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CLASSICALPRESENCES GeneralEditors LORNAHARDWICKJAMESI . PORTER
CLASSICALPRESENCES Attemptstoreceivethetexts,images,andmaterialcultureofancientGreece andRomeinevitablyruntheriskofappropriatingthepastinorderto authenticatethepresent.Exploringthewaysinwhichtheclassicalpasthas beenmappedoverthecenturiesallowsustotracetheavowalanddisavowal ofvaluesandidentities,oldandnew.ClassicalPresencesbringsthelatest scholarshiptobearonthecontexts,theory,andpracticeofsuchuse,and abuse,oftheclassicalpast.
BetweenJerusalem andAthens IsraeliTheatreandtheClassical Tradition NuritYaari GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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Inmemoryofmyparents whoepitomizedtheencounterbetweenAthensandJerusalem andconveyeditspowertome
PrefaceandAcknowledgements Theculturalencounterbetween ‘Jerusalem’ and ‘Athens ’ wasanintegral partofmychildhood.Mymother,GennyYaari(1921–2003),née Florentine,wasborninThessalonikitoaJewishfamilyofSpanish descent(descendantsofthoseexpelledfromSpainin1492),whoarrived thereinthelateseventeenthcenturyafter200yearsinFlorence.My father,HaiYaari(1915–98),wasbornintheCrimea,andwasafervent Zionistthroughouthislife.AfterlearningHebrewatanearlyage,he joinedtheHashomerHatza’ir(‘YoungGuard’)movement,andimmigratedtoIsraelin1932,attheageof17,aspartofagroupthat establishedKibbutzKfarMasaryk.Afewyearslater,heleftthekibbutz andstudiedeconomicsattheHebrewUniversity.IntheSecondWorld War,hejoinedtheBritishArmy.Towardstheendofthewar,hewas stationedinThessaloniki,wheremymotherhadreturnedwithher family,havingsoughtshelterinAthensduringthewar.Theymetata localWIZO(Women’sInternationalZionistOrganization)clubin1946, marriedinThessaloniki,andmadetheirhomeinTelAviv.
Sincemymother’sfamilyremainedinThessaloniki,mysisterAriela andIwerefortunatetotraveltherefrequentlyforfamilyvisits.During thesetrips,whichoftenextendedtovisitstoarchaeologicalsitesof Greece,theheroesofGreekmythology whomwehadlearnedabout fromthestoriesrecountedtousbyourparents cametolife.Butthese storieswerealwaysinterlacedwithstoriesfromtheHebrewBible.Thus, aswewalkedamongtheruinsofKnossos,ourfathertalkedaboutthe PhilistineswhosailedfromCreteandsettledalongthesoutherncoastsof Canaan;aswegazedatthestonesofMycenae,hetoldusaboutthestones oftheWesternWalloftheTemplecourtyardintheOldCityinJerusalem, toencourageustoimaginethemajestyofthesesites,thegreatnessof classicalGreeceandthegloryofancientJerusalem.
Thesewerefollowedbyexcitinghoursspentattheancienttheatresat Epidaurus,HerodiusAtticusinAthens,andthetheatreatDelphi, marvellingattheirextraordinaryacoustics,athowtheyopenedupto thesurroundinglandscape,andaboveall,atthe orchestra ,whereevery motionslicestheair,stirsthesoul,or,atparticularlypowerfulmoments,
inducesaphysicalreaction,andraisesspectatorsfromtheirseatsin surprise.
Afterafewsuchperformances,myfatewassealed:assoonas Icompletedmymilitaryconscription,IwenttoTelAvivUniversity whereIenrolledinClassicalStudiesandattheDepartmentofTheatrical Arts(DTA).Here,Iwasblessedwiththreeexceptionalteachers,whose spiritpervadesthechaptersofthisbook RuthNeuberger,whotaughtme ancientGreek,theatredirectorEdnaShavit,andMosheLazar,founderof theFacultyoftheArtsandexpertonthehistoryofWesterntheatre.They becamemymentors,andsteeredmeinmylong-windingpathinacademia.
Thepresentstudyemergedmanyyearslater,basedonmychildhood sightsinGreeceandfollowingmanyyearsofstudyandresearchof classicalGreektheatreandIsraelitheatre.Asaninterdisciplinary study,itdrawsitsinspirationfromthehistoriesofthesetwoneighbouringyetverydistantculturesinthepastandinthepresent,andfrom persistentcombinationoftheoryandpracticalexperimentationintheatre.FinancialsupportbytheIsraeliNationalScienceFundmadethis researchpossibleandIammostgratefulfortheirhelp.
