Listofcontributors
MuhammadAfzal
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
OmarAmin
MechanicalEngineering,AinShamsUniversity,Cairo,Egypt
AyodejiEmmanuelAmobonye
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,FacultyofAppliedSciences,Durban UniversityofTechnology,Durban,SouthAfrica
ChristianaEleojoAruwa
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,FacultyofAppliedSciences,Durban UniversityofTechnology,Durban,SouthAfrica;DepartmentofMicrobiology,Schoolof Sciences,FederalUniversityofTechnology,Akure,Nigeria
FarrukhAzeem
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
PrashantBhagwat
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,FacultyofAppliedSciences,Durban UniversityofTechnology,Durban,SouthAfrica
AndyM.Booth
SINTEFOcean,Trondheim,Norway
OddGunnarBrakstad SINTEFOcean,Trondheim,Norway
VijayChaudhary
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
ParthaPratimDas
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India;DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandMetallurgical Engineering,IndianInstituteofTechnologyHyderabad,Sangareddy,Telangana,India
SherifaElHady
IndustrialEngineering,SESCCentre,NileUniversity,Cairo,Egypt
AmalElhussieny
IndustrialEngineering,SESCCentre,NileUniversity,Cairo,Egypt
IreneSamyFahim
IndustrialEngineering,SESCCentre,NileUniversity,Cairo,Egypt
SanjeevGautam
AdvancedCentreforPolymerScience,DepartmentofChemistry,NetajiSubhasUniversityof Technology,Delhi,India
PallavGupta
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
SumitGupta
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
SigridHakva ˚ g
SINTEFOcean,Trondheim,Norway
MuhammadH.Hasan
DepartmentofMechanicalandIndustrialEngineering,RyersonUniversity,Toronto,Canada
Md.EnamulHoque
DepartmentofBiomedicalEngineering,MilitaryInstituteofScienceandTechnology(MIST), Dhaka,Bangladesh
MuhammadImran
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,COMSATSInstituteofInformationTechnology, Islamabad,Pakistan
HabibulIslam
DepartmentofBiomedicalEngineering,MilitaryInstituteofScienceandTechnology(MIST), Dhaka,Bangladesh
HiraKanwal
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
M.MahfuzaKhatun
DeptartmentofGeneticEngineeringandBiotechnology,BangabandhuSheikhMujibur RahmanMaritimeUniversity,Dhaka,Bangladesh
Khushbu
DepartmentofAppliedChemistry,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India
StephanKubowicz
SINTEFIndustry,Oslo,Norway
AmitKumar
DepartmentofChemistry,DayalSinghCollege,UniversityofDelhi,India
LakhanKumar
DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India
Meenu
MalaviyaNationalInstituteofTechnologyJLNMarg,Jaipur,Rajasthan,India
MankeshwarKumarMishra
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
SaimaMuzammil
DepartmentofMicrobiology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad,Faisalabad,Punjab, Pakistan
HabibullahNadeem
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
ShubhamPant
ElectrochemicalProcessEngineeringDivision,CSIR-CentralElectrochemicalResearch Institute(CECRI),Karaikudi,TamilNadu,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch (AcSIR) CSIR,Ghaziabad,UttarPradesh,India
SanthoshPillai
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,FacultyofAppliedSciences,Durban UniversityofTechnology,Durban,SouthAfrica
Md.ZillurRahman
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AhsanullahUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Dhaka,Bangladesh
ManviriRani
MalaviyaNationalInstituteofTechnologyJLNMarg,Jaipur,Rajasthan,India
IjazRasul
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
JustynaRybak
WrocławUniversityofScienceandTechnology,FacultyofEnvironmentalEngineering,Wroclaw, Poland
AnuradhaSaha
DepartmentofAppliedSciences,GalgotiasCollegeofEngineering&Technology,GreaterNoida, UttarPradesh,India
AnjanaSarkar
DepartmentofChemistry,NetajiSubhasUniversityofTechnology,NewDelhi,India
UmaShanker
DepartmentofChemistry,Dr.BRAmbedkarNationalInstituteofTechnologyJalandhar, Jalandhar,Punjab,India
AmitKumarSharma
DepartmentofChemistry,RamjasCollege,UniversityofDelhi,UniversityEnclave,Delhi,India
BhashaSharma
DepartmentofChemistry,ShivajiCollege,UniversityofDelhi,India
ReetuSharma
DepartmentofChemistry,NetajiSubhasUniversityofTechnology,NewDelhi,India
ShreyaSharma
DepartmentofChemistry,NetajiSubhasUniversityofTechnology,NewDelhi,India
ShashankShekhar
DepartmentofChemistry,NetajiSubhasUniversityofTechnology,NewDelhi,India
MuhammadHussnainSiddique
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
AshokSingh
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Amity University,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
HarjeetSingh
GuruNanakDevInstituteofTechnology,DelhiSkillandEntrepreneurUniversity,Delhi,India
SurenSingh
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,FacultyofAppliedSciences,Durban UniversityofTechnology,Durban,SouthAfrica
AgnieszkaStojanowska
WrocławUniversityofScienceandTechnology,FacultyofEnvironmentalEngineering,Wroclaw, Poland
PrakashChanderThapliyal
AdvancedStructuralCompositesandDurabilityGroup,CSIR-CentralBuildingResearch Institute,Roorkee,Uttarakhand,India
RaviBabuValapa
ElectrochemicalProcessEngineeringDivision,CSIR-CentralElectrochemicalResearch Institute(CECRI),Karaikudi,TamilNadu,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch (AcSIR) CSIR,Ghaziabad,UttarPradesh,India
SudhirG.Warkar
DepartmentofAppliedChemistry,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India
FarhadZeynalli
