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3. Production of Seaweed-Derived Food Hydrocolloids 53
Yimin Qin
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Market Size and Value 54
3.3 Alginate Seaweeds and Alginate Production 56
3.4 Carrageenan Seaweeds and Carrageenan Production 61
3.5 Agar Seaweeds and Agar Production 65
3.6 Summary 68 References 68 Further Reading 69
4. Seaweed-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharides: Scopes and Challenges in Implication in Health Care 71
Seema Patel
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 extraction, Purification, Modification, and Characterization 72
4.3 Validated Biological effects 75
4.4 Regenerative and nanomedicine Scope 83
4.5 Insights, Hurdles, and Scopes 84
4.6 Conclusion 85 References 86
5. Seaweed-Derived Carotenoids 95
Ratih Pangestuti and Evi A. Siahaan
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Sources, Structure, and Classification of Seaweed Carotenoids 96
5.3 Processing technology of Seaweed Carotenoids 98
5.4 Potent Application of Seaweed-Derived Carotenoids in Functional Foods and Animal Feed 102
6.
5.5
7.
7.5
8. Seaweed-Derived Hydrocolloids as Food Coating and Encapsulation Agents 153
Demeng Zhang, Mengxue Zhang and Xiaoxiao Gu
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Seaweed Hydrocolloids as Food Coating and Film Agents 155
8.3 Seaweed-Derived Hydrocolloids as Food encapsulation Agents 160
8.4 Conclusions 168 References 168
PART III Health Benefits of Bioactive Seaweed Substances
9. Health Benefits of Bioactive Seaweed Substances 179
Yimin Qin
9.1 Introduction 180
9.2 A Brief Description of the Bioactive Seaweed Substances 180
9.3 Health Benefits of Dietary Seaweeds 181
9.4 Health Benefits of Bioactive Seaweed Substances 183
9.5 Summary 195 References 196 Further Reading 199
10. Antioxidant Properties of Seaweed-Derived Substances 201
Ditte B. Hermund
10.1 Introduction 201
10.2 Antioxidants and their Mechanisms 202
10.3 Antioxidant Substances From Seaweed 203
10.4 Phlorotannins 206
10.5 Antioxidant Strategies, now and in the Future 212
10.6 Future Perspective 217 References 217
11. Fucoidan and Its Health Benefits
Peili Shen, Zongmei Yin, Guiyan Qu and Chunxia Wang 11.1
11.2 extraction of Fucoidan From Brown Seaweeds
11.3 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Fucoidan
11.4 Biological and Physiological Functions of Fucoidan
11.5 Health Benefits and Potential Applications of Fucoidan
11.6
12. Antiobesity, Antidiabetic, Antioxidative, and Antihyperlipidemic Activities of Bioactive Seaweed Substances
Zhanyi Sun, Zengying Dai, Wenchao Zhang, Suqin Fan, Haiyan Liu, Ranran Liu and Ting Zhao
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5 Antihyperlipidemic Activity of Bioactive Seaweed Substances
12.6
13. Absorption of Heavy Metal Ions by Alginate 255
Zengying Dai Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Suqin Fan Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Chuancai Gao Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Qiaoqiao Gu Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Xiaoxiao Gu Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Ditte B. Hermund Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Efstathia Ioannou National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Jinju Jiang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Aikaterini Koutsaviti National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Haiyan Liu Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Ranran Liu Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Ratih Pangestuti Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia
Seema Patel San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States
Yimin Qin Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Guiyan Qu Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Vassilios Roussis National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Peili Shen Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Shaojuan Shi Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Evi A. Siahaan Indonesian Institute of Sciences, North Lombok, Republic of Indonesia
Zhanyi Sun Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Chunxia Wang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Jue Wang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Zongmei Yin Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Demeng Zhang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Mengxue Zhang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Pengpeng Zhang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Wenchao Zhang Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Lili Zhao Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Ting Zhao Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, Qingdao, China
Editor Description
Dr. Yimin Qin obtained his PhD from the University of Leeds between 1986 and 1990. After spending 3 years in Heriot-Watt University working on his postdoctoral project, he became the product development manager in Advanced Medical Solutions Plc in Cheshire, UK, where he led a team of scientists and developed a number of highperformance wound dressings from alginate, chitosan, and other natural polymers. He then went on to study an MBA in the Manchester Business School and, after graduation, took up the position of Fibers Product Manager in SSL International, working on advanced antimicrobial biomaterials. In 2002, Dr. Qin returned to China and taught at Jiaxing College, Zhejiang Province. In 2015, Dr. Qin was appointed as the Director of State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances at Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group, where his main research interests focused on the extraction, modification, and applications of alginate and other novel bioactive seaweed substances.
