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ALGAEANDAQUATICMACROPHYTES INCITIES ALGAE ANDAQUATIC MACROPHYTES INCITIES Bioremediation,Biomass,Biofuels andBioproducts Editedby
VIMAL CHANDRA PANDEY
DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,BabasahebBhimraoAmbedkarUniversity,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
Elsevier
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Contributors ShahrukhNawajAlam DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,CentralUniversityof Jharkhand,Ranchi,Jharkhand,India
EduardaTorresAmaral EnvironmentalTechnologyPostgraduationProgram;Centerof ExcellenceinOilchemistryandBiotechnology, UniversityofSantaCruzdoSul,UNISC,Santa CruzdoSul,RioGrandedoSul,Brazil
GangadharAndaluri DepartmentofCiviland EnvironmentalEngineering,TempleUniversity,Philadelphia,PA,UnitedStates
ThiliniU.Ariyadasa DepartmentofChemical andProcessEngineering,UniversityofMoratuwa,Moratuwa,SriLanka
ArnabAtta AdvancedTechnologyDevelopmentCenter;DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnology Kharagpur,Kharagpur,WestBengal,India
SrijoniBanerjee AdvancedTechnologyDevelopmentCenter,IndianInstituteofTechnology Kharagpur,Kharagpur,WestBengal,India
LisianneBrittesBenitez EnvironmentalTechnologyPostgraduationProgram;Centerof ExcellenceinOilchemistryandBiotechnology, UniversityofSantaCruzdoSul,UNISC,Santa CruzdoSul,RioGrandedoSul,Brazil
NathalieBourgougnon Laboratoirede BiotechnologieetChimieMarines,Universite BretagneSud,EA3884,UBS,IUEM,Vannes, France
LauraBulgariu GheorgheAsachiUniversityof Iasi,“CristoforSimionescu”FacultyofChemicalEngineeringandEnvironmentalProtection, DepartmentofEnvironmentalEngineeringand Management,Iasi,Romania
RosanadeCassiadeSouzaSchneider EnvironmentalTechnologyPostgraduationProgram; CenterofExcellenceinOilchemistryand
Biotechnology,UniversityofSantaCruzdo Sul,UNISC,SantaCruzdoSul,RioGrande doSul,Brazil
ManonChoulot LaboratoiredeBiotechnologie etChimieMarines,UniversiteBretagneSud, EA3884,UBS,IUEM,Vannes;PlantNutrition Department,AgroInnovationInternational— TimacAgro,Saint-Malo,France;Facultyof Chemistry,DepartmentofAdvancedMaterial Technologies,WrocławUniversityofScience andTechnology,Wrocław,Poland
Senem OnenCinar CircularResourceEngineeringandManagement,HamburgUniversityofTechnology,Hamburg,Germany
SagarDaki DepartmentofMicrobiology,Parul InstituteofAppliedSciences,ParulUniversity, Vadodara,Gujarat,India
DebabrataDas DepartmentofBiotechnology, IndianInstituteofTechnologyKharagpur, Kharagpur,WestBengal,India
KatarzynaDziergowska FacultyofChemistry, DepartmentofAdvancedMaterialTechnologies,WrocławUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Wrocław,Poland
Fa ´ biodeFariasNeves DepartmentofFisheries Engineering,SantaCatarinaStateUniversity, UDESC,Floriano ´ polis,SantaCatarina,Brazil
AbhishekGuldhe DepartmentofBiotechnology,AmityUniversity,Mumbai,India
SanjayKumarGupta EnvironmentalEngineering,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,Indian InstituteofTechnologyDelhi,NewDelhi,India
P.Hariprasad EnvironmentalBiotechnology Laboratory,CentreforRuralDevelopment andTechnology,IndianInstituteofTechnology Delhi,NewDelhi,India
JyotsnaKaushal CenterforWaterSciences, ChitkaraUniversityInstituteofEngineering
andTechnology,ChitkaraUniversity,Rajpura, Punjab,India
ZairaKhalid DepartmentofEnvironmental Sciences,CentralUniversityofJharkhand, Ranchi,Jharkhand,India
Se-KwonKim DepartmentofMarineSciences &ConvergenceEngineering,Collegeof ScienceandTechnology,HanyangUniversity, Gyeonggi-do,RepublicofKorea
ArinaKosheleva CircularResourceEngineeringandManagement,HamburgUniversityof Technology,Hamburg,Germany
S.Koushalya AppliedMicrobiologyLaboratory;EnvironmentalBiotechnologyLaboratory, CentreforRuralDevelopmentandTechnology, IndianInstituteofTechnologyDelhi,New Delhi,India
KerstinKuchta CircularResourceEngineering andManagement,HamburgUniversityof Technology,Hamburg,Germany
MehmetAliKuc ¸ uker DepartmentofEnvironmentalEngineering, _ IzmirInstituteofTechnology, Izmir,Turkey
CecileLeGuillard PlantNutritionDepartment, AgroInnovationInternational—TimacAgro, Saint-Malo,France