WrocławUniversityofScienceandTechnology,FacultyofEnvironmentalEngineering,Wroclaw, Poland
MuhammadZubair
DepartmentofBioinformaticsandBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
Lifecycleassessmentand environmentalimpactofplastic waste 1
ParthaPratimDas1, 2,AshokSingh2,MankeshwarKumarMishra2,VijayChaudhary2, SumitGupta2
andPallavGupta2
1DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandMetallurgicalEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnologyHyderabad, Sangareddy,Telangana,India; 2DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmitySchoolofEngineeringandTechnology, AmityUniversity,Noida,UttarPradesh,India
Introduction
Expandingenvironmentalconsciousnesstoachieveproductsustainabilityhasencouragedimpressive effortstousemoreenvironmentallyfriendlyproductsinproductdesigns(Ahmadetal.,2020; Chaudharyetal.,2018; Das & Chaudhary,2020; Dasetal.,2021).Crudeoilisrecognizedgloballyasa keyunsustainablesourceofcarbondioxide(CO2)andmethane(CH4)concentrationsworldwidethat haslargelysurpassednaturalconsumptionlevels(Huber,2004; Pretty & Bharucha,2018).Most plasticsusedtodayaremadefromcrudeoilandotherfossilfuels,includingnaturalgasandcoal. Moreover,theirpredictedlives,andthustheirenvironmentalperseverance,arefarfromcertain.Ofthe problemsofresourcedepletion,CO2 fromfossilfuelcombustionshouldalsobeconsidered.This undoubtedlyandsignificantlyaffectsglobalwarming,whichcouldhavefuturesocietal,economic,and environmentaleffectsifitisnotaddressed.Alistofpropertiesshouldbeconsideredforengineersto designproductsaccordingtorigidity,strength,density,andworkingtemperaturetoensurethatthe materialchosenbestfitstheintentandrespectiveproductiontechnology(Manraletal.,2020).Sucha listmustalsoresolvepossibleenvironmentalconcernsconcerningenergyefficiency,pollution emissions,andrecycling(Chaudhary & Ahmad,2020; Das & Chaudhary,2021a).Aproductdesign focusingonenvironmentalissueswilluselessenvironmentallydamagingproductsandchoosecleaner manufacturingprocesses(Knight & Jenkins,2009; Roy,2000; Tsoulfas & Pappis,2006).Asaresultof suchdesigns,dangerousandharmfulproductswouldbeavoided,andenergyefficiencyinprocessing wouldbesimultaneouslymaximized.Designconsiderationsalsoincludetheuse,management,and recyclingoftheproduct(Das & Chaudhary,2021c).
Lifecycleassessment(LCA),asshownin Fig.1.1,isavaluabletoolforcreatingproductstosolve environmentalproblems.Itisacomprehensivemethodtodeterminetheoverallenvironmentalimpact andaclearstructureforminimizingthem(Arenaetal.,2003; Guetal.,2017; Zhaoetal.,2009).
FIGURE1.1
Stepsoflifecycleassessment.
Lifecycleassessment
Definitionoflifecycleassessment
ISO14040:2006describesLCAas“compilingandassessment,overtheentirelifecycle,oftheinputs, outputsandpossibleimpactsontheenvironmentgeneratedbyaproductivesystem,”asshownin Fig.1.2.LCAcanbeintroducedtoestimatetheeffectofafinalproductbyconsideringtheimpactsof resourceproductionoveritsentirelifecycle.LCAsupportsthedesignandevaluationoftechnological solutionsusedinthemanufacturingphasetomitigateimpactsfrommanufacturing,use,andend-oflifeperiods(Pryshlakivsky & Searcy,2013; ISO,2006).
LCAisamethodassessingtheenvironmentalimpactofacommodityoveritsentirelifespan, beginningwiththeremovaloftheEarth’srawmaterialsandendingwiththereturnofthecommodity’s wasteproductstotheEarth.LCAgathersinformationandtranslatesitintoenvironmentaleffects (usingimpactassessmentmethodologies),suchasclimatechangecontribution,smoggeneration, eutrophication,acidification,andhumanandecosystemtoxicities.Italsocoversinputsandoutputs suchaswasteandprocessresources(lifecycleinventory)(Finnvedenetal.,2009; Yarramsettyetal., 2018).
LifecycleassessmentprocedureaccordingtoISO14040.
Fateofplasticsintheenvironment
Determiningtheenvironmentalfateofmicro/nanoplasticsisinherentlydifficult,mostlyduetothe multiplicityofsourcesandentryroutesintotheenvironmentandthetimescalesnecessarytodetermine theirdegradationpathways(Wangetal.,2021).Environmentalanalysesofsmallerparticlesaremade difficultbytheirsize.Quantifyingthesematerialsisratherdifficult particularlyforsmaller-sized plastics,standardizedmethodsforsampling,unitnormalization,dataexpression,quantification,and identificationarelacking(Bergmannetal.,2016).Inaddition,aunifieddefinitionisabsentforthese materials,especiallyfornanoplastics.Microplasticshavebeenidentifiedacrosstheglobe,includingin remotelocations,fromtheArctictotheAntarctic,throughoutthewatercolumn,andfromthesurface tothedepths(benthos).Microplasticsarealsofoundinriversandlakes,agriculturalsoils,sediments, andtheatmosphereinbothindoorandoutdoorenvironments(Bootsetal.,2019; Hurleyetal.,2018; Vianelloetal.,2019; Woodalletal.,2014).Plasticsreachtheenvironmentthroughvariousroutes, particularlythemarineenvironment.Abioticorbioticprocessesmaycausetheenvironmental degradationofplastics.Suchbiodegradationrequiresabioticdegradationasthevitalfirststep.Abiotic degradationresultsinmaterialswithreducedstructuralandmechanicalintegrityandparticleswith highersurface-area-to-volumeratios,thusmakingthemmoresusceptibletomicrobialaction (Alshehrei,2017; daCostaetal.,2020).However,includingplasticsinvariousenvironmentalmatrices almostcertainlyleadstoexpandedphysical,chemical,andbiologicalinteractionswithpotential environmentalandecotoxicologicalconsequences(Palusellietal.,2018).
Movementofplastictrash:fromlandtoaquaticecosystem
Plasticisasyntheticmaterialmadefromhydrocarbonsthatcanbemoldedintosolidobjectsofnearly anyshapeorsize crackingcrudeoilresultsinvariouspetrochemicalsasthebasesforplastics.