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Preface
Bioactive seaweed substances are a group of chemical components extracted from seaweed biomass, which can influence the biological processes of living organisms through chemical, physical, biological, and other mechanisms. These substances include biomass components in the extracellular matrix, cell wall, plasma, and other parts of the seaweed cells generated through primary and secondary metabolism, of which the primary metabolites are generated when the seaweed cells process nutrients through biodegradation or biosynthesis, such as amino acids, nucleotides, polysaccharides, lipids, vitamins, etc., whereas secondary metabolites are those chemicals modified from primary metabolites, including genetic materials, medicinal materials, biotoxins, functional materials, and other seaweed-based substances. There is a long history of the applications of bioactive seaweed substances in functional food products. Seaweed-derived hydrocolloids have long been used as food ingredients. In particular, the unique biophysical properties of alginate and carrageenan are highly valuable in the development of functional food products. As food ingredients, the applications of alginate and carrageenan are based on three main properties, i.e., thickening, gelling, and film forming. In particular, the unique gelling abilities at low temperature alongside good heat stability make alginate ideal for use as thickeners, stabilizers, and restructuring agents. Recently, alginate is increasingly used in a myriad of newer applications, from encapsulating active enzymes and live bacteria to acting as the carrier for protective coating of prepacked, cut, or prepared fruits and vegetables. With novel chemical and biological modifications to alter its structures and properties, there are possibilities of novel applications of specific alginates in the food industry that have high bioactivities at low concentrations. In general, seaweed-derived functional foods can provide health benefits by reducing the risk of chronic diseases and enhancing the ability to manage chronic diseases, thus improving the quality of life. They can also promote growth and development and enhance performance.
Marine nutraceuticals can be derived from the many varieties of seaweeds. For example, fucoidan is a complex fucose-rich sulfated carbohydrate, which can be extracted from brown seaweeds. This biologically active carbohydrate has been shown to inhibit a wide range of cancer cell lines, and studies in mice indicate that anticancer effects are also seen in vivo. As a marine nutraceutical product, fucoidan has been used in many health products and is important for its high bioactive properties, for example, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antiviral, antitumor, etc. Seaweeds and marine microalgae are natural sources for β-carotene, astaxanthin, and eicosapentaenoic acid that have high bioactivities and are an important part of nutraceutical products, playing a significant role in a number of aspects of human health.
Looking into the future, bioactive seaweed substances are valuable in a group of industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, functional foods, biomedical materials, cosmetics, and fertilizers, in addition to the traditional applications in textiles, chemicals, and environmental protection. Once extracted, separated, and purified, the various types of bioactive seaweed substances can be screened for their bioactivities and utilized in an appropriate application. Modern technologies can allow the separation of these native ingredients into purified chemical compounds. Once structurally characterized and functionally assessed, the highly active compounds can be applied in marine drugs, whereas those with lower activities can be
used in herbal medicines, nutraceuticals, biomedical materials, functional foods, and other applications based on the level of their bioactivities.
Because bioactive seaweed substances and functional foods cover a large field with a diversified range of specialist knowledge, it is inevitable that this book will not be able to offer precise explanation in all areas and the author appreciates critical feedback in such cases.
Yimin Qin April 30, 2017
Acknowledgments
The ever-increasing human population and its standard of living have placed new demand for more and healthier resources for food and its ingredients. With more than 70% of the globe’s surface, ocean-derived biomass and related biomaterials are not only vast in quantity, but they are also structurally diverse with many unique biological activities. Marine species comprise approximately one half of the total global biodiversity and the ocean offers an enormous resource for novel compounds that can be explored for their health and nutritional benefits. Among the many marine organisms thriving in the vast ocean, seaweeds represent a bioresource that is both old and new. Historically, seaweeds have been explored for their bioactivities in many parts of the world dating back to ancient times. In China, where the homology of medicine and food has been recognized for over 2000 years, the health benefits of seaweeds were recognized in ancient medicinal books such as Sheng Nong’s Herbal Classic, Supplementary Records of Famous Physicians, Marine Herbal, Compendium of Materia Medica, etc.
Modern science and technology have uncovered the many bioactive seaweed substances and allowed their separation and purification into high-valued bioproducts, which are now widely used in a wide range of health-related industries. The natural and cultivated seaweeds are a unique source of raw materials for the production of seaweed-based bioproducts. They have large scale varieties, and are green, environmentally friendly, and renewable. In addition, seaweed biomass and the natural products derived from them are hydrophilic, biocompatible, and biodegradable, and contain many substances with high bioactivities, which are important supplement to land-based resources.
