakeholderscanshare
relevantinformationwithICAOthroughthisportal,italsoservesasecondaryfunctionofbeingabletokeeptabsoftheprogressofalternativefuels inaviationthroughState’sactionplansandworkwith financialinstitutions tofacilitate financingofalternativefuelprojectstoovercomeinitialmarket hurdles.Alivefeedoftheongoingalternativefuelpurchaseagreements inclusiveofbatchdeliveryandongoingdeliveriesthroughofftakeagreement isshownontheGFAAFportal,althoughitdoesnotnecessarilyequatetothe quantityofalternativefuelusedon flights.Thisisduetothegapininformationregardingtheairports’ fuelblendingprocedures.Nonetheless,itisa goodproxyoftheSAFactivitiesforairlinesandairports.
ICAOalsoinitiatedthe2050ICAOVisionforSustainableAviation Fuelduringthe2017editionoftheICAOConferenceonAviationand AlternativeFuels(CAAF/2)inMexico(ICAO,2018).Thevisionistohave stakeholderswithintheinternationalaviationsectortooperate flightsusing asignificantproportionofSAFby2050.TheuptakeofSAFisestablished tobeakeycontributortomeetICAO’sclimateobjectivesandalsoallow theaviationsectortocontributein13outofthe17UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).AsacorollarytotheincreaseinSAF usage,internationalcivilaviationshouldalsoreducecarbonemissions significantly.ThevisionalsotiesinwiththeGFAAFwherestakeholdersare expectedunderthevisiontocontinuouslyupdatetheportal.The2050 ICAOVisionalsoidentifieskeystepstomeetthevisionwhichincludethe
• roleofICAOasafacilitatortosupportstatestodevelopanddeploy SAF;
• developmentofguidancematerialsdescribingthedrop-innatureof SAFs;
• supportfromstatestoapprovenewconversionprocesses;
• supportfromstatestodevelopandimplementstablepoliciestofacilitate deploymentofSAF;
• evaluationofpolicyeffectivenessthroughqualitativemetricsbystates;
• evaluationandfacilitationoffundingsourcestoimplementSAFs;and
• collaborativeinitiativesamongstatesalongsideindustriestoreducethe pricegapbetweenSAFandconventionalaviationfuels.
Itshould,however,benotedthatthe2050ICAOVisionwillnotseta precedentorprejudgetheperiodicreviewofCORSIAasstatedunder paragraph18ofAssemblyResolutionA39-3.
ThethirdmajorinitiativeonSAFistheICAOStocktakingProcesswhich stemmedfromadecisionmadeduringCAAF/2.Thestocktakingexercisehas theobjectiveofassessingtheSAFdevelopmentanddeploymentprogress.
Duringthe firstICAOStocktakingProcessheldfromApril30,2019toMay1, 2019inCanada,thestocktakingprocesswasconductedthroughthemeansofa simplequestionnaire,whichrequiresinformationonconductedprojects, projectpartners,projectduration,feedstockused,feedstockorigin,amountof aviationfuelproduced,andiftheSAFhasbeencertifiedbyanySustainable CertificationScheme(SCS).
Theself-reportedstocktakingdatawillcomplementenvironmental trendsanalysistoprovideanoverallpictureoftheimpactsofSAFonthe aviationindustryandalsoenvironmentatlarge.Inadditiontoassessingthe progressofSAFdevelopmentanddeployment,theaggregateddatacanalso beusedtosteerpoliticalupdatesformemberstates,provideconfidencefor financialinstitutionstosupportSAFprojects,matchprovidersand requestorsofassistance,andcompilethedataforoutreachpurposestodispel thenotionofSAFcompetitionwithfoodandwater.
1.2.3CORSIAEligibleFuels TheCAEPthroughFuelsTaskGroup(FTG),whichisoneofthe11 groupswithCAEPmembership,istaskedtodeveloptheprocessesand methodologiestodefinewhatqualifiesasSAFunderCORSIA,ormore preciselyCORSIAeligiblefuel(CEF).ThisisrequestedunderICAO AssemblyResolutionA39-3anddefinedinthecontextofCORSIA, Annex16,VolumeIV.Bothrenewableandfossil-basedaviationfuelshave thepotentialtobeaCEF.TheCORSIAsustainableaviationfuelreferstoa renewableorwaste-derivedaviationfuelthatmeetstheCORSIASustainabilityCriteria,whiletheCORSIAlowercarbonaviationfuelisthe counterpartforfossil-basedaviationfuels(ICAOSecretariat,2019).The focusisonsustainabilitycriteriaandlifecyclemethodologies.
ToensurethattheCEFmeetstheCORSIASustainabilityCriteria, SustainabilityCertificationSchemes(SCSs)aredevelopedbyICAOto conductthesustainabilitycertificationprocess.ThecurrentCORSIASustainabilityCriteriaspecifyingthesustainabilitycriteriarequiredtobecertified asaCEFisvalidthroughtheendoftheCORSIApilotphasein2023.Once afuelisdeemedtobeaCEF,itslifecycleemissionsvalue(LSf)isevaluated, andtheirdefaultvaluesarelistedinthe “CORSIADefaultLifeCycle EmissionsValuesforCORSIAEligibleFuels” document.