PoojaMahajan CenterforWaterSciences, ChitkaraUniversityInstituteofEngineering andTechnology,ChitkaraUniversity,Rajpura, Punjab,India
AnushreeMalik AppliedMicrobiologyLaboratory,CentreforRuralDevelopmentand Technology,IndianInstituteofTechnology Delhi,NewDelhi,India
CarmenMateescu NationalInstitutefor ResearchandDevelopmentinElectricalEngineeringICPE-CA,Bucharest,Romania
IzabelaMichalak FacultyofChemistry,DepartmentofAdvancedMaterialTechnologies, WrocławUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Wrocław,Poland
MahmoudNasr EnvironmentalEngineering Department,Egypt-JapanUniversityof ScienceandTechnology(E-JUST);Sanitary
EngineeringDepartment,FacultyofEngineering,AlexandriaUniversity,Alexandria,Egypt
ArvindKumarNema EnvironmentalEngineering,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnologyDelhi,New Delhi,India
VimalChandraPandey DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,BabasahebBhimrao AmbedkarUniversity,Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh,India
RatihPangestuti ResearchandDevelopment DivisionforMarineBioIndustry(BBIL),IndonesianInstituteofSciences(LIPI),WestNusa Tenggara,RepublicofIndonesia
ShubhangiParmar DepartmentofMicrobiology,ParulInstituteofAppliedSciences,Parul University,Vadodara,Gujarat,India
VinayakVandanPathak DepartmentofChemistry,ManavRachnaUniversity,Faridabad, Haryana,India
IdhamSumartoPrathama ResearchandDevelopmentDivisionforMarineBioIndustry (BBIL),IndonesianInstituteofSciences (LIPI),WestNusaTenggara,Republicof Indonesia
YanuariskaPutra ResearchandDevelopment DivisionforMarineBioIndustry(BBIL),IndonesianInstituteofSciences(LIPI),WestNusa Tenggara,RepublicofIndonesia
Rachna EnvironmentalEngineering,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,IndianInstitute ofTechnologyDelhi,NewDelhi;Department ofEnvironmentalSciences,CentralUniversity ofJharkhand,Ranchi,Jharkhand,India
PujiRahmadi ResearchCenterforOceanography(P2O),IndonesianInstituteofSciences (LIPI),Jakarta,RepublicofIndonesia
VanessaRosanaRibeiro EnvironmentalTechnologyPostgraduationProgram;Centerof ExcellenceinOilchemistryandBiotechnology, UniversityofSantaCruzdoSul, UNISC,SantaCruzdoSul,RioGrandedo Sul,Brazil
AsepRidwanudin ResearchandDevelopment DivisionforMarineBioIndustry(BBIL),
IndonesianInstituteofSciences(LIPI),West NusaTenggara,RepublicofIndonesia
TieleMedianeiraRizzetti Environmental TechnologyPostgraduationProgram;Center ofExcellenceinOilchemistryand Biotechnology,UniversityofSantaCruzdo Sul,UNISC,SantaCruzdoSul,RioGrande doSul,Brazil
PoojhaaShanmugam AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversity,Mumbai,Maharashtra,India
AnupamaShrivastav DepartmentofMicrobiology,ParulInstituteofAppliedSciences,Parul University,Vadodara,Gujarat,India
EviAmeliaSiahaan ResearchandDevelopmentDivisionforMarineBioIndustry(BBIL), IndonesianInstituteofSciences(LIPI),West NusaTenggara,RepublicofIndonesia
BhaskarSingh DepartmentofEnvironmental Sciences,CentralUniversityofJharkhand,Ranchi,Jharkhand,India
RekhaSingh DepartmentofEngineeringSystemsandEnvironment,UniversityofVirginia, Charlottesville,VA,UnitedStates
MaiaraPriscilladeSouza EnvironmentalTechnologyPostgraduationProgram;CenterofExcellenceinOilchemistryandBiotechnology, UniversityofSantaCruzdoSul,UNISC,Santa CruzdoSul,RioGrandedoSul,Brazil
R.Vasantharaja EnvironmentalBiotechnology Laboratory,CentreforRuralDevelopment andTechnology,IndianInstituteofTechnology Delhi,NewDelhi,India
NilsWieczorek CircularResourceEngineering andManagement,HamburgUniversityof Technology,Hamburg,Germany
Foreword Cities’waterpollutionresultingfrom uncontrolleduseandmismanagementof pollutantssuchasherbicides,pesticides, plastics,petroleumoils,heavymetals, chemicals,phenoliccompounds,andindustrialwasteisaseriousissueacrosstheworld. Thereisapressingneedtodevelopgreen technologiesbasedonalgaeandmacrophytesthatcanbeusedforremovingorreducingthesepollutantsfrompolluted watersystemsinacost-effectivemanner. Phytoremediationisoneofthecost-effective andeco-friendlywaystoremovepollutants fromoursoilandwatersystems.Anumber ofplantsincludingalgaeandaquaticmacrophyteshavenaturalabilitytoremediatepollutantsfrompollutedwater.Theyarebeing usedtotreatwater,wastewater,industrial waste,andsolidwaste.