Atthestartofmyacknowledgements,IwouldliketothankHilary O’Shea,LornaHardwick,andJamesPorteratOxfordUniversityPress forbelievinginthisbookfromtheoutset,andacceptingitforpublication intheirseries.Mygratitudetotheanonymousreaderwhosecomments onthebookproposalandonthemanuscriptasawholehelped me findtheproperarticulationofmyarguments.Ithankmyexcellent copy-editorJoannaNorthforherproficiencyandeyefordetail.Iam particularlyindebtedtoCharlotteLoveridgeandGeorginaLeightonfor theirinvaluableguidanceatallthestagesofthework.Withouttheir devotedwork,themanuscriptwouldnothavereachedasafeharbour.
Tworesearchassistants YanaKorandAdiChawin,graduatestudentsattheDTA scouredthearchives,methodicallycollatingallthe informationaboutIsraeliproductionsofclassicalGreektheatre,and stagedesignersYaelRosen-TalandDinaKonsoncollectedthevisual documentationoftheperformances.Iamindebtedtothemfortheir dedicatedworkandinterestingdiscussionsoftheir findings.Mythanks alsogotomymanystudentswhoexploredtheencounterbetweenthe classicalGreekandHebrewculturesduringtheirstudiesinthepast decade,aswellasallthosewhotookpartintheresearchlaboratorieson theatricalperformancein2012–15.Theirenthusiasm,focusedquestions,
andcontemporaryperspectiveoftheclassicaltraditionsurprisedand challengedmeonadailybasis.IamalsogratefultoJonathanOrr-Stav forhiswonderfultranslationofthemanuscriptandofthevarious excerptsofplaysusedthroughoutthebook:ourcorrespondenceraised manyissuesofcontentandform,andhelpedtoilluminatethediscussion andexpandmyhorizons.
Itisagreatpleasuretothankallmyfriends,colleagues,andtheatre folkwhohelpedmethroughouttheresearchandwritingofthebook. FirstandforemostaretheatremakersEdnaShavit,HanochLevin,Nissim Aloni,ZahariraHarifai,HannaMaron,RoniToren,YossiYizraely,Rina Yerushalmi,andRuthKanner someofwhomIwasfortunateenoughto workwith,andallofwhomengagedmeinlongconversationsafter readingtheirplays,orwatchingtheirrehearsalsandperformances. Theywerealwaysavailabletorespondtomyquestions,andprovided insightsintotheirworkatthetheatre.
DeepthanksarealsoduetoHannahNaveh,formerDeanofthe FacultyoftheArtsandaclosefriend,whoreadthemanuscriptinits entirety,andwhosequestionsandcommentshelpedmebringthetext intosharperfocus.ThanksarealsoduetoDanUrianandFreddieRokem whoreadpartsofthemanuscriptanddiscussedthemwithme.Particular thankstoDavidWilesforhisreading,mentoring,discussions,and critiques,andtoLornaHardwick,whoreadandrespondedtovarious passagesduringmyresearch,andpublishedearlierchaptersinthebooks thatsheedited.SpecialthanksareduetoOliverTaplin,whoprovedto meinhisimportantpublicationsandinmeetingsinOxfordandin Athensthatlinkingclassicaldramatohistoricalartefactsandtheoryto practiceisnotonlypossible,butnecessary.Iamdeeplyindebtedtomy friendandcolleagueJeannetteMalkinforourweeklytalks,forher supportandhelpinmomentsofindecision,andforhercarefulreading ofseveralchapters.Versionsofvariouschapterswerealsoreadand discussedbyfriendsandcolleagues:IamprofoundlygratefultoDorit Yerushalmi,ShimonLevy,SabineBossan,JacquelineCarnaud,and MiriamMottesfortheirfriendship,discussions,andadvice.
Overtheyears,thisresearchhasbeenpresentedasaworkinprogressat conferencesinTelAviv,BeerSheva,Haifa,Athens,Thessaloniki,Paris, Lille,andNewYork,andatmeetingsofthehistoriographygroupofthe InternationalFederationofTheatreResearchinBarcelonaandinWarwick. Mythanksgotoallparticipantswhoenlightenedmewiththeircomments.
Finally,mythanksandgratitudegotothestaffatseveralarchives,who weregenerousenoughtohelpmeincollatingtheinformationforthis research.Firstandforemost,tothewonderfulteamattheIsraeliCenter fortheDocumentationofthePerformingArts(ICDPA)atTelAviv University:toformerdirectorShellyZer-Zion;thepresentdirector OlgaLevitan;andtoYanaKor,ShayMarkus,SophiaZilber,andHadas Kramer-Sherman.AlsotothedirectorsoftheCameriTheatreArchive AviBlecherandYoramAmir,thearchivestaffatHabimaTheatre: founderHanniZeligson,anditspresentdirectorRamiSemo,andthe archivestaffofBatshevaDanceCompanyatBeitAriela.