To fully explore the many bioactive seaweed substances and develop them into an environmentally friendly and sustainable industrial chain, in particular with a view of promoting their applications in functional food products, we set out to write this book and, after a year of hard work, I am glad that we have been able to compile the many sources of information into this book. As an editor, I am grateful to the following people who have made the successful completion of this book:
Patricia Osborne and Karen Miller at Elsevier who project managed the manuscript preparation processes;
Dr. A. Koutsaviti, Dr. E. Ioannou, Dr. V. Roussis, Dr. S. Patel, Dr. R. Pangestuti, Dr. E. A. Siahaan and Dr. D. B. Hermund who wrote excellent chapters for this book;
I am also indebted to the State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Seaweed Substances at Qingdao Brightmoon Seaweed Group for providing the resources that made this book possible. In particular, I would like to thank Mr. Guofang Zhang, chairman of BMS Group for his support to this project; Mr. Kechang Li, deputy CEO, for providing important data to this book; and Mr. Fahe Wang, Technical Manager, for his assistance during manuscript preparation. I am also grateful to the group of scientists at the State Key Laboratory, Demeng Zhang, Lili Zhao, Jinju Jiang, Peili Shen, Zhanyi Sun, Zongmei Yin, Guiyan Qu, Chunxia Wang, Zengying Dai, Wenchao Zhang, Suqin Fan, Haiyan Liu, Ranran Liu, Ting Zhao, Jue Wang, Pengpeng Zhang, Kuntian Feng, Qiaoqiao Gu, and Shaojuan Shi, for their contribution to this book.
Editor August 30, 2017
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Seaweed Bioresources
1.1 Marine Biomass
Biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. Among the many varieties of microorganisms, plants, and animals that form the overall quantity of biomass on earth, marine biomass represents a relatively underexplored resource, which is attracting much attention in recent years partly because of the over exploration of land-based resources. The ever increasing human population and its standard of living have dramatically increased the global demand for living space, food, energy, and other natural resources from the earth. As oceans cover more than 70% of
our planet’s surface, attention has been directed toward the utilization of ocean-based resources, with the emergence of the so-called blue economy aimed at the comprehensive development of ocean-based resources and products (Charette and Smith, 2010; Gage and Tyler, 1991; Steele, 1985; Pietra, 2002).
Marine biomass, both natural and cultivated, is not only vast in quantities, but also structurally diverse with many unique biological activities. With marine species comprising approximately one half of the total global biodiversity, the world’s oceans offer an enormous resource for novel substances that are important for human health. Right now, more than 20,000 new substances have been isolated from marine organisms, with a wide range of applications from pharmaceutical products to functional foods (Hu et al., 2012). Different kinds of substances have been procured from marine biomass because marine environment gives the many organisms thriving in the vast ocean unique genetic structures and life habitats, opening the door to the development of many more novel bioactive substances that can be utilized in food, beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, textiles, leather, electronic, medicine, biotechnology, and many other industries ( Thakur and Thakur, 2006; Kim, 2015).
1.2 Marine Algae
Algae are quantitatively the largest biomass in the ocean (Nedumaran and Arulbalachandran, 2015; Chapman, 2013). The term algae refers to a large and diverse assemblage of organisms that contain chlorophyll and carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Biologically, algae represent a segment of the ocean’s food chain, which proceeds from phytoplankton to zooplankton, predatory zooplankton, filter feeders, predatory fish, and beyond. Among these different varieties of marine organisms, cyanobacteria are the smallest known photosynthetic organisms, with Prochlorococcus at just 0.5–0.8 μm in diameter. However, Prochlorococcus is probably the most plentiful species on earth with a single milliliter of surface seawater containing 100,000 cells or more.
Although most marine algae are microscopic in size and are thus considered to be microorganisms, several forms are macroscopic in morphology and are commonly known as seaweeds. One common characteristic is that all types of algae contain chlorophyll a and the colonial forms of algae occur as aggregates of cells, with each of these cells sharing common functions and properties, including the storage products they utilize as well as the structural properties of their cell walls. The presence of phytopigments other than chlorophyll a is a characteristic of a particular algal division. The nature of the reserve polymer synthesized as a result of photosynthesis is also a key variable used in algal classification. Accordingly, their divisions include Cyanophyta, Prochlorophyta, Phaeophyta, Chlorophyta, Charophyta, Euglenophyta, Chrysophyta, Pyrrophyta, Cryptophyta, and Rhodophyta (Sahoo, 2016). When comparing Phaeophyta (brown algae) to other common algal divisions such as the Rhodophyta (red algae), important differences are seen in the storage products they utilize as well as in their cell wall chemistry. In the Phaeophyta (brown algae), laminaran is the main storage product, whereas the Rhodophyta (red algae) is distinguished by the floridean starch it produces and stores.