Thisbookcoverswide-rangingalgaeand aquaticmacrophytesfortheremediationof pollutantsfromwatersystemsinmetropolitanareas.Themainideabehindthecompilationofthisbookistodrawtogetherchapters fromeminentscientistsfromacrosstheglobe andbenefitbytheirestablishedexpertisein phytoremediationusingalgaeandaquatic macrophytes.Currently,thereislackofsuch abookasasinglesourcethatcoversabroad spectrumofalgaeandaquaticmacrophytebasedmanagementofcities’waterpollution. AlgaeandAquaticMacrophytesinCities:Bioremediation,Biomass,BiofuelsandBioproducts is
awell-timedandup-to-datebooktofill thisgap.
IcongratulateDr.VimalChandraPandey forbringingoutthisvaluablebook publishedbyarenownedpublisher: Elsevier.Thebookcomprises15chapters coveringvariousaspectsofbioremediation andproductionofbiomass,biofuels,and bioproducts.Ibelievethebookwillbeavaluableassetforresearchers,scientists,environmentalists,entrepreneurs,policymakers, andotherstakeholdersalike.
A.N.Rai
FormerVice-Chancellor,Mizoram University,Aizawl,India
FormerVice-Chancellor,North-EasternHill University,Shillong,India
FormerDirector,NationalAssessment& AccreditationCouncil(NAAC), Bengaluru,India
FormerMember,ScientificAdvisory CommitteetotheCabinet(SAC-C), GovernmentofIndia,India
FormerMember,CentralAdvisory BoardforEducation(CABE), GovernmentofIndia,India
Preface Oursocietycurrentlyfaceswaterpollution,whichisoneoftheseriousissuesand challengesfacedbymetropolitancities worldwide.Thisproblemresultsfromdifferenttypesofcontaminantssuchasheavy metals,metalloids,chemicals,sewage,radioactivewaste,pesticides,herbicides,plastics, petroleumoils,phenoliccompounds,andindustrialwaste,whichareintroducedinto waterbodies.Thesecontaminantsenterin thebodyofhumansandanimalsthrough thefoodchainofterrestrialandaquaticecosystems.Consequently,awiderangeofdiseasessuchasgeneticdisorders,infertility, cancer,andblindnessoccurinoursociety, inadditiontowater-bornediseases(i.e.,diarrheaandgastrointestinalillness).The phytoremediationtechniqueisasustainable andeffectivetooltoremovecontaminants fromaquaticenvironmentscomparedto othermethods.Thus,itisurgenttoexplore theuseofalgaeandaquaticmacrophytes onalargescalefortheremediationofpollutedwatersystems,becausebothplants havethenaturalabilitytodecreasecontaminantsfromwaterbodies.
AlgaeandAquaticMacrophytesinCities:Bioremediation,Biomass,BiofuelsandBioproducts coverskeyapplicationsofalgaeandaquatic macrophytesforthebioremediationof
pollutedwaterbodiesandhowtointegrate theproductionofbiomass,biofuels,and bioproducts.Thisbookofferswidegeographicalareastodrawchaptersfrom eminentscientists,benefitedbytheir establishedexpertiseinalgaeandaquatic macrophyte-basedphytoremediation.This bookwillbeusefulforresearchers,students, scientists,professors,practitioners,environmentalists,entrepreneurs,policymakers, andotherstakeholdersaliketounderstand andperformtheirresearchwithgreaterease.
Thisbookiswell-timedandupdatedinformationthatfillsasignificantmarketopeningforalgaeandaquaticmacrophytemediatedphytoremediationwitheconomic returns,whichisavailabletoawide-ranging audience.Thebookcomprises15chapters thatcoverarangeofareas,includingvarious aspectsofbioremediationaswellasthe productionofbiomass,biofuels,andbioproductsthroughalgaeandaquaticmacrophytesduringtheremediationofpolluted watersystems.Thisbookprovidesanideal roadmapforalgae-macrophytesresearchers andengineerswhowishtocombinebioremediationandbioeconomypracticestoward ecologicalandsocioeconomicsustainability.
VimalChandraPandey
AbouttheEditor Dr.VimalChandraPandey featuredinthe world’stop2%scientistscurated byStanfordUniversity,UnitedStates. Dr.Pandeyisaleadingresearcherinthefield ofenvironmentalengineering,particularly phytomanagementofpollutedsites.His researchfocusesmainlyontheremediation andmanagementofdegradedlands,includingheavymetal-pollutedlandsand postindustriallandspollutedwithflyash, redmud,andminespoil,amongothers,to regainecosystemservicesandsupporta bio-basedeconomywithphytoproducts throughaffordablegreentechnologysuch asphytoremediation.Hisresearchinterests alsolieinexploringindustrialcrop-based phytoremediationtoattainbioeconomy securityandrestoration,adaptivephytore mediationpractices,phytoremediation-based biofortificationandcarbonsequestration,fosteringbioremediationforutilizingpolluted
lands,andattainingUNSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Recently,Dr.Pandeyworkedas CSIR-PoolScientist(SeniorResearchAssociate)intheDepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceatBabasahebBhimraoAmbedkar University,Lucknow,India.Healsoworked asConsultantattheCouncilofScienceand Technology,UttarPradesh;DST-YoungScientistinthePlantEcologyandEnvironmental ScienceDivisionatCSIR-NationalBotanical ResearchInstitute,Lucknow;andDSKothari PostdoctoralFellowatBabasahebBhimrao AmbedkarUniversity,Lucknow.Heistherecipientofanumberofawards/honors/fellowshipsandisamemberoftheNational AcademyofSciences,India.Dr.Pandey servesasasubjectexpertandpanelmember fortheevaluationofresearchandprofessionalactivitiesinIndiaandabroadforfosteringenvironmentalsustainability.Hehas publishedmorethan100scientificarticles/ bookchaptersinpeer-reviewedjournals/ books.Dr.PandeyisalsotheauthorandeditorofeightbookspublishedbyElsevier,with severalmoreforthcoming.HeisAssociate Editorof LandDegradationandDevelopment (Wiley);Editorof RestorationEcology (Wiley); AssociateEditorof Environment,Development andSustainability (Springer);AssociateEditor of EcologicalProcesses (SpringerNature); AcademicEditorof PLOSONE (PLOS);AdvisoryBoardMemberof Ambio (Springer);and EditorialBoardMemberof Environmental Management (Springer)and BulletinofEnvironmentalContaminationandToxicology (Springer).Healsoworks/workedasGuest
Editorforseveralreputedjournals.Emailaddress: vimalcpandey@gmail.com,ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2250-6726,
GoogleScholar: https://scholar.google.co. in/citations?user¼B-5sDCoAAAAJ&hl.