Acquiringtheimagesforthebookwasaseriouschallenge.Onoccasion,a singleimagerequiredachainofcorrespondenceacrosscontinentsand oceans.Inparticular,IwishtothankMichaelaMendeJancoforhersupport andencouragementinthelongjourneytolocatetheimageoftheset designedbyMarcelJancoforthe Antigone productionof1946,and NoamSemelforhisgenerousagreementtopublishit.Specialthanksare alsoduetothephotographersSrulikHaramaty,GérardAlon,Tzachi Ostrovsky,KerenRosenberg,andAdiAlon;toDavidAlexanderand DubiNattivwhodugthroughdrawersto findtheimagesofthe Antigone productionof1969;toGuyGodorov,whocuratedtheimagesfromthe universitytheatrearchive;andtostagedesignersRoniTorenandDina Konson,whoprovidedmewithphotographsoftheplaysthattheydesigned.
Finally,myloveandgratitudetothosewhoservedasmy ‘protective buffer’ duringalltheyearsofresearchandwriting:mybelovedsister Ariela,whosharedwithmethememoriesofthosesummersinGreece andsupportedmeintimesofcrisis;myson(inallbutname)Assafandmy belovednieceMaya;andlastbutnotleastNatan,mybelovedspouseand lifepartner,whostoodbymeandformewithendlessloveanddevotion.
PreviousPublications Earlierversionsofseveralchaptershavebeenpreviouslypublishedin variousmodifiedforms:
• PartsofChapters6and8werepublishedin ‘AristophanesinIsrael: Comedy,Theatricality,Politics’,in AncientComedyandReception: EssaysinHonorofJeffreyHenderson,ed.S.DouglasOlson(Boston: DeGruyter,2014),964–83.
• PartsofChapter7werepublishedin ‘TheatricalResponsestoPoliticalEvents:TheTrojanWarontheIsraeliStageduringthe LebanonWar1982–1984’ , JournalofTheatreandDrama 4 (1998):99–123,andin ‘ConstructingBridgesforPeaceandTolerance:AncientGreekDramaontheIsraeliStage’,in Classicsinthe ModernWorld:ADemocraticTurn?,ed.LornaHardwickand StephenHarrison(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013), 227–44.Reproducedbykindpermissionofthe JournalofTheatre andDrama (JTD)(ProfessorAvrahamOzinthecapacityofEditor).
• PartofChapter9waspublishedin ‘StagingDying:HanochLevin versusAeschylusonHumanSuffering’,in OnInterpretationinthe Arts,ed.NuritYaari(TelAviv:AssaphBookSeries,2000),327–43.
Transliterations Israelinamesaretranscribedphonetically,unlessthepersoninquestion hasapreferredspellingoftheirnameinEnglish hence,forexample, Yitzhak,andnot Isaac.Thedropped final h innamessuchas Habima and Lea [Goldberg]isinkeepingwithpastconventionsoftransliteration.
Hebrew-LanguageReferences Toavoidexcessiverepetitionofthequali fication ‘(inHebrew)’ attheend ofeveryHebrew-languagereference,allIsraelipublicationsreferencedin thenotesandBibliographyshouldbeassumedtobeinHebrew,unless otherwisestated.
ListofIllustrations 2.1 OedipusTyrannus bySophocles,HabimaTheatre(1947). Director:TyroneGuthrie;stagedesign:ShalomSebba. Theopeningscene:Oedipus(ShimonFinkel),andagroup ofcitizensintheritualofsupplication. 51 CourtesyoftheHabimaTheatreArchive.
3.1 Electra byEuripides,TheCameriTheatre(1964).Director: GershonPlotkin;stagedesign:DaniKaravan.Pictured: OrnaPorat(Electra);OriLevy(Orestes);andthe chorusofwomen.84 PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
4.1 Bacchae byEuripides,TheActors’ Stage(1968).Director: AriehSachs;stagedesign:AdaHameirit.Pictured: AlizaRosen(Agave)andherchorusofBacchantes. 104 PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
4.2 Medea bySeneca,TheCameriTheatre(1971).Director: YossiYizraely;stagedesign:IgaelTumarkin.Cast: HannaMaron(Medea);ZahariraHarifai(TheNurse); Ze’evRevah(Jason). 119
PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
4.3 IphigeniaatAulis byEuripides,TheatreEnsembleHerzliya (2009).Director:YossiYizraely;stagedesign:Frida Klapholtz-Avrahami;musicalarrangement:AdiZisman. Cast:GdaliaBesser(Agamemnon);SalwaNakara (Clytemnestra);NaomiPromovitz(Iphigenia);OdeliaSegal (TheChorus).128
PhotographbyGérardAllon.
5.1 Peace byAristophanes,TheActorsʼ Stage(1968).Director: AriehSachs;stagedesign:AdaHameirit.Cast:Amnon Meskin(Trygeus);OfraBen-Ami(Peace);LevanaFinkelstein andBenziMunitz(chorus). 155
PhotographbyYaacovAgor.Reproducedbycourtesyofthe YaacovAgorCollection,IsraeliCenterfortheDocumentation ofthePerformingArts,TelAvivUniversity.