FIGURE1.2
Plasticsincludepolyethyleneandpolypropylene(PP),synthesizedfromolefins,andmaterialssynthesizedfromaromatichydrocarbons forexample,polyamide(PA)andpolystyrene(PS,ornylon). Plasticsaretypicallysynthesizedin0.5to5mmnurdlesorsphericalpellets;thesepreproduction materialsaretransportedtofactorieswheretheyareheated,blow-molded,orextrudedintothe requiredshapefortheintendedpurpose.Currently,theplasticssectorsaredividedintopackaging, transportation,building,textiles,electronics,safety,andleisure.In2017,plasticproductionapproximated348milliontonsworldwide.Plasticshavereplacedheavierandmoreexpensivematerialssuch asglass,steel,andaluminum.Plasticscomeinvariousconfigurations,dependingonthechemical buildingblocksused.TheprimarypolymerscurrentlyproducedarePP,high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE),low-densitypolyethylene,PS,polyethyleneterephthalate(PET),PA,andpolyvinylchloride (PVC)(Barnes,2019; Laskar & Kumar,2019; Vermaetal.,2016; Wagneretal.,2014).
Presently,only9%ofallplasticsmanufacturedareeverrecycled(d’Ambrie ` res,2019),whichis characteristicallyaccomplishedthroughmechanicalrecycling,orclosed-looprecycling,whichretains thechemicalstructureofrecycledmaterials,andopen-looprecycling,whereinrecycledplasticsare usedfordifferentpurposesthanthosefromwhichtheywererecovered.Mechanicalrecyclingmethods produceaslightlylower-qualityproductthanvirginplastic thisisduetothedegradationprocesses, whichresultindecreasedmaterialquality.Newrecyclingtechniquesarebeingdevelopedtoimprove recyclabilityinclosed-looprecycling;thesemethodsincludechemicalrecycling(bydissolvingthe plasticsinsolvents)andthermochemicalrecycling(pyrolysis).Twelvepercentofplasticwasteis incinerated.Afewcountriesobtainenergyfromthisburningprocesstoheathousesandproduce electricity.Globally,mostplasticisdisposedofinlandfills.Inaddition,afractionofplasticislostto theenvironmentdirectlythroughlittering,estimatedat2%oftotalplasticproduction(Geyeretal., 2017; Letcher,2020; Thiounn & Smith,2020).Themovementofplastictrashfromlandtoaquatic environmentscausesmarinedebris litterthatendsupinoceans,seas,orotherlargebodiesofwater. Thismanufacturedwasteentersthewaterinvariousways.Humansoftenleavetrashonbeachesor throwitfromboatsoroffshorefacilitiesintothewater.Occasionally,littermakesitswayintothe oceanfromland,carriedbystorms,drains,canals,orrivers.Thewindcanalsoblowtrashfrom landfillsandotherareasintothewater.Plasticproductsareveryharmfultomarinelife.Forexample, loggerheadseaturtlesoftenmistakeplasticbagsforjellyfish,theirfavoritefood.Also,manybirdsand seaanimalshavebeenchokedbytheplasticringsoftenusedtoholdsix-packsofsodatogether (Isangedighietal.,2018; Provencheretal.,2019; Schwarzetal.,2019).
Effectofplasticdumpingonaquaticecosystem
Theplasticrevolutionthatprofoundlyandrapidlyinfluencedthemaritimeindustryhasalsoproduced tellingimpactsonthemarineenvironment.Onestudydeterminedthat86%ofmanufactureddebrisin thenorthernPacificOceanisplasticmaterial.Severalvarietiesofmarinelifeareperniciouslyaffected byplasticpollution.Theplasticthreatisnowaglobalphenomenonthatafflictscrustaceans,fish, turtles,marinebirds,andmammals.Thescopeandseverityofthisthreatvarybyspeciesandthetype ofplasticinvolved.Plasticsthreatenthemarineenvironmentinvariouswaysbutprincipallythrough theentanglementofmarineanimals.Forexample,birdsthatdivebeneaththewaterfortheirpreycan becomeensnaredinthenearlyinvisibleplasticmonofilamentlinediscardedbyrecreationalfishermen. Whenthesebirdsreturntotheirnests,thelinemaysnagintreebranchesandmayevenentanglethe birds’younginsomecases.EntanglementinfishinglineshasreplacedDDTpoisoningastheprimary
causeofmortalityfortheendangeredbrownpelican.Seabirdsmaybecomeentangledinotherformsof plasticwareaswell.Plasticsix-packringscanensnarebirds,impairingtheirabilitytoflyorbreathe. Otherbirdsdrownindiscardedpiecesoffishingnetsthathavebeenleftinthesamelocationsasthe birds’prey.Entanglementinfishingnetswasestimatedin1987tocausenearlyone-thirdofthedeaths ofNorthSeagannets.Piecesofplasticfishingnetsalsopresentaseriousthreattofursealsandsea lionsinthenorthernPacificOcean.Itisthenatureofyoungsealpupstoplayindriftingnaturaldebris, suchaskelp.Forthisreason,sealpupsareattractedtodiscardedgillnetpieces,wheretheycanbecome entrapped.Thecuriosityofyoungsealsmayalsopromptthemtoinserttheirheadsthroughplastic strappingbands.Asthesealgrows,thebandtightensandslowlystranglesthecreature.Arecentstudy suggeststhatentanglementofnorthernfursealpupsmaywellbethechiefreasonfortheirdeclining population(Chae & An,2018; Derraik,2002; Pratetal.,1999; Wilber,1987).