Acknowledgments IsincerelythankLouisaHutchins(Senior AcquisitionsEditor),AleksandraPackowska (EditorialProjectManager),SruthiSatheesh (ProductionProjectManager),andSwapna Praveen(SeniorCopyrightsCoordinator) fromElsevierfortheirexcellentsupport, guidance,andcoordinationduringtheproductionofthisfascinatingproject.Ithank thecontributorsfromallovertheworldfor theirexcellentchaptercontributions.Ialso
thankallthereviewersfortheirvaluable timeandexpertiseinreviewingthechapters ofthisbook.IamgreatlythankfultoProf.A. N.Rai,formerVice-ChancellorofMizoram UniversityandNorth-EasternHillUniversity,India,forwritingtheForewordforthe bookonsuchshortnotice.Finally,Ithank myfamilyfortheirendlesssupportand encouragement.
Cities’waterpollution—Challenges andcontrols RekhaSingha,GangadharAndalurib, andVimalChandraPandeyc,∗ aDepartmentofEngineeringSystemsandEnvironment,UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville, VA,UnitedStates bDepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,TempleUniversity, Philadelphia,PA,UnitedStates cDepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,BabasahebBhimrao AmbedkarUniversity,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
∗CorrespondingAuthor.
1Introduction Waterisanessentialnaturalresourceforlivingbeings.Duetorapidindustrialization,urbanization,andimproperutilization,overtwo-thirdsoftheworldpopulationisnowfacing waterscarcityissues(UNWWDR,2015; Meldrum,2019).Awell-knownfactisthat80%of waterissaltywaterandunusable,andoutof2%offreshwater,onlyasmallfraction (0.036%)isaccessibleforuse.Duetopollutionandtheignoranceofwatermanagement neededbyindustrialandgovernmentauthorities,freshwaterresourcesarebecoming unavailable( Jayaswaletal.,2018).
Citiesareknownashubfortheeconomicdevelopment,andinterestingly,20%ofthe world’spopulationresideinurbanareasandgenerate60%oftheGWP.Emergingcitiescreateopportunities,butduetorapidgrowth,poormaintenanceofwaterinfrastructureandinadequatewastemanagementmayresultinwaterpollution,waterscarcity,andoverallthreat tocityresilience(Mishraetal.,2020).
Withalmostathirdofthepopulationlackingaccesstosafedrinkingwater(UnitedNations, 2020),itisimportanttounderstandthesocio-economicfactorsthatcontributetowaterpollution,andanoutbreakofdiseases,andotherconsequencesresultingfrompollution(Lado,1997; Kongetal.,2020).Everyyear,anestimatedfivemillionpeoplelosetheirlivesduetowaterrelateddiseases(Singhetal.,2019).Despitethefactthatwaterpollutioniseverywhere,a
universalsolutionmaynotbeviablebecauseofthedifferencesinthetypeandsourcesofthese pollutants.Waterpollution,unlikeclimatechange,islocalizedinnature.Thereisasignificant needforlocal/stategovernmentinterventiontocreateviablesolutionstoaddresswaterpollution(HelmerandHespanhol,1997).Mostofthetime,waterbornepollutionandassociateddiseasesmayleadtosocialbreakdown,hunger,andeconomicdisasterstotheaffectedpeople (WorldHealthOrganization,2020).TheUSEPAwasestablishedtoenacttheCleanWater Actandtoaddressissuesarisingfromwaterpollution.Thepurposeofthiswastoaddressenvironmentalpollution,identifysources,andmaintaintheintegrityofthewaterresources.Nationalwaterqualitycriteriahavebeendevelopedtoaddressseveraldifferenttypesofpollution, includingtheonescomingfrompointandnonpointsources.CleanWaterActmakesitunlawfultodischargepollutantsintoanywatersourceunlessobtainingproperpermissionfromthe USEPA.Legislativeframeworksaretheretoaddressthepollutionissues.