6.1 TheLostWomenofTroy byHanochLevin,TheCameri Theatre(1984).Director:HanochLevin;stagedesign: RoniToren.Cast:ZahariraHarifai(Hecuba):Yosef Carmon(Agamemnon);JudithYanai(Astyanax). 199 PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
7.1 Lysistrata byAristophanes,TheCameriTheatre(1969). Pictured:OrnaPorat(Lysistrata),andtheconflictbetween thetwochoruses themenandthewomen. 227 PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
8.1 EddyKing byNissimAloni,HabimaTheatre(1975). Director:NissimAloni;stagedesign:ShalomVitkin. Cast:YossiBanai(Eddy);StellaAvni(Giocasta); RaphaelKlatzkin(Joe);NahumBuchman(Creone).260 PhotographbyYaacovAgor.Reproducedbycourtesyofthe YaacovAgorCollection,IsraeliCenterfortheDocumentation ofthePerformingArts,TelAvivUniversity.
9.1 EverybodyWantstoLive byHanochLevin,TheCameri Theatre(1985).Director:HanochLevin;stagedesign: RuthDar.Finalscene: ‘AGrotesqueEpiphany’ . 292 PhotographbySrulikHaramaty.
10.1 Eumenides byAeschylus,DepartmentofTheatreArts, TelAvivUniversity(1996).Director:RuthKanner.Cast: YoavMichaeli(Orestes);ShirlyGalSegev,TaliKark, LilachEnglestein,andSharonHarnoy(theErinyes).325 CourtesyofRuthKannerGroupArchive.
10.2 ÀlaGuerreCommeàlaGuerre createdbyIlan Ronen,HabimaTheatre(2002).Director:IlanRonen; stagedesign:MikiBenCnaan. 333 PhotographbyGérardAllon.
10.3 Mythos createdbyRinaYerushalmi,ItimEnsemble(2002). Director:RinaYerushalmi;stagedesign:Ra fi Segaland EyalWeitzman.Pictured: TheDanceoftheErinyes.345 PhotographbyGérardAllon.
10.4 Antigone bySophocles,co-productionbyHabimaTheatre andTheCameriTheatre(2006).Director:HananSnir; stagedesign:RoniToren. 353 CourtesyoftheHabimaTheatreArchive.
10.5 Oedipus:ACaseStudy,createdbyHananSnir,Habima Theatre(2015).Director:HananSnir;stagedesign: RoniToren.Pictured:the finalscene. 356 PhotographbyGérardAllon.
11.1 Antigone bySophocles,DepartmentofTheatreArts,Tel AvivUniversity(1969).Director:EdnaShavit.Cast:David Alexander(Creon);GitaZeltzer(Antigone);HayaLipshitz (Ismene);andChorus. 364 ©PhotographbyTzachiOstrovsky.
11.2 Antigone byAnouilh,DepartmentofTheatreArts,TelAviv University(2004).Director:ShirGoldberg;stagedesign: DinaKonson. 376 PhotographbyDinaKonson.
11.3 Medea byEuripides,DepartmentofTheatreArts,TelAviv University(1999).Director:EdnaShavit;stagedesign:Liat Reichenberg-Oron.Cast:HilaShikman(Medea);Guy Mannheim(Jason). 378 PhotographreproducedbycourtesyoftheTelAvivUniversity TheatreArtsDepartmentArchive.
11.4 Cassandra,choreographybyRonitZiv(2013).Dancers: GefenLiebermanandSophieKrantz. 385 PhotographbyAdiAlon.
11.5 TheGeneralandtheSea createdbyYonatanLevyand NoamEnbar,TheInterdisciplinaryArtArena(2015). Pictured:MenasheNoy(TheGeneral),surroundedby thechorusofseawaves. 389 PhotographbyKerenRozenberg.
1 Introduction Tragedyisnotonlyanartform;itisalsoasocialinstitutionthatthe city,byestablishingcompetitionsintragedies,setupalongsideits politicalandlegalinstitutions.