Plasticdebrisfurtherthreatensmarinelifewhenitisaccidentallyingested;onceeaten,thedurablepropertiesofplasticpreventitfrombeingeasilydigested.Ingestedplasticparticlesoften remaininsideacreature,producingseveralharmfuleffects.Plasticdebriscanbeaccidentally ingestedinseveralways.Somespeciesofwhales,forexample,mayunintentionallyeatplasticdebris whilefeedingonschoolsoffish.Othersarethoughttoconfusetranslucentplasticbagsforthesquid onwhichtheyfeed.Autopsiesrecentlyperformedonwhaleshaverevealedabdominalinfections causedbyirritatingplasticwastes.Rawplasticpelletsareconsumedbyavarietyofsealife.Sotiny thattheyoftenescapenotice,theseparticlesareamongthemostcollectedplasticitemsintheworld’s oceans.Onesurveydiscoveredthat90%ofHawaiianalbatrosschickshadplasticpelletsintheir digestivetracts.Thechickswerelikelyfedthepelletsaftertheirparentsmistookthemforflyingfish eggs.AnotherstudyconcludedthatseveralAlaskanseabirdspeciesconsumedpelletsbecausethey resembledtheirtypicalcrustaceanprey.Ingestedplasticitemscreateavarietyofproblemsforsealife. Besidesdamagingananimal’sstomachlining,plasticsmayinhibitthesensationofhunger,thereby depressingtheanimal’sfeedingdrive.Plasticsalsomayfurnishabasetowhichtoxicchemicalssuch aspolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)andDDTcanattach.Theplasticmaterialmayalsobeasourceof chemicalsthatcoulddamagetissueorcauseeggshellthinninginseabirdsorturtles.Plasticpollution posesaseriousthreatlargelybecauseittendstoconcentrateinregionswhereabundantmarinelife exists.Likeotherfloatingdebris,plasticlitterconcentratesalong“oceanfronts”locatedatthemargins ofoceanstreamsandcontinentalshelves.Thesameprocessconcentratesplanktonandotherformsof lifeseekingshelterwithinthedebris.Thedriftingdebrisactsasakindofoasis,attractingmarine animalsinsearchofprey.Seaturtlehatchlings,whichspendtheirjuvenilestagealongoceanfronts, canunintentionallyconsumeplasticpellets.Inlaterlife,seaturtlessometimesfrequentoceanfrontsto searchforfood.Theseturtlesareknowntoingestplasticbags,whichtheymistakeforjellyfish. Becauseplasticcannotbedigested,theresultisoftenfatal(Guzzettietal.,2018; vanTruong & BeiPing,2019; Vince & Hardesty,2017).
Plasticpollutionhasseverelyaffectedthemarineenvironment.Scientistscanonlyobservethe surfaceeffectsoftheproblemsinceafflictedanimalsmaybeeatenorsinktotheseabed.Whatis importanttorealizeisthatthedurablepropertiesofplasticenableittokillrepeatedly.Marineanimals alreadythreatenedbyothermanufacturingprocessesmustnowconfrontthethreatofplasticdebris. Somevictimizedspecieshavecommercialvalue;plasticpollutionthuscarrieseconomiccostsaswell. Theconsiderableeffortsinvolvedinuntanglingfouledboatpropellersandcleaninguplitteredbeaches representadditionalcostsofplasticpollution(Duckett & Repaci,2015; LIetal.,2016; Ronkayetal., 2021; Wormetal.,2017).
Environmentalimpactofvariousplasticproducts
Plasticsaremadeupofsyntheticpolymersandarecommonlyusedtomanufacturebottles,food packaging,electronicgoods,clothing,constructionmaterials,medicalsupplies,etc.Varioususesand manufacturingofplasticsandplasticproductsstartedin1839afterPSandvulcanizedrubberwere discovered.Nowadays,environmentalpollutionbyplasticwasteisamajorenvironmentalburden, especiallyforwildlife.Phthalates,polyfluorinatedchemicals,brominatedflameretardants,andantimonytrioxidearesomeplasticconstituentswithcontraryimpactsontheenvironmentandpublic health.From1950to2018,about6.3billiontonsofplasticswereproducedworldwide,ofwhichonly 9%and12%wererecycledandburned,respectively(Barnes,2019).
PETisasmooth,transparent,andrelativelythinplastic.PETiscommonlyusedinbottlesforjuice, mouthwash,softdrinks,cosmetics,andwaterbecauseofitsantiinflammatoryandfullyliquidproperties.PETexposedtohightemperaturescanspreadtoxicadditiveslikeacetaldehyde,antimony,and phthalates.HDPE,aheat-resistantplasticmadefrompetroleum,iscommonlyassumedtobesafefor foodanddrink.PVC,aheat-resistantpolymerusedinpackagingcookingoil,fruitjuice,etc.,is assumedtobehighlytoxicbecauseofchemicalingredientsthatincludeheavymetals,phthalates,and dioxins.PVChasbeenascribedtobirthdefects,cancers,ulcers,geneticchanges,deafness,liver dysfunction,skindiseases,indigestion,andvisionfailure.PS,usedinthemanufacturingofinsulators andcoveringmedia,isapetroleumplasticthatcontainsbenzene,whichhascarcinogenic,cytogenetic, andhematologicaleffectsonhumans.Microplastics(plasticswithadiameterlessthan5mm),either manufacturedbydesignorresultingfromplasticdeterioration,aretheprimepollutantsreportedin ecosystemdegradation.Theenvironmentalreportsaysthatmostusedmicroplasticsarefromcosmetic productsandcleaningadditivesliketoothpasteandmicrobeadsinfacewashes(Agarskietal.,2019; Hahladakisetal.,2018; Rajendranetal.,2012; ISO,2006).
Approximately10%ofhouseholdwasteisplasticandismostlydisposedofonland,resultinginthe releaseoftoxicchemicalsatthedisposalsite.Incinerationisanalternativetolanddisposalofplastic, butitreleaseshazardouschemicals.Forexample,plasticincinerationreleasesPCBs,dioxins,and furans,andplasticwastegasreleaseshalogenatedingredientsandPVC(Alabietal.,2019). Table1.1 showsthecompoundsgeneratedduringPVCincinerationandtheirharmfuleffects.
Plasticsincinerationcreatessoot,ashes,andvariouspowdersthatsettleonplantsandthesoiland canprospectivelyresettlewithintheaquaticenvironment.Someofthesetoxiccompositespermeate thesoilwiththehelpofrainfall,whichmayresultingroundwatercontaminationoruptakebyplants, enablingthesetoxinstoenterthefoodchain.Someplasticincinerationoutputsreactwithwater, resultinginalteredpHandthusthealteredfunctioningofaquaticecosystems.Regainedenergyfrom plasticsisanadvantageofplasticincineration(daCostaetal.,2016; Pengetal.,2020).Variousimpact categoriesofplasticwasteareanalyzedthroughLCA,aspresentedin Fig.1.3.
Majorrepercussionsofplasticwaste
Plasticsaremadeupofsyntheticorganicpolymersthatarewidelyusedinawiderangeofapplications: waterbottles,clothing,foodpackaging,medicalsupplies,electronicgoods,constructionmaterials, etc.Syntheticplasticsthataccumulateintheenvironmenttothepointofcreatingproblemsfor wildlife,wildlifehabitats,andhumanpopulationsareconsideredplasticpollution.In1907,the
Table1.1Compoundsgeneratedduringpolyvinylchlorideincinerationandtheirharmful effects.