TheUnitedNationsalsostrivestoprovidecleandrinkingwateraccesstobillionsofpeople affectedbywaterpollutionandlackofsanitation.Almost40%oftheworld’spopulationlack accesstopropersanitation.PandemicssuchasCOVID-19,EBOLA,andothersaddadditional stresstopeoplealreadysufferingfromwaterpollutionissues.Toaddresssomeofthese,the UnitedNationscameupwithsustainabledevelopmentgoals(SDG-6),whichfocusesonwater. SDG6hassomeveryboldgoalstoaddresswaterpollutionacrosstheworld.Althoughmany locationsarenotontrack,thereisasignificanteffortdonetoaddresstheissues.IntheUnited States,manylawsandpolicieswerecreatedtoaddressthewaterpollutionissue,whichincludestheWaterQualityAct,CleanWaterRestorationAct,FederalWaterPollutionControl Act,andothers.Manyoftheselawsandpolicieshelpindustriestodevelopshort-andlongtermgoalsandthebestmanagementpracticesneededtoaddresstheissues(USEPA,2012).
2Waterpollution Waterpollutionistheresultofunwantedmaterialsinthewater,whichalteroverallwater quality(Alrummanetal.,2016)andharmtotheenvironmentandhealth(Briggs,2003).Water isanaturalresource,essentialforlifeandhumandevelopment(Bibietal.,2016).Polluted waterisnotsafefordrinkingpurposes;itcouldbeamajorsourceofwaterbornediseases andinfections.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),80%ofdiseasesarewaterborne.DrinkingwaterinvariouscountriesisnotsafeandfailtomeetWHOstandards (Khanetal.,2013).Consumptionofunhygienicwatercausesinfectiousdiseasesandresults in485,000diarrhealdeathseachyear(WHO,2019).
Therearevarioussourcesofwaterpollution:anthropogenicaswellasnatural.Somenaturalfactorsthataffectwaterqualityincludestorms,earthquakes,floods,volcaniceruptions, atmosphericdeposition,etc.Anthropogenicsourcesincludedomesticandindustrial,constructionsites,radioactivewastes,agriculturalsubstances,oilpollution,riverandmarine dumping. Table1 depictspollutantsource,type,example,andeffectonwaterquality (Schwarzenbachetal.,2010).Urbanareashaspotentialtocausemajorwaterpollutionbecausecitiesgeneratehumongoussolidwasteandfailtomanageit,andthisineffectivewaste disposalcausesair,water,andsoilcontamination.Openlandfillscontributetothecontaminationofdrinkingwaterandtransmitdiseases.Urbanstormwaterwithrunoffofroofand roadcontaminantslikepesticidesleadtosewersystemspollution,thencontaminate
TABLE1 Pointandnonpointsourcesofwaterpollution.
Pointsourcewaterpollution
Municipalandindustrialeffluent
Nonpointsourcewaterpollution
Runofffromagriculturalland
Dischargefromminingsites,oilrefineries,andindustrialsitesRunofffrombuildingestablishments
Overflowfromstormwatersewers
Runoffandleachatefromwastedumpinglocations
Runofffromabandonedmines
Atmosphericdepositionoverawatersurface
ReproducedwithpermissionfromCarpenter,S.R.,Caraco,N.F.,Correll,D.L.,Howarth,R.W.,Sharpley,A.N.,Smith,V.H.,1998.Nonpoint pollutionofsurfacewaterswithphosphorousandnitrogen.Ecol.Appl.8(3).
receivingwaterresources,andmakethemunsuitablefordrinkingandotherpurposes.These waterresourcesarepollutedprogressivelyduetothedischargeofindustrialuntreatedpollutants,chemicals,andhazardouswastesintothewaterbody(KoopandvanLeeuwen,2017).
Asdiscussedabove,waterpollutionsourcescouldbenaturalandanthropogenic,butmajorfocusisonchemicalpollutionintheliterature.Chemicalpollutantsarecategorizedas micropollutantsandmacropollutants.Naturalorganicconstituentsandnutrientssuchasnitrogenandphosphorusareexamplesofmacropollutants.Micropollutantsaretoxicevenat relativelylowconcentrationsascomparedtomacropollutants.Pollutantssuchasagricultural runoff(pesticidesandsyntheticfertilizers),personalcareproducts,householdchemicals,surfactants,dyes,detergents,pharmaceuticals,hormones,etc.,findtheirwayintoaquaticsystems(Fig.1)andaffectaquaticandhumanlifeadversely(Schwarzenbachetal.,2010). Manyofthesehaveurbanoriginandbeenwidelyusedinourdailylife.Pathogenicmicrobes alsofindtheirwayfromdiversesources,includinghospital,researchlaboratoryasuntreated sewage,septictanks,andfromfoodprocessingandmeatpackagingindustries(Luo etal.,2014).
Waterpollutioncouldbearesultofpoint,diffuse,andtransboundarysourcesofpollution. Asinglesourceofpollution,whichisidentifiableandlocalized,isconsideredasapoint source,whereasadiffusepollutionsourceiswidespreadinactivitieswithnodiscretesource (USEPA,2002).
Pointsource—Pointsourcewaterpollutionisaresultofpollutioncomingfromaspecific definitesource,viz.,sewageleakorindustrialwastewaterdischarge.Pointsourcesareeasy toidentifyandcomparativelyeasytofix(Table1).Pointsourcepollutantscanenterintothe waterdirectly,whereasnonpointsourcescomefrommanycontaminatorsandaremoredifficulttocontrol:forexample,pollutantsfromagriculturalfields,livestockpens,abandoned mines,andbuildingestablishments.