JeanPierreVernant¹
On9February1947 inthe finaldaysofBritishMandatoryrulein Palestine OedipusTyrannus,²the firstproductionofaclassicalGreek tragedyinHebrew,premieredattheHabimaTheatreinTelAviv.³The eventtookplacebetweentwoothermilestoneeventsinthehistoryof Hebrew/Israelitheatre:twenty-fiveyearsafterthepremiereofShlomo Ansky’ s TheDybbuk inMoscow(1922),underthedirectionofYvgeny Vakhtangov commonlyregardedasthebirthofprofessionalHebrew theatreinthemodernera andayearbeforeMosheShamir’ s HeWalked ThroughtheFields (1948),directedbyYossefMilo,markingthedawnof nativeIsraelitheatre,attheheightofIsrael’sWarofIndependence.⁴
ThisencounteroftheHebrewtheatre,animportantZionistculturaltool, with OedipusTyrannus,theclassicalGreektragedyandwidelyregarded universalmasterpiece,provedtobeaseminalmomentinIsraelitheatre. CoincidingasitdidwiththebirthofIsraelisocietyasanindependent,
¹Jean-PierreVernant, ‘TensionsandAmbiguitiesinGreekTragedy’,inJean-Pierre VernantandPierreVidal-Naquet, MythandTragedyinAncientGreece,trans.Janet Lloyd(NewYork:ZoneBooks,1990),32–3.
²InHebrew,thetitleoftheplaytranslatesliterallyas ‘OedipustheKing’;Guthrierefers tohisproductionatHabimausingtheLatintitle OedipusRex.InreferencetoSophocles’ play,Ishallusethetitle OedipusTyrannus.
³Theoriginalrenditionofthetheatre’snameinEnglishwas Habimah (seeMendel Kohansky, TheHebrewTheatre:ItsFirstFiftyYears (Jerusalem:IsraelUniversitiesPress, 1969)).Today,however,itisspeltHabimawithoutthe final ‘h’.Seethetheatre’sofficial website,<http://www.habima.co.il/>(accessed23September2016).
⁴ TheStudywassupportedbyTheIsraeliScienceFoundation(Grantno.797/09).
modern,anddemocraticpoliticalandculturalentity, OedipusTyrannus pointedtothehistoricalalliancebetweentragedyanddemocracy,as suggestedbyVernant.⁵ ItsimportanceforIsraelicultureis,inmyview, easilyonaparwiththestagingof OedipusRex inVicenzain1585,whichis commonlyregardedasmarkingtheintroductionofclassicalGreektragedy intoRenaissanceItalianculturewithitscaptivatingblendofrepetition, interpretation,andinnovation,andthemultidisciplinaryandmulti-layered dialoguethatitprecipitatedintheyearstocome.⁶
Manyofthequestionsthatemergedinthecourseofmyresearchinto thereceptionofclassicalGreekdramainIsraelitheatrecanalsobeposed inrelationtothe1947productionof OedipusTyrannus.Theseinclude: Diditscreatorsimagineitasanexampleofauniversaltradition,orasan experimentintheconstructionofanew,localtradition?Wasitseenby Israelicriticsasaforeignimport,orasanexampleoflocalassimilation andappropriation?Howwasitreceivedbythewiderpublic?Coulda collectiveofactorsthathadbegunasatouringtroupeserveasarepresentativenationalinstitution?Wastheproductioninevitablyareflectionofa foreigntransplant,oranexperimentallaboratoryfordevelopingalocal theatricallanguage orboth?
Whilethecriticsravedabouttheproduction,theaudience ’sreaction wasmixed:somewerefavourablydisposedtowardssuchclassicalrepertoireasanexampleof ‘eliteculture’ andsawitasanessentialcontributiontothe Bildung ofthecountry’seducatedbourgeoisie,whileothers werebemusedandalienatedbytheworlddepictedonstage.Thegrand biblicalregisteroftheHebrewtranslation,theissuesraisedbytheplot, andtheornatesetthatechoedandmagnifiedthepoweroftheverbal images,wereallutterlyforeigntomanyintheaudiencewhofeltthatthe productionwasforeigntothehegemonicZionistcultureofthetime.
ThismixedresponsemayexplainwhytherepertoireofclassicalGreek dramainIsraelitheatreproductionshasbeencomparativelylimitedin its firstseventyyears eventhoughtheatreasawholehas firmlyestablisheditselfasanimportanthubofIsraeliculture,andenjoysexcellent attendance figuresbyinternationalstandards.Themixedresponsealso gaverisetotwocontrastingtrendsthatsubsequentlyemergedinthe choicesofrepertoiresandstylesmadebytheatreprofessionalswithregard
⁵ Seetheepigraphtothischapter.
⁶ PierreVidal-Naquet, ʻOedipusinVicenzaandinParisʼ,inVernantandVidal-Naquet, MythandTragedy,361–71.
toclassicalplays:onethatstrictlyrespectedthetextualandperformative challengesposedbytheclassicaltextwhileseekingacontemporarytheatricalmeansofdealingwithitselements,theotherseekingtomakethe performancesaccessibletothewiderpublicbyadaptingtheirplotsto makethemrelevanttomodernIsraelisocialandpoliticalreality.Thus, playssuchas OedipusTyrannus, Electra, Medea,and TheBacchantes were chosenforexplorationof,andexperimentationwith,dramaturgicaland artisticissues,whileplayssuchas ThePersians, Agamemnon, Antigone, WomenofTroy, IphigeniaatAulis,and Lysistrata werechosenfortheir dominantthemeofwarasabackdroptotheplot,underscoringtheir politicalrelevancetothedailyrealityofIsraeliaudiences.Indeed,one mightsaythatthesetwotrendshavegovernedhowclassicalGreekdrama isreceivedinIsraelitheatretothisday.