CompoundHealtheffect(s)
AcetaldehydeNervoussystemdamage,lesions
AcetoneEyeandrespiratorytractirritation
BenzaldehydeEye,skin,andrespiratorysystemirritation;limitingofbrainfunction
BenzolCarcinogenic;adverselyaffectsbonemarrow,theliver,andtheimmunesystem
FormaldehydeSeriouseyedamage,carcinogenic
PhosgeneGasusedinWWI;corrosivetoeyes,skin,andrespiratoryorgans
Polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxin
Polychlorinated dibenzofuran
Carcinogenic;irritatestheskin,eyes,andrespiratorysystem;damagesthe circulatory,digestive,andnervoussystemaswellastheliverandbonemarrow
Irritatestheeyesandrespiratorysystem;causesasthma
HydrochloricacidCorrosivetotheeyes,skin,andrespiratorytract
SalicylicaldehydeIrritatestheeyes,skin,andrespiratorytract;canaffectthecentralnervous system
TolueneIrritatestheeyesandtherespiratorytract;cancausedepression
XyleneIrritatestheeyes;canalsoaffectthecentralnervoussystem,reduce consciousness,andimpairlearningability
PropyleneDamagescentralnervoussystembyreducingconsciousness
VinylchlorideCarcinogenic;irritateseyes,skin,andrespiratorysystem;affectsthecentral nervoussystem,liver,spleen,andblood-formingorgans
FIGURE1.3
Impactcategoriesresultingfromplasticwaste.
inventionofBakelitebroughtaboutamaterialsrevolutionbyintroducingtrulysyntheticplasticresins intoworldcommerce.Bytheendofthe20thcentury,however,plasticshadbecomepersistent pollutersofmanyenvironmentalniches,fromMountEveresttothebottomofthesea.Whetherbeing mistakenforfoodbyanimals,floodinglow-lyingareasbycloggingdrainagesystems,orsimply causingsignificantaestheticblight,plasticshaveincreasinglyattractedattentionaslarge-scale pollutants(Singhetal.,2020).
Plasticsarepolymericmaterials thatis,materialswithverylargemoleculesthatoftenresemble longchainsmadeupofaseeminglyendlessseriesofinterconnectedlinks.Naturalpolymerssuchas rubberandsilkexistinabundance,butnature’s“plastics”havenotbeenimplicatedinenvironmental pollutionbecausetheydonotpersistintheenvironment.Today,theaverageconsumercomesinto dailycontactwithahugearrayofplasticmaterialsdevelopedspecificallytodefeatnaturaldecay processes materialsderivedmainlyfrompetroleumthatcanbemolded,cast,spun,orappliedas coatings.Sincesyntheticplasticsarelargelynonbiodegradable,theypersistinnaturalenvironments. Moreover,manylightweight,single-useplasticproductsandpackagingmaterials,whichaccountfor approximately50%ofallplasticsproduced,arenotdepositedincontainersforsubsequentremovalto landfills,recyclingcenters,orincinerators.Instead,theyareimproperlydisposedofatornearthe locationwheretheyendtheirusefulnesstotheconsumer.Droppedonthegroundorinadvertently carriedoffbyagustofwind,theyimmediatelypollutetheenvironment.Indeed,landscapeslittered withplasticpackaginghavebecomecommoninmanylocationsworldwide.Globalstudieshavenot attributedthistoanyspecificcountriesordemographicgroups,althoughpopulationcentersgenerate themostlitter.Thecausesandeffectsofplasticpollutionaretrulyglobal(Rajkumar,2015; Yousefi etal.,2021).
Globalproductionofplasticsandgenerationofwaste
Inmodernlife,plasticsareubiquitous.Itsearlyusedatesbackto1600 BCE,whenhumanhandsshaped naturalrubberandpolymerizeditintodifferentusefulobjectsinprehistoricMesoamerica.Thediverse useandmanufacturingofplasticsandplasticproductsbeganin1839whenPSandvulcanizedrubber werediscovered.ProductionofBakelite,thefirsttrulysyntheticpolymer,beganin1907inBelgium; by1930,Bakelitewaseverywhere,especiallyinfashion,communication,andelectricalandautomotiveindustries.Ittookadecadeafterthisformassproductionofplasticstobegin,andithas constantlyexpandedeversince.
Asof2008,annualplasticproductionwasestimatedtobe245milliontonsglobally.Atpresent, single-usepackagingisthelargestsector,accountingfornearly40%ofoverallplasticuseinEurope, followedbyconsumergoodsandmaterialsforconstruction,automotive,electrical,andagricultural applicationsat22%,20%,9%,6%,and3%,respectively.Ithasbeenestimatedthatin2015,thehighest rateofproductionwasinAsia,with49%oftotalglobaloutput,withChinaasthelargestglobal producer(28%),followedbyNorthAmericaandEuropeat19%each.Theremainingregionsareless importantforproductionthoughnotnecessarilyforconsumption.
Managementofplasticwastes
Landfilling Approximately10%ofhouseholdwasteisplastics,andmostofitendsupinlandfills. Eventhoughlandfillingistheconventionalapproachforwastemanagementinmanycountries,
dwindlingspaceforlandfillsisbecomingamajorproblem.Environmentalpollutionandriskstopublic healthcanbereducediflandfillsarewellmanaged,althoughsoilandgroundwatercontaminationby disintegratedplasticby-productsandadditiveshasthepotentialforlong-termenvironmental persistence.
Plasticincineration Analternativetolandfillingplasticwasteisincineration,butconcerns continuetogrowaboutthepotentialatmosphericreleaseofhazardouschemicalsduringincineration. Forinstance,plasticwastefumesreleasehalogenatedadditivesandPVC,whilefurans,dioxins,and PCBsfromplasticsincinerationarereleased.Thedisadvantageofplasticscombustionisairpollution causedbythenoxiousfumesreleasedintotheatmosphere.Thecombustionheateroffluesystemsis permanentlydamagedbyplasticsduringplasticsincineration,andtheby-productsofthisplastics combustionaredetrimentaltobothhumansandtheenvironment.Compoundsoflowmolecularweight canvaporizedirectlyintotheair,therebypollutingtheair.Dependingontheirvarieties,theymayform acombustiblemixtureoroxidizeinsolidform.