Nonpointsource—Varioussourcescausediffusedwaterpollution,whichcontributestoa smallamountbuthardtodistinguish/identifysourcesthatcombinetocausesignificantpollution.Inurbansettings,pollutantsarereleasedfromcarparksandtransportation,including, butnotlimitedto,oil,brakefluid,rubberfromtiresandbrakes,vehicleexhaustemissions, heavymetalpollutionfromwashedroofs(Schwarzenbachetal.,2010).
Inruralareas,agriculturalinputsareanimportantsourceofmicropollutants,whichcontributetomillionsoftonsofpesticideeachyear,animalslurry,manure,andsewagesludge. Runoffandleachingfromcontaminatedland,constructionsites,andminingactivitiesalso
FIG.1 Schematiclayoutofsourcesofurbanrunoffpollution:atmosphericdeposition(dryandwet),activityrelated(exhaustemissions,road,tireandbrakewear,vehiclefluidleakage,etc.),landuse/cover(buildingandinfrastructuremateriallikepaving,concrete,guardrails,urbanlights,asphalt,etc.),behaviorsrelatedlikecleaningand landcoveractivities(pesticides,herbicides,fertilizers,personalcareandhouseholdcleaningproducts,etc.).Based on Petrucci,G.,Gromaire,M.C.,Shorshani,M.F.,etal.,2014.Nonpointsourcepollutionofurbanstormwaterrunoff:amethodologyforsourceanalysis.Environ.Sci.Pollut.Res.21,10225–10242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2845-4.
releasemicropollutantsintotheenvironment.Anothercontributingsourcecouldbemunicipalorhazardouswastesites,whichcouldcontributetotoxicchemicalsinsurfacerunoffand undergroundwater(M € ulleretal.,2020).
Transboundary—Pollutioncannotbecontainedonthemapandeasilytransportedacross hundredsofkilometersandacrossborders.Pollutionthatoriginatedinonecountrycanbe detrimentaltoanothercountry’senvironment.Marinepollutionisanexampleofa transboundarypollutionprobleminvolvingmanynations/states.Contaminationcouldbe aresultofadisaster-likeoilspill.Transboundarypollutionhasbecomeatoughglobalproblem.Ithasresultedindisputesacrossadministrations.Thelackofqualifyingmethodsfor transboundarypollutantshasresultedinadverseeffectsonsurroundingaswellaswater ecologyandhumanhealth(Zhangetal.,2018).
2.1Emergingcontaminants Contaminantsofemergingconcernareacomplexfamilyofsyntheticchemicalsandanotherimportantcategoryofwaterpollutants.Contaminantsofemergingconcern(CECs) haverecentlygainedimportantconsiderationinsafedrinkingwaterproduction. Perfluorinatedcompounds(PFCs)areagroupofchemicalsandhavebeenmanufactured
forover60yearshavingawideareaofapplications.Thesearewaterandgreaserepellentand foundtheirapplicationsinmanyhouseholdproductslikenonstickcookware,floorpolish, water-resistanttextileslikecarpets,andupholstery.Theseareorganiccompoundswithlong orshortcarbonchainandstrongC Fbond.Thismakesthemnondegradableandpersistent intheenvironment.
Themajorgroupsofemergingcontaminantsincludemicroplastics(MPs),pharmaceuticals andpersonalcareproducts(PPCPs),phthalates,bisphenolA(BPA),alkylphenols(APs),and perfluoroalkylandpolyfluoroalkylsubstances(PFASs)isalsoanareaofconcernindifferent countries(Rossneretal.,2009).Per-andpolyfluoroalkylsubstances(PFASs)aremoststudied sofarandincludeperfluorooctanoicacid(PFOA)andperfluorooctanesulfonate(PFOS), whichhaveanextensiveuseindifferentindustriesglobally(DomingoandNadal,2019; Fa ` bregaetal.,2014;UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA),2009).The modeofexposuretoPFASisreportedthroughthedietaryintake,drinkingwater,and PFAS-pollutedindoorenvironments(Winkensetal.,2017; Parketal.,2019; Andersson etal.,2019).TheUSEPA(OfficeofWater)developedProvisionalHealthAdvisorylimits forPFOAandPFOSwithProvisionalHealthAdvisoryvaluesof400and200ng/L,respectively,in2009(USEPA,2009).Recently,theUSEPApublishedPFOAandPFOSDrinkingWaterHealthAdvisoriesat70partspertrillion(USEPA,2016).Thesehealthadvisorylimitsare supposedtoofferprotectionfromadversehealtheffectsofPFOAandPFOSindrinking water.
3Categoriesofwaterpollution 3.1Groundwater
Geologicalformationofaquifersdirectlyaffectsandcontributestogroundwatercontamination,wherepollutantsenterintoundergroundwatertablesandaretransportedtothe overstretchingofthedrinkingwatersource.Insimplewords,toxicelementsleachinthewatersupplyfromaquifer’sgeologicalcomposition.Arsenic,chromium,fluoride,andironare themainelementsofconcernposinggroundwatercontamination.