BetweenAthensandJerusalem Theatre,asanart,acommunityevent,andaculturalinstitution,isentirely ‘Athens’ innature:thatiswhereitwas firstcreatedinthelatesixthcentury BCE,andwhereitacquireditsform,conventions,andconcepts.⁷ Asa visualandperformativeart,itisrootedinallaspectsofclassicalGreek art poetry,music,dance,sculpture,painting,andarchitecture;indeed, theirfusioniswhatgaverisetothisindependentanduniqueartform.As acivicinstitution,theatreisfoundedonthevaluesofdemocraticAthens anditspublicrealm(educationforexcellence,collectiveresponsibility, independentandcriticalthinkingandculturalopenness,asortofMediterranean ‘universalism’),whichweremanifestedinoneformoranother ineveryplayandeveryperformanceattheGreatDionysiaFestival.⁸ WesterndramaevolvedthroughadialoguewithclassicalGreekand Romandrama onewhicheventuallybecameamulti-layeredtheatrical tradition.WalterBurkertdefinedtheterm ‘myth’ asatraditionalretelling
⁷ VernantandVidal-Naquet, MythandTragedy,23–8,29–48.
⁸ CharlesSegal, TragedyandCivilization:AnInterpretationofSophocles (Cambridge, MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1981);NicoleLoraux, TheInventionofAthens:TheFuneral OrationintheClassicalCity,trans.AlanSheridan(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity Press,1986);FromaI.Zeitlin, ʻThebes:TheatreofSelfandSocietyinAthenianDramaʼ,in NothingtoDowithDionysos?AthenianDramainItsSocialContext,ed.JohnJ.Winklerand FromaI.Zeitlin(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1990),130–67;SimonGoldhill, ʻTheGreatDionisiaandCivicIdeologyʼ,in NothingtoDowithDionysos?,ed.Winklerand Zeitlin,97–129;SimonGoldhillandRobynOsborne,eds, PerformanceCultureandAthenianDemocracy (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999).
ofmeaningsthatarerelevanttoagivencommunity,recountedtomeet communalneeds,andtherebyattainingculturalpower.⁹ Greekdrama demonstratesthepowerandmodusoperandiofmyth,sinceitconstitutesaverbalcoreofsustainedsharedtraditionsandasetofstoriesthat shapesourperceptionofmanandtheworld,throughrepeated,translated,andrewrittenpresentations.¹⁰ However,thedialogueofWestern dramawiththatofclassicalGreeceisacomplexone,markedbyideologicalrepression,negotiatedanxietiesaboutin fluence,andalways withinthecontinuumofawiderhistoricalandcriticalcontext.¹¹Inthe twentiethcentury,thisdialoguecaptivatedplaywrightssuchasEugene O’Neill,WilliamButlerYeats,HugovonHofmannsthal,JeanCocteau, AndréGide,JeanGiraudoux,JeanAnouilh,Jean-PaulSartre,Heiner Müller,WoleSoyinka,SarahKane,MartinCrimp,andCharlesMee.It alsoinformedtheinterpretationsofclassicalGreektragediesbyinnovativetheatredirectorssuchasMaxReinhardt,LeopoldJessner,Tyrone Guthrie,MarthaGraham,MichelSaint-Denis,KarolosKoun,Richard Schechner,PeterHall,PeterStein,KlausMichaelGrüber,EinarSchleef, ArianeMnouchkine,TheodorosTerzopoulos,JulieTaymor,Włodzimierz StanievskiandJanFabre tonamejustthemostnotable.Alltheseartists chosetorevisittheplotsofclassicaltragedybecauseitsportrayalofthe humanconditionresonatedwiththem,andbecausetheywereinspired byitspoetic,aesthetic,andtheatricalqualities,andbythechallengesthat itposedtocontemporarytheatre.¹²
Incontrast,theatreisintrinsicallyaliento ‘Jerusalem’—bothasanart formandasaculturalinstitution.Herod(theGreat)introducedRoman theatreintoJudaeaasaformofpublicentertainmentintheSecond Templeperiod,whenheincorporatedoneintheseasidetownofCaesarea thathebuiltbetween22and10 BCE anddedicatedtoAugustus,the Romanemperor.Subsequently,heissaidtohavebuiltanotheronein Jerusalem(althoughithasyettobefound).Bythethirdcentury CE,many
⁹ WalterBurkert, StructureandHistoryinGreekMythologyandRitual (Berkeleyand LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1979),22–3.