Table1.1 showstheassignedCORSIAdefaultlifecycleemissionsvalues forthe16feedstocksevaluatedtohavethepotentialtobeaCEF(ICAO, 2019c).TheLSf indicatestheexpectedCO2-equivalentreductionfromthe
Table1.1 FeedstockswithpotentialtobeCORSIAeligiblefuelwiththeirCORSIAdefaultlifecycleemissionsvalue.
useofaCEFduetothesustainablefuelconversionpathway,production region,feedstocktype,landsizeusage,andthetypeoflandused.The generalguidingprincipleisforwaste,residue,orby-producttoonlyconsider thecorelifecycleassessment(LCA)valueastheLSf,whereastheothercases willrequiretheadditionalindirectlandusagechange(ILUC)tobefactored intheLSf value.
SomeoftheILUCvaluesarenegative,whichmeansthatadditional carbonsequestrationwillbelargeroverallthantheassociatedcarbon emissionsfromlandusechanges.TheuseofnegativeILUCvaluesisapoint ofcontentionasitissaidtointroducepossibleoptimismbias.Thisis compoundedbytheCAEP’sdecisiontobaseILUCvaluesusingthelower valueofthecompetingmodelsofGTAP-BIOandGLOBIOMmodels favoredbytheUSandEUdelegations,respectively.Itshouldbenotedthat the finalvaluesusedareobtainedthroughtheprocessofmodelreconciliationinsteadoftakinganyparticularmodelasthebase.Itisstillanopen pointofdebateifthevaluesusedbyCAEPforCORSIAaredueto modelingimprovementorthestancetoadoptamorebiojetfuel-positive approach.Usingthispointofcontentionasthebackdrop,areviewwill beconductedattheendofthepilotphasetodetermineifnegativeILUC valuesshouldbeallowed.
ItshouldalsobenotedthatthedefaultLSf valuescanbechallengedby fuelproducersbyusingthecalculationmethodologiesstatedunderthe “CORSIAMethodologyforCalculatingActualLifeCycleEmissions Values” documentapprovedinNovember2019(ICAO,2019d).Usingthe specifiedmethodologyandproofoftechnicalinformation,fuelproducers areallowedthelibertytodefinealowerLSf valuesthanthatofthedefault value.Thisisalsoparticularlyusefulforfuelproducersiftheirfuelproductionpathwaydoesnotyethaveadefaultcorelifecyclevalue.
AsperthemethodologysetbytheCORSIApolicy,fuelproducers needtodeterminetheCEFemissionsreductions(ERy)using Eq.(1.1) (ICAO,2019b):
wherethesubscript y denotestheyear,subscript f referstothefueltype, FCF isthe fixedvaluefuelconversionfactor, MS denotesthemassof CEF claimed,and LC referstothe fixedvaluebaselinelifecycleemissions.
The fixedvaluesforFCFare3.16kgCO2/kgfuelforJet-A/Jet-A1and 3.10kgCO2/kgfuelforAvGas/Jet-B.TheLCsforjetfuelandAvGasare 89and95gCO2e/MJ,respectively.
1.2.4CORSIACentralRegistry TheCORSIACentralRegistry(CCR)keepsthreekeysetsofinformation nestedunderthe “CORSIACentralRegistry:InformationandDataforthe ImplementationofCORSIA.” Asstatedfromthetitle,thedocuments servetoprovideimportantinformationtosupporttheimplementationof CORSIA.The firstamongthethreedocumentsisthe “CORSIA2020 Emissions” wherethetotalCO2 emissionsarisingfrominternational aviationin2020willbepublished.ThisisrelevanttobiojetfuelasitsefficacyinreducingCO2 equivalentemissionsundertheCORSIAprogram canbegauged.However,itwillbeinterestingtoseebyhowmuchthe CO2 emissionswilldecreaseastheglobalCOVID-19pandemic,whichhas its firstwavepeakedin2020.Thepandemichasallbutdecimatedthe passengersubsectoroftheaviationindustry.TheexpectedlowCO2 emissionsin2020willskewthedataforfuturecomparison.Itwillbe prudenttochalkoffemissionsreductionfrom2020asaone-offoutlier ratherthanbeingpartoftheunderlyingtrend.AsCORSIAwillonlystart itspilotphasein2021,thereisnoreporttobemadeavailableuntilthe secondhalfof2021.
Thesecondkeydocumentisthe “CORSIAAeroplaneOperatortoState Attributions.” Thisisnotdirectlylinkedtobiojetfuelsasitonlystatesthe airplaneoperatorname,theattributionmethod,andtheidentifierforeach carrier.ThecurrentthirdeditionofthedocumentpublishedinDecember 2019providesinformationon690airplaneoperatorsfrom122states.