Arsenicisthemostnotoriousonthelistandisofglobalconcern.Forexample,inBangladesh,35–75millionpeopleareaffected(Tordetal.,2006; Chenetal.,2009),andintheWest BengalregionofIndia,6millionpeopleareatriskofarsenicpoisoning(Haqueetal.,2003). Thehighmortalityof 250kchildren/yearinBangladeshgotattention,andlarge-scaleinterventionsandimprovementprogramsintheareaareineffecttoprovidesafedrinkingwaterthroughwells.ArsenicpollutionisaprobleminsomepartsoftheUnitedStatesaswell (Frostetal.,2003; Peters,2008).Variousfactorsresponsibleforarseniccontaminationinclude highweatheringofnaturalarsenic-richrocksanddepositionofthisinriverfloodplainsand longresidencetimeofthisorganic-richdepositintheaquiferwherebyabsorbedarsenicis releasedintothewater.
Thediseasesresultingfromchemicalpollutionisaglobalissue,andoverallburdenishardto estimate.TheburdeninspecificareaslikethearsenicprobleminBangladeshishuge.Some othersuchexamplesoflocalburdenofdiseasearemethylmercurypoisoning(Minamata disease—nervoussystemdisease),andchroniccadmiumtoxicity(Itai-Itaidisease—thekidney
andbonedisease),andexposuretonitrate(methemoglobinemia—circulatorysystemdisease) andleadresultsinanemiaandhypertension.Acute(irritationorinflammationoftheeyesand nose,skin,andgastrointestinalsystem)andchronic(copper,chromium,orarsenicindrinking water)exposurecanleadtomanyadversehealtheffects(WHO,2003).
Municipalsolidwastelandfills,hazardouswaste,nuclearwastesites,runofffromagriculturalland,accidentalspills,andwastedischargefromtheindustryarecontributingto groundwatercontamination.Illegaldumpinganddischargeofwastematerialsisathreat toabandonedsites,anditcanthenresultingroundwaterpollution.Throughleachingby contaminatedlandfills,approximately100milliontonsofdiscardedwastethatcontains radioactiveandhazardouswastesentersthegroundwatertable(USEPA,2008).
3.2Surfacewater Surfacewaterpollutionisgenerallycausedbypathogens,nutrients,plastics,chemicals suchasheavymetals,pesticides,antibiotics,industrialwastedischarges,andindividuals dumpingintowaterways.Urbanstormwaterrunoffisamajorcontributorofsurfacewater pollution,anditcanpotentiallyleadtogroundwaterpollution.Thedistributionandconcentrationofthesepollutantsdependsonvariousfactors,andthesepollutantshaveseasonal variations(Gobeletal.,2007).
Thesepollutantshavesignificantlydifferentenvironmentalimpacts.Forexample,the presenceofantibioticscanleadtoantibioticresistance,excessivenutrientscouldresultin harmfulalgalblooms,pathogenscanposehumanhealthrisks,andchemicalpollutants canhavetoxiceffects.Surfacewatersgenerallysufferfromcombinedimpactsofmultiplepollutants.AccordingtotheUSEPA,nearlyhalfofthesurfacewaters(streams,lakes,andrivers) arecontaminatedandareunfitforhumanconsumption,swimming,andfishing.
3.3Oceanwater Oceanormarinepollutionarisesfromlandsourcesandincludesacombinationof chemicalsandtrash(includingplastics).Marinetrashincludesmanufacturedproductsthat endupintheocean.Plasticsarethemostcommontypesofmarinedebris.Plasticwasteis particularlyproblematicasittakeshundredsofyearstodecompose.Recentstudieshave shownsignificantamountsofmicroplasticsinthemarineenvironment(Sheavlyand Register,2007).
Thereissomeevidencethatmicroplastics(polypropylene)willreadilyabsorborganic compoundssuchasPCBsandotherpersistentorganicpollutantsbysorptionprocesses, andtheseinteractionsareunderincreasedexamination.Thesemicroplasticsarecapableof absorbingandconcentratingaquaticchemicalsoverfiveordersofmagnitude.Consequently, thepresenceofmicroplasticsintheaquaticenvironmentsandthepresenceofchemicalcontaminants,combinedwiththeircapabilitytotravellongdistances,areofseriousconcern.The ingestionofthesecontaminatedmicroplasticsbytheaquaticorganismsepitomizesanexposureroutefortoxicchemicalpollutantsintothefoodchain(ErikssonandBurton,2003; Moore,2008).
4Impactofwaterpollution Asdiscussedin Section2,therearetwomajorcategoriesofpollutants:micropollutantsand macropollutants.Macropollutantsincludenutrientsspecies(nitrogenandphosphorus)and someothernaturalorganicconstituents.Thesenutrientscouldleadtohighbiomassproduction,resultinginanincreaseintoxicalgalbloomsinaquaticenvironments,andhighsaltloads inhibitcropgrowthinagriculture.