¹
⁰ NorthropFrye, MythandMetaphor:SelectedEssays1974–1988 (Charlottesville: UniversityPressofVirginia,1988);GeorgeSteiner, Antigones (Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,1984).
¹¹RolandBarthes, Image,Music,Text (NewYork:Hill&Wang,1977);HaroldBloom, TheAnxietyofInfluence:ATheoryofPoetry (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1997); MikhailM.Bakhtin, TheDialogicImagination (Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1990).
¹²Jean-PaulSartre, ʻForgersofMythsʼ,in PlaywrightsonPlaywriting,ed.TobyCole (NewYork:Hill&Wang,1961),116–24.
suchRomantheatreshadbeenbuiltthroughoutthecountry¹³ but performanceswereattendedmostlybythenon-Jewishpopulation.
ThroughoutthehistoryofJewishculture,theatreoscillatedfurtively betweenprohibitionandfascination.Evenacursorysurveyofthehistory ofJewishcultureissufficienttonotetheconspicuousabsenceofatheatricaltradition.Indeed,theveryterm ‘Jewishtheatre’ mightberegarded anoxymoron,sinceitostensiblyviolatesthesecondcommandment’ s prohibitionofanykindofrepresentation: ‘Thoushaltnotmaketheeany gravenimageoranylikenessofanythingthatisinheavenabove,orthat isintheearthbeneath’ (Deut.5:8).Deut.27:16repeateditsdenunciation ofanyone ‘thatmakethanygravenormoltenimage’;Deut.22:5forbids menfromwearingwomen’sclothing,sharingwomen’saccessories,or swappinggenderroles;andPsalms1:1praiseshewhorefrainsfromsitting ‘intheseatofthescornful’.Moreover,therabbinicalauthoritiesinthe earlycenturiesoftheCommonEraandinearlyandlateTalmudic literaturerepeatedlybannedthestagingorevenattendingoftheatrical productions,onthegroundsthatitwasaformofidolatryorpagan worship,thusmakingtheatrethequintessentialillustrationofthedichotomybetween ‘Athens’ and ‘Jerusalem’.¹⁴
ResearchersexplaintheabsenceofJewishtheatreinpreviouscenturies ongroundsofritualortheology;theabstractnatureofJudaicmonotheism;forphilosophicalorhistoricalreasons;orbecauseofparticular socialandpoliticalcircumstances.¹⁵ AsGershonShaked,anotedIsraeli literarycriticandscholar,pointedout:
[Theatre]wasrejectedbytheJewishpeoplebecauseitrancountertothevery spiritofJudaism:monotheismdoesnottoleratedramaticpolaritythatisfounded onmyth.Othershavepreferredasocio-historicalexplanation:dramacannot developinapeoplewithnohomelandortheatre.¹⁶
¹³AccordingtoArthurSegal,atpresentweknowofeleventheatresinRomanPalestine, westoftheriverJordan:Sepphoris(Tzipori),Dor,Legio,Scythopolis(BeitShe’an),Shuni, Caesarea,Samaria(Sebaste),Neapolis,Antipatris,Jericho,andElusa.SeeArthurSegal, TheatresinRomanPalestine&ProvinciaArabia (Leiden:Brill,1995),3.Ofthese,Caesarea, Shuni,andBeitShe’anhavebeenrestoredorreconstructed,andserveasvenuesforlive performancestoday.
¹⁴ TalmudYerushalmi:Brakhot 4b.SeealsoEstherDvorjetski, ‘TheTheatreinRabbinic Literature’,in AspectsofTheatreandCultureintheGraeco-RomanWorld,ed.ArthurSegal (Haifa:UniversityofHaifa,FacultyofHumanities,1994),51–68.
¹⁵ AhuvaBelkin, ThePurimspiel:StudiesinJewishFolkTheatre (Jerusalem:Bialik Institute,2002),870–1.
¹⁶ GershonShaked, TheHebrewHistoricalDramaintheTwentiethCentury (Jerusalem: BialikInstitute,1970),9.
Thereasons,then,arediverse,buttheresultisclear:althoughahandful ofJewishdramaswerewrittenoverthecenturies invariouslanguages, genres,andstyles,andatdifferenttimesandlocations theydidnot amounttoasustainedcontinuumthatmightberegardedasatradition.