1.3 Seaweeds
Fig. 1.1 shows an overview of marine algae, which can be divided broadly into macroalgae and microalgae according to their physical sizes. Marine macroalgae are commonly known as seaweeds, which commonly include brown, red, and green seaweeds based mainly on their characteristic pigmentation. Botanists refer to these three groups as Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae, and Chlorophyceae, respectively. Brown seaweeds are usually large and range from the giant kelp that is often 20 m long to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2 to 4 m long, to smaller species 30–60 cm long. Red seaweeds are usually smaller, generally ranging from a few centimeters to about a meter in length. Red seaweeds are not always red. They are sometimes purple, even brownish red, but they are still classified by botanists as Rhodophyceae because of other characteristics. Green seaweeds are also small, with a similar size range to the red seaweeds. Naturally growing seaweeds are often referred to as wild seaweeds, in contrast to seaweeds that are cultivated or farmed.
Seaweeds are raw materials for a wide variety of products that have an estimated total annual value of US$ 5.5–6 billion (Porse and Rudolph, 2017), among which, food products for human consumption contribute about US$ 5 billion. Substances that are extracted from seaweeds, mainly food hydrocolloids, account for a large part of the remaining billion dollars, while smaller, miscellaneous uses, such as fertilizers and animal feed additives, make up the rest. The world seaweed processing industry uses 7.5–8 million tonnes of wet seaweed annually, which are harvested either from naturally growing seaweeds or from cultivated crops, with the latter being expanded rapidly as demand has outstripped the supply available from natural resources. World wild, commercial harvesting of seaweeds occurs in about 35 countries, spreading between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, in waters ranging from cold, through temperate, to tropical.
FIGURE 1.1 An overview of marine algae.
1.3.1 Brown Seaweeds
Brown seaweeds are used for the extraction of alginate, which represents a broad group of biomaterials based on the alkali or alkaline earth salts of alginic acid, with the sodium salt being the most widely used. Alginate, sometimes shortened to “algin,” is present in the cell walls of brown seaweeds, with those growing in more turbulent conditions usually having a higher alginate content than those in calmer waters. Because alginate was first discovered by E.C.C. Stanford in 1881, its commercial extraction initially took place mostly in Europe, the United States, and Japan. Since the 1980s, major change in the alginate industry took place with the emergence of producers in China, initially in the production of low-cost, low-quality alginate for the local industrial markets from locally cultivated Saccharina japonica. By the 1990s, Chinese producers were competing in Western industrial markets for alginates extracted from S. japonica that is abundant due to the successful introduction of cultivation technologies. However, those early products from China had a low guluronic to mannuronic acid (G/M) ratio, which yields weakly gelling alginates, and their performance is acceptable only for industrial products such as textile printing and paper coating. In recent years, alginate producers in China began importing Chilean and Peruvian medium G seaweeds such as Lessonia nigrescens, which can yield alginates suitable for the food ingredient market in the United States and EU. Chinese producers now account for the majority of alginate products in the global market.
Fig. 1.2 illustrates the main types of brown seaweeds used for alginate production. These seaweeds usually grow in cold waters in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They thrive best in water temperatures up to about 20°C. Originally, harvests of wild seaweeds were the only source for alginate production, but since the mid-20th century demand has gradually outstripped the supply from natural resources and methods for cultivation have been developed. Fig. 1.3 shows the harvest of wild brown seaweeds in 2014.
Biologically, the division Phaeophyta or brown algae comprises a large assemblage of plants that are classified in about 265 genera with more than 1500 species. They derive their characteristic brown color from the large amounts of the carotenoid fucoxanthin contained in their chloroplasts and the presence of various phaeophycean tannins. Brown algae flourish in temperate to subpolar regions where they exhibit the greatest diversity in species and morphological expression. The commercially important species of brown algae are large in size and their main genus include Laminaria, Macrocystis, Ascophyllum, Lessonia, Durvillaea, Ecklonia, Saccharina, etc.
Fig. 1.4 shows the distribution of wild brown seaweeds around the world. Globally, Norway and Chile are the two countries where wild seaweeds are most abundant due to their long coastal lines and suitable environmental conditions. It is estimated that the total quantity of wild seaweed stock in the Norwegian seacoast is around 50–60 million tons, with 7 million tons washed to the shoreline annually.
Regarding the individual species, Ascophyllum seaweeds are mainly harvested in Ireland, Norway, France, and the United Kingdom, whereas Durvillaea is harvested in Australia and Chile. Ecklonia grows in South Africa, and Laminaria digitata is mainly from
FIGURE 1.2 Main types of brown seaweeds used for alginate production.
FIGURE 1.3 Harvest of wild brown seaweeds in 2014.