Plasticsincinerationisusuallyaccompaniedbychalkformation,andtheextentofcokingdepends ontheincinerationconditions.Gaseousreleasesduringplasticandplasticcompositeproducts incinerationareverydangerous.Forexample, Table1.1 showsthecompoundsreleasedduringPVC incinerationandthehealtheffectsofthosecompounds.Plasticincinerationproducessoot,ash,and variouspowdersthateventuallysettleonplantsandsoilandcanpotentiallymigratetotheaquatic environment.Rainfallcanenablesomeofthesetoxiccompoundstopermeatethesoil,contaminatethe groundwater,orbeabsorbedbyplants,thusbecomingincorporatedintothefoodchain.Someofthese plasticincinerationproductscanchemicallyreactwithwater,andtheresultingcompoundscanalter thepH,therebychangingthefunctioningofaquaticecosystems.Duetothepotentialenvironmental pollutionimpact,plasticincinerationisnotemployedforwastemanagementasfrequentlyasrecycling andlandfilling.
Plasticsrecycling Reprocessingofrecoveredplasticscrapsorwastesintouseableproductsis calledplasticrecycling.Mostplasticsarenonbiodegradableinnature;hence,thefundamentalworkis thereductionofwasteemissions,effectivemanagement,andrecyclingofresultingwastes.Recycling ofplasticsisamajoraspectoftheworldwideeffortsinminimizingtheyearlyeightmilliontonnesof plasticsinthewastestreamenteringtheEarth’soceans.AccordingtoHopewelletal.plasticrecycling terminologyiscomplexduetovariousrecoveryactivitiesandrecycling.Therearefourmaincategoriesofrecyclingwhichare:primary(whichinvolvesthemechanicalreprocessingofplasticsintoa newproductwithequivalentproperties),secondary(whichinvolvesthemechanicalreprocessingof plasticsintoaproductwithlowerproperties),tertiary(whichconsistsoftherecoveryofthechemical constituentsoftheplastics)andquaternary(whichrequiresenergyrecoveryfromtheplastics).
Incontrasttothelucrativemetalrecyclingbutlikethelowvalueofglassrecycling,recycling plasticsisoftenmorechallengingbecauseoflowdensityandlowvalue.Also,thereareseveral technicalissuestodealwithwhenrecyclingplastic.Meltingtogetherofdifferentplastictypesoften causephaseseparationlikeoilandwater,andtheyaresetintheselayers.Theresultingphase boundariesareresponsibleforstructuralweaknessinthefinalproduct(s),whichhaslimitedthe applicationofthesepolymerblends.ThisisthecasewithpolyethyleneandPP,thetwocommonly manufacturedplastics,thuslimitingtheirrecyclability.Recently,blockcopolymershavebeen proposedasaformofmacromolecularweldingfluxormolecularstitchestoovercomethechallengeof phaseseparationduringplasticrecycling.
Therecanbeanincreaseinthepercentageofplasticswiththepossibilityoffullrecyclinginstead ofthelargequantitygeneratedaswastesifpackagedgoodsmanufacturersreducetheirmixingof packagingmaterialsandeliminatecontaminants.
Table1.2Disadvantagesofplasticwastemanagementtechnologies. Sl.No.TechnologiesDisadvantages
1.LandfillingLandfillsareresponsibleforclimatechange,soilandwatercontamination, andcancers,respiratorydisorders,andotherailmentslinkedtoprolonged landfillexposure.
2.PlasticincinerationEmissionoftoxicpollutants;highcosts
3.MechanicalrecyclingTheeffortssurroundingcollection,sorting,washing,andrecyclingandthe highpercentageofmateriallossinvolveenormouscostsandproducearaw materialoflimitedquality.Thismakesitcommerciallyunattractivetoreuse therecycledrawmaterialsfromthesestreamsinnewproducts.
4.ChemicalrecyclingThewasteflowsrequiredforchemicalrecyclingmustbecleanerthan previouslythought.Inaddition,techniqueswithhighCO2 reductionplace higherdemandsonwastequality.
Environmentalpollutionbyplasticwastes Thedistributionofplasticwasteisassociatedwith humanpopulations.Anincreaseinthehumanpopulationhasledtoincreasingdemandforplasticsand plasticproducts.Indiscriminatedisposalofwastesfromplasticsandplasticproductscanleadto environmentalpollution,whichisevidentinseveralways,includingdeteriorationofthebeautyofthe naturalenvironment,entanglementanddeathofaquaticorganisms,sewagesystemblockageintowns andcities,especiallyindevelopingcountries,thatcreatesaconduciveenvironmentformosquitoesand otherdisease-causingvectors,productionoffoulsmells,andreductionsinwaterpercolationand normalagriculturalsoilaeration,thuscausingthereducedproductivityofsuchlands.Thedisadvantagesofplasticwastemanagementtechnologiesarehighlightedin Table1.2 (Das & Chaudhary, 2021c; Letcher,2020).
Recommendationstoreduceandcontrolplasticwastes
Manycountriesarelaboringtocontrolenvironmentalpollutionfromplasticwastesbyreducingthe productionofplasticsandplasticproducts,prohibitingexcessivepackaging,capturinglitter,and recycling.Inthestruggleagainstplasticpollution,thefollowingrecommendationsmightbehelpful:
Policymaking Tocombatandcurbpersistentenvironmentalpollutionbyplastics,thereisaneed forrealisticpoliciesthatareproperlyfollowedandenforced.Thisshouldincludetheneedforaglobal conventiononenvironmentalpollutionbyplasticstomandateplasticproducerstodeclareallingredientsintheirplasticproductsandputawarningontheproductsforconsumersaboutthepotential healtheffectsofsuchconstituents.Policiestoclassifysomeoftheharmfulingredientsinplastic productsshouldbeenacted.
Itisalsoimportantforthegovernmenttoenforceandimplementregulationsthatwillcheckthe production,consumption,use,andeventualdisposalofplasticsirrespectiveoftheirhazardousstatus. The3Rs reduce,reuse,andrecycle mustbeemployedatallstagestopreventzerodiversionto landfillsandindiscriminatedisposaltotheenvironment.