ItisonlyintheaftermathoftheJewishEnlightenmentmovementat theendoftheeighteenthcenturyandthereligiousreformsoftheearly nineteenthcentury,thatYiddishtheatreemergedinthe finalquarterof thenineteenthcentury,asaformofpopularentertainmentforJewish communitiesofCentralEurope.Hebrewtheatre,foritspart,emergedat thebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinMoscowand Eretz-Yisrael (Hebrew, ‘theLandofIsrael’)asakeycontributionintherebirthof HebrewasalivinglanguageandtherealizationofZionistvisionand Jewishnationalaspirations.¹⁷ Theologicalphilosophersandhistorians havewrittenmuchaboutthe ‘Athens’ and ‘Jerusalem’ divide eitherby highlightingthesignificanceofbothculturesaspillarsofWesterncivilization,¹⁸ orbytheorizingaboutthe ‘mirrorcondition’ thatformedatthe interfacesbetweenthetwoculturesasturningpointsintheself-definition ofJewishculture.YaacovShavit’sseminalbook AthensinJerusalem: ClassicalAntiquityandHellenismintheMakingoftheModernSecular Jew,showshowtheencountersbetweenthesetwocultureswereformative inthecreationofmodernHebrewculture.¹⁹
AccordingtoShavit,this ‘mirrorcondition’ firstemergedinthe troubledencounterbetweentheGreekandHebrewculturesinIsraelof theHellenisticperiod.ThisledtotheneedofJewstoseparatethemselves fromallthingsHellenicandforeign:toshapeJudaismasareligion, nationality,andculture,andtodefineand fixthecollectivememoryby compilingthebiblicalcanon,and,insubsequentcenturies,theteachings oftheTalmud.Thesecondencounteroccurredinthenineteenthcentury inGermanyduringtheEnlightenmentperiod,whenphilologistsand
¹⁷ Kohansky, TheHebrewTheatre,141–5;ShimonLev-Ari, ‘TheBeginningsofTheatre PerformancesinEretz-Israel1889–1904’,in TheatreinIsrael,ed.LindaBen-Zvi(Ann Arbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1996),403–13;FreddieRokem, ‘HebrewTheatrefrom 1889to1948’,in TheatreinIsrael,ed.Ben-Zvi,51–84;GlendaAbramson, Dramaand IdeologyinModernIsrael (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).
¹⁸ LeoStrauss, ‘JerusalemandAthens:SomePreliminaryReflections’,in Studiesin PlatonicPoliticalPhilosophy (Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,1983),147–73.
¹⁹ YaacovShavit, AthensinJerusalem:ClassicalAntiquityandHellenismintheMaking oftheModernSecularJew (LondonandPortland,OR:TheLittmanLibraryofJewish Civilization1997),355–75.
historiansestablishedtheroleofclassicalGreekcultureasthebedrockof Westerncivilizationandacornerstoneoftheeducationofyoungintellectuals.Thistime,the ‘mirrorcondition’ cameaboutwheneducated Jews,whohadlefttheinsularJewishcommunity,becameacquainted withclassicalGreekculture,andbyjuxtaposingitagainstitsJewish counterpart,laidthegroundworkforthemodernJewishidentity.²⁰
InthisbookIfocusontheencounterbetweenthesetwoculturesinthe twentiethcentury,inthecontextofIsraelitheatreintheStateofIsrael. Irefertothemas ‘Athens’ and ‘Jerusalem’ asashorthandforthetwo distinctspheresofinfluenceintheJewishnationalrenaissanceinmoderntimes,asencapsulatedinthetitlesoftwofamousHebrewpoems: InFrontoftheBookcase byHaimNahmanBialik,whichpresentsthe Jewishbookcase,namelyscripturesandsacredtexts,asthebasisofJewish identity,and InFrontoftheStatueofApollo byShaulTchernichovsky, whichpresentsclassicalGreekcultureasthefoundationofauniversal humanisticidentityforenlightenedJews.Thisnotionwasechoedinthe inscriptionleftbyDavidBen-GurioninHabima’sguestbookatthe premiereofAristophanes’ Lysistrata in1958,wherehelinked Lysistrata’ s visionofpeacewiththevisionoftheJewishprophets.²¹Mycontention isthattheencounterwith ‘Athens’—intheguiseofclassicalGreekdrama hasbeenadrivingandinspiringforceinthepastseventyyears,by spurringIsraelitheatreartiststoquestionissuesofculturalidentity,and encouragingthemtoengageinanintellectual,artistic,andpolitical dialoguewithbothJewishculture(theparticular)andclassicalGreek drama(theuniversal).
WeavingTogetherHistoriesandTraditions ThelackofacontinuoustheatretraditioninJewishculturecreated ananomalythatdifferentiatesIsraelitheatrefrommanyothertheatre cultures.Overthedecades,parallelformsofdramaemerged,distinguishedbytime,space,language,andtheatricalvenues: ‘Jewishdrama’ , ²⁰ TessaRajak, TheJewishDialoguewithGreeceandRome (BostonandLeiden:Brill,2002), 535–57;MiriamLeonard, SocratesandtheJews:HellenismandHebraismfromMoses MendelssohntoSigmundFreud (Chicago,ILandLondon:UniversityofChicagoPress,2012). ²¹SeeepigraphatthestartofChapter7.