Thethirddocumentisthe “CORSIAAnnualSector’sGrowthFactor (SGF). ” The fi rsteditionofthedocumentisenvisionedtobepublishedin 2022,midwaythroughthepilotstageofCORSIA.Priortotheglobal pandemic,theFebruary2019estimatedSGFfrom2021to2035was expectedtorisefrom6%in2021to38%in2035asshownin Fig.1.2 (ICAO,2019a).
Theprepandemicsectoroutlookwasoptimisticatacompounded annualgrowthrateof4.3%intermsofrevenuepassenger-kilometerswith Africahavingthemostpotentialforgrowthduetoitsemergingindustrial sectorandlargedevelopingpopulation.TheSouthEastAsian(SEA)region wasalsoexpectedtoseerapidgrowthduetotheboominlow-costcarriers,
Figure1.2 Estimatedsectorgrowthfactor(SGF)from2021to2035. (Adaptedfrom ICAO,2019a.CommitteeonAviationEnvironmentalProtection(CAEP). https://www.icao. int/environmental-protection/CORSIA/Do cuments/CAEP_Analysis%20on%20the%20estimation%20of%20CO2%20emissions% 20reductions%20and%20costs%20from%20 CORSIA.pdf .)
growingmiddleclass,andeffortstoliberalizeairtrafficregulations.Itisalso intheSEAregionwherebiojetfuelcouldpotentiallytakeastrongholdas thesecountriessuchasMalaysiaandIndonesiaarerichwithpalmoilas feedstockandthePhilippineswithcoconutoilaspotentialfeedstock.The suddenandrapidcontractionoftheaviationindustrywillimpactgrowthof theoverallsectorandalsothebiojetfuelindustry.
ICAOalsofrequentlyupdatesthe “CORSIACentralRegistry(CCR): InformationandDataforTransparency” listingofverificationbodies accreditedinmemberstates.InthelatestApril2020sixthedition,40verificationbodiesfrom17statesareaccreditedandlisted.TheUnitedStatesand Chinaleadthelistwitheightandsixverificationbodies,respectively.These verificationbodiescanconductverificationsforcarbonoffsettingandGHG inventoryreportsundertheCORSIAscheme.Thenumberofverification bodiesisexpectedtogrowsubstantiallyasnotallvoluntarymemberstatesof CORSIAhaveaccreditedverificationbodies.Infact,inthe firsteditionof
thedocumentinMay2019,therewereonly22accreditedverification bodiesfromsevenmemberstates.Theadditionofaccreditedverification bodieswillmakeitmoreefficientforstakeholdersofCORSIAtosubmit verifiedreportsandforICAOtodetermineifthebiojetfuelsentering theaviationindustryactuallyhelptoachievecarbonneutralgrowth.A summaryofCORSIA-relatedreportingrequiredfortheCCRcanbefound in Table1.2.CO2 emissionsandCEFwillbereported.
1.2.5CORSIACO2 EstimationandReportingTool UnderCORSIA,airplaneoperatorswithinvoluntarymemberstatesare requiredtoreporttheCO2 emissionsorestimatedCO2 generated.The CORSIACO2 EstimationandReportingTool(CERT)existstohelp airplaneoperatorstogenerateasummaryassessmentforairlineoperators withrelatively “lower” levelsofactivities.Thisisforaircraftoperatorsto fulfillthemonitoringandreportingrequirementsinaccordancewithICAO Annex16,VolumeIV,PartII,Chapter2,2.2.1andAppendix3.
CERTcontainsasetofequationsfortheestimationofCO2 emissions basedontheGreatCircleDistanceorBlockTimeforagivenaircrafttype (ICAO,2019e).CERTusesitsstandardizedemissionsmonitoringplanand emissionsreporttoassesseligibilitytoutilisethefuelusemonitoring methods,assessthescopeapplicabilityofmonitoring,reporting,andverification(MRV)requirements,andhelpto fillinanyCO2 emissionsdata gaps.Thelastofthethreeisthemostpertinentasdataareoftendifficultto comebyandtoestimate.CERTitselfreferstoICAO’saircraftdatabase, locationindicators,aircrafttypedesignators,andfuelformula.Italsorefers totheEuropeanUnionAviationSafetyAgency(EASA) approvednoise levelbymaximumtake-offmass(MTOM).
ThereisnospecificcategoryforbiojetfuelsunderCERT,butbiojet fuelsthatmeetthestandards(forexample,Jet-A1)canbeincludedas equivalentfuel.Theundifferentiatedcategorizationofbiojetfuelpossibly stemmedfromthepresentdrop-infuelmechanismwherebiojetfuel meetingthestandardscannotbedifferentiatedpostblendingwithfossilbasedaviationfuel.Sincetheyhavethesameorsimilarproperties,the emissionsarisingfromthecombustionofeitherfuelwillalsobecomparable.Furthermore,thecategorizationofbiojetfuelasequivalentfuelis practicalastheCERTismeanttobeasimplifiedtooltoeasilyestimate CO2 emissionslevels.