Plasticwastemanagementandrecycling Inreducingthetoxiceffectsofplasticwastesonthe environmentandpublichealth,wastemanagementplaysamajorrole.Fortheglobalreductionof
plasticlitterandoceanpollution,thereisaneedtoimproveproperplasticwastecollection,treatment, anddisposal.Inadequatelandfillmanagementwillmakewayforharmfulchemicalsinplasticwastes toleachintotheenvironment,pollutingthesoil,air,andundergroundwater.
Properwastewatermanagementwillpreventmicroplasticsfromenteringtheenvironmentfrom landfills.
Educationandpublicawareness Effortsmustbemadetoeducatethegeneralpopulaceonthe potentialenvironmentalandpublichealtheffectofpollutionbyplasticwastes.Thiswillgoalongway towardreducingthepollutionrateandpreservingenvironmentalquality.Peopleshouldbemadeaware ofthechemicalconstituentsofplasticproductsandtheirhealtheffects.Educationalcurriculaat variouslevelsmustincludeplasticpollutionreductionmethodsandwastemanagementsystemsas informationresources.
Bioplasticsasanalternative Bioplasticswasfirstproducedfromcellulose,madeofwoodpulp byaBritishchemistinthe1850s.Now,bioplasticscanbeproducedfromdifferentbiodegradableand nonbiodegradablematerials,includingweeds,hemp,plantoils,potatostarch,cellulose,andcorn starch.Sugar-basedbioplasticscanbiodegradeundernormalconditionsforcomposting.Bioplastics areenvironmentallyfriendlysincetheyrequirefewerfossilfuelsduringproductioncomparedwith otherplastics.
Webelievethattheproblemofplasticwastegenerationandtheaccompanyingenvironmentaland publichealtheffectscanbehandledif,globally,manufacturerscanembracetheuseofbioplastics.The biodegradabilitywithlittleornotoxicproductsleftbehindwillgoalongwaytoprotectournatural environmentfromthemenaceofconventionalplasticwastes,protectourworld’sorganisms,andmake theworldsaferforhumans.
Futuredirectionsandrecommendations
Plasticwastemanagementreferstoagroupefforttorecycleplasticorproduceelectricitybyincineration.Recyclinghasseveraladvantages,includingtheabilitytosaveenergyandprotecttheenvironment.Itcanalsoassistbusinessesinloweringtheirproductioncostsbyrecyclingproducts, resultinginincreasedrevenuegeneration.Theseadvantagesimprovethemarket’sgrowthrateby offeringamajorboosttodemand.Thebulkoftheindustry’splayersservethecommercial,residential, andindustrialsectors.Consolidationisincreasingthemarketconcentrationasdevelopedeconomies andcorporationsoutsourcewastemanagementanddisposalservices(Kamaruddinetal.,2017; Lebreton & Andrady,2019; Wongetal.,2015).Overtheforecastera,thisisprojectedtodrivethe plasticwastemanagementindustry.Variousfactorssuchasrisingenvironmentalissues,growing industrialization,rapidurbanization,andrisingwastemanagementprocessinnovationareexpectedto drivemarketgrowthovertheforecastedera.TheglobalplasticwastemanagementmarketisanticipatedtoreachUSD42.2billionby2027,expandingataCAGRof3.1%.Economicgrowth,rising industrialization,increasingurbanization,andgrowinghealthawarenessarethemajorfactorslikelyto boostmarketgrowthovertheforecastperiod.People’sincreasingenvironmentalconsciousness,as wellastougherregulationsimplementedbymanyend-useindustriesandvariousspecifications pertainingtoplasticwastemanagement,wouldboostconsumerdemand.Inaddition,becauseofrapid urbanizationandindustrialization,therehasbeenasurgeintheadoptionofsustainablewastemanagementeffortsandprocesses,pavingthewayforplasticwastemanagementservices.Advanced technologiesandframeworksforreprocessing,organizing,andsortingrecyclableplasticsareopening
newpossibilitieswithintheplasticwastemanagementmarket.Furthermore,lawsandguidelines enforcedbythegovernmentandrelatedagenciesacrossthecountriesforplasticwastedisposal managementareanticipatedtodrivethemarketovertheforecastperiod(Das & Chaudhary,2021b). Thecostatwhichrecycledplasticcanbecreatedisstable,whilethecostofvirginplasticfluctuates basedontheperformanceoftheoilandgasindustryandthedemandforcrudeoil-basedproducts acrosstheend-useindustries.Thisfluctuationinpricespromotestheincentivetomakelong-term investmentsinrecyclingtechnologyandinfrastructure.Variousrecommendedapproachestoplasticsfocusingoninnovationareshownin Fig.1.4
Therefore,anewplasticparadigmisneeded.Achievingalong-termsustainablefutureforplastics willrequireintegrationalongtheentirevaluechain,fromdesigntoreuse,togetherwiththetransition toatrulycirculareconomy.Acirculareconomyischaracterizedbyavaluechainapproachinwhicha
Recommendedapproachforplasticsfocusingoninnovation.
FIGURE1.4
product’send-of-lifeisconsideredfromthemomentitisdeveloped,andresourcesarereusedrather thanbeingcontinuouslyadded.Intermsofinnovation,thiswillrequireanincreasedfocuson composition,intermsofbothsmartermaterialsdesigntoimproverecyclabilityandthedevelopment ofbio-basedalternatives.
Conclusions
Sciencehasyettodevelopconsistentandreliablebaselinedataonplastic’sexistence,fluxes,pathways,fates,andeffectswithinvariousenvironmentalcompartments.Despitetheimmediateinterest arisingfromtheclearlymeasurableimpactofpollutantsonplantsandanimalsandevidenceofthe transboundaryandfar-reachingnatureofplastics,farmoreattentionhasthusfarbeenpaidtomarine pollution.Someestimates,however,indicatethatpollutionlevelsinfreshwatersystemsandsoilsmay surpassthoserecordedinthemarineenvironment,especiallyformicroplastics.Despiteallthewellfoundedassumptions,uncertaintyandunknownsabound.Thesecomplexitiesandinformationgaps makeitdifficulttothoroughlyevaluatethehealtheffects,thuslimitinginformeddecisionsbycustomers,societies,andpolicymakers.Atalllevelsofthelifecycleofplasticproducts,inadequateand incompleteinformationleadstopossiblelong-termenvironmentalandhealthconsequences.Asa result,morefocusedscienceandpolicyattentionmustbepaidtotheseenvironmentalcompartments, notinplaceofbutinadditiontocurrentmarine(micro)plasticemissionstudies.Overtheforecast period,variousfactorssuchasincreasingenvironmentalconcerns,growingindustrialization,rapid urbanization,andrisingwastemanagementprocessinnovationareexpectedtodrivemarketgrowth. TheglobalplasticwastemanagementmarketisexpectedtoexpandataCAGRof3.1%toUSD 42.2billionby2027.Economicdevelopment,industrialexpansion,risingurbanization,andincreasing healthawarenessarethemajordriversofmarketgrowthovertheforecastperiod.
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Composition,propertiesandother factorsinfluencingplastics biodegradability
SigridHakva ˚ g1,OddGunnarBrakstad1,StephanKubowicz2 andAndyM.Booth1
1SINTEFOcean,Trondheim,Norway; 2SINTEFIndustry,Oslo,Norway
Introduction
Thereisnouniversaldefinitionofbiodegradation(biologicaldegradation).Inthischapter,weusethe UnitedNationsdefinition:a“processbywhichorganicsubstancesaredecomposedbymicroorganisms (mainlyaerobicbacteria)intosimplersubstancessuchascarbondioxide,waterandammonia”(United Nations,1997).Severalotherdefinitionsofbiodegradabilityexist,dependingonwhetherthe biodegradationsolelyaltersthechemicalstructureofamaterialorthematerialiscompletely mineralizedbymicroorganisms(Harrisonetal.,2018).Theterm“biodegradable”alsodoesnotyield anyusefulinformationregardingthetimescaleandextentofthedecompositionprocess(Harrison etal.,2018; Kubowicz & Booth,2017a; Montazeretal.,2020).Inmanycases,thecompletemineralizationofacompound/ultimatebiodegradabilityisusedasadefinition,wheretheprocessproduces newbiomasspluscarbondioxideandwater(aerobicconditions)ormethane(anaerobicconditions) (Gu,2003; Jacquinetal.,2019).
Plasticsaretypicallybiodegradedaerobically(Gu,2003; Jacquinetal.,2019; Shahetal.,2008). Thermodynamically,oxygenisamoreefficientelectronacceptorthaneithersulfateorCO2,and therefore,aerobicrespirationismoreenergy-rewardingthananaerobicrespiration.Aerobicrespiration canconsequentlysupportagreatermicroorganismpopulationthananaerobicrespiration.Anaerobic biodegradationoccursinlandfillsandsediments,whilepartiallyaerobicconditionsarecharacteristic ofcompostandsoil.Itshouldbenotedthatevenunderoptimizedlaboratoryconditions,the biodegradationratesofconventionalthermoplasticsareverylow(Kruegeretal.,2015).Inmarineand terrestrialenvironments,thelifetimesofconventionalplasticscanextendintocenturies(Chamasetal., 2020).
Arangeofindividualstandardsandtestmethodshavebeendevelopedtoassesspolymericmaterial biodegradabilityinvariousaerobicandanaerobicenvironments,includingbothmanagedandopen environments(Harrisonetal.,2018; Montazeretal.,2020).Whilemostoftheseavailabletestproceduresaresufficientlyreliableforassessingbiodegradability,differenttestscansignificantlyoverestimateorunderestimatethedurationrequiredforpolymerbiodegradationandmineralizationwithin naturalecosystems.Thesedifferencesresultfromthecomplexinteractionofmultiplefactorsthat influencethebiodegradabilityofaspecificplasticitemunderaparticularsetofenvironmental conditions.
BiodegradabilityofConventionalPlastics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89858-4.00014-2 Copyright © 2023ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Table2.1Factorsaffectingplasticsbiodegradation.
Factorsaffectingbiodegradation
Plastics (intrinsic)ChemicalpropertiesPolymericcomposition(backbone)
Additivechemicals
PhysicalpropertiesMolecularproperties:crystallinity,molecularweight, hydrophobicity,morphology
Exposureconditions (extrinsic)
Microbialcommunity (biotic)
Environmentalfactors (abiotic)
Extracellularenzymes
Hydrophobicity
Biosurfactants
Temperature
SalinityandpH
Dissolvedoxygen
Pressure
SunlightandUVexposure
Moistureandhumidity
Fragmentationandtransportofpolymers
Adsorptionofpollutants
Sowhatfactorsaffectplasticbiodegradation?Broadlyspeaking,biodegradationfactorscanbe dividedaccordingtotheintrinsicphysicalandch emicalpropertiesofthepolymerandextrinsic exposureconditions;see Table2.1 ).Thelatterisafunctionofthetypeoforganism(biotic)andthe environmentalparametersthatexternallyin fluencethedegradationprocess(abiotic)( Ahmedetal., 2018 ; Kijchavengkul & Auras,2008 ; Kumaretal.,2019 ).Theintrinsicphysicalandchemical characteristicsofaparticularpo lymermaterialarehighlyimportantfactorsinbiodegradability. Themicrobialandenzymaticaccessibilityofpolym ersisdeterminedbymolecularweight,melting temperature,additives,crystallin ity,flexibility,andfunctionalgroup( Kaleetal.,2015 ; Tokiwa etal.,2009 ).Forexample,enzymesmainlyattack thelooselypackedamorphousdomainsof polymermaterials,whereascr ystallineregionstypicallyexhibitgreaterresistanceto biodegradation.
Thekineticsofpolymerbiodegradationalsodependontheenvironmentalconditionssurrounding thematerial.Furthermore,asynergisticrelationshipexistsbetweenabioticandbioticexposureparameters.Amicrobialcommunity’scomposition,growthrates,andmetabolicactivityareaffectedby abioticenvironmentalconditions;hence,theseconditionsalsoplayasignificantroleinthebiodegradationof(bio)plastics(Emadianetal.,2017).Abioticfactorsincludetemperature,moisture,pH,and UVradiation.Inadditiontodirectlyinfluencingmicrobialparameters,thesameabioticfactorscan affecttherateofhydrolysisandtherebyaffectpolymerbioavailabilitytomicroorganisms.Thebiotic factorsinvolvetheproductionofextracellularenzymesbymicroorganismsasdepolymerasesand biosurfactants.Consequently,plasticbiodegradationisacomplexinterplayofmultiplebioticand abioticfactorsandproceedsatvariousratesfordifferentpolymertypesandenvironmentalcompartmentsandmatrices.