Asdiscussedearlier,micronutrientpollutantsincludesyntheticfertilizers,pesticidesand dyes,personalcareproducts,hormones,detergents,andpharmaceuticalproducts.Most heavymetals(inlowconcentrations)existnaturallyintheenvironment,viz.,ironandaluminumarepartofrocks,andvolcanoesdischargesomeotherheavymetalslikemercuryand lead.Notallheavymetalsaretoxicbutplantsandanimalsneedcertainheavymetalsin lowquantitiesforimportantlifeprocesses.Forexample,ironisessentialforhemoglobin totransferoxygeninblood,andzincisessentialforenzymes.Allheavymetalsarepoisonous atcertainconcentrations(Mehmoodetal.,2019; Kumaraswamyetal.,2019).Certainheavy metalsaretoxicevenataverylowconcentration.Mercury,lead,andcadmiumaresuchexamples.Evenessentialheavymetalsarepoisonousinlargerquantitiesespeciallyafter bioaccumulationaswegohigherinthefoodchain/web(GoolsbyandBattaglin,2001; Kumaraswamyetal.,2019; Mehmoodetal.,2019).Therearemanyanthropogenicsources ofheavymetalslikesteel-andiron-manufacturingindustries.
Heavymetalsandindustrialwastecanaccumulateinlakesandrivers,posinghealthriskto humansandanimals.Industrialwasteimpartstoxins,whicharethemajorcauseofimmunosuppression,acutepoisoning,andreproductivefailure.Infectiousdiseases,likecholera ( JunejaandChaudhary,2013),andotherdiseaseslikegastroenteritis,kidneyproblems, anddiarrheaarespreadingthroughcontaminatedwater(KhanandGhouri,2011).Literature suggeststhatenvironmentalpollutionanddegradationimpactspeople’swell-beingnegatively(Adeola,2011).
Exposureassessmentofaquaticmicropollutantsiscomplexasthesepollutantscanundergovariouschemicalreactionswithnaturalorganicmatter,minerals,redox-activespecies, andevenmicroorganisms(Schwarzenbachetal.,2003,2006).Assessingenvironmentaland healthrisksisalsochallengingfororganicpollutantslikevariousheavymetals(Ni,CuCr,Zn, Pb,Cd,etc.)andcertainmetalloidslikearsenic(As).Variouschemicalreactionslikeadsorption,precipitation/dissolution,oxidation/reduction,andcomplexationdeterminethetransportationandbioavailabilityofthesepersistentpollutants,whichdonotdegradeinthe environment.Thesemetallicelementsexhibitdifferentsolubilityunderoxicandreducing conditions.Forexample,redox-sensitiveironformsoxideparticlesinthepresenceofoxygen, whichstronglyabsorbsheavymetalsandmetalloids(Waychunasetal.,2005).Underreducingconditionswithdepletedoxygenenvironments,theseparticlesreduceanddissolveand releaseadsorbedtoxicloads(Robertsetal.,2010).
4.1Humanhealth Thereisadirectlinkbetweenpollutionandhumanhealth.Tenpercentofthepopulation consumesfoodandvegetables,whicharegrownincontaminatedareas.Theriskassociated
withtheconsumptionofpollutedwaterincludes,butnotlimitedto,respiratory,diarrheal, cardiovasculardiseases,cancer,andneurologicaldisorders.Forexample,nitrogenous chemicalsresultinbluebabysyndrome(methemoglobinemia)andevencancer.Thereisa highmortalityrateduetocancerinareas,wherethereisalackofaccesstodrinkingwater suchasruralsettings.Disadvantagedpopulationisatagreaterriskofdiseaseduetopoor standardsofsanitation,hygiene,andwaterquality.Poorwaterqualityresultsin3.1%of deaths(PawariandGawande,2015; Haseenaetal.,2017).Thisaffectsdisproportionallypregnantwomen,fetuses,andtheninfants.
Metal-contaminatedwaterresultsinvariousdisordersrelatedtoliver,renalfailure,hair loss,andneurologicaldisorder.Arsenicexposureleadstoanaccumulationofitinbody, mainlyinskin,hair,andnails.Thisresultsinkeratosis(pigmentation)ontheskin,elevated bloodpressure,andneurologicaldisorders.Duetoitscarcinogenicity,itcouldleadtoskin, lung,andinternalorgancancer.Fluorideisanothersubstancethatisnaturalinoriginandcan beproblematicathigherconcentrations.Fluoridehigherthan1.5mg/Lisharmfulandresults inpittingoftoothenamelandbonescausingosteoporosis(Kimetal.,2020).Polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs)anddioxinscancauseseawaterpollutionevenatverylowconcentrations (Adeola,2011).Mercuryalsoposesahealthriskwhenlocalseafoodiscontaminatedwithit.
Contaminatedanduntreateddrinkingwatercanmostcommonlycausediarrheaandother waterbornediseases.Forexample, Vibriocholerae cancausecholera, Shigella bacteriacancause shigellosis,and Salmonella bacteriacancauseinflammationoftheintestineandresultsin death.Hepatitisaffectstheliverandiscausedbycontaminatedwaterandcanbefatalif nottreated.Rotavirus,adenovirus,caliciviruses,andNorwalkcancausegastroenteritis. Cryptosporidiumparvum cancausecryptosporidiosis,and Entamoebahistolytica cancause gallopingamoeba,whichaffectsthestomachlining; Giardialamblia cancausegiardiasis, knownastravelers’disease.Thespreadofentericdiseasesismostlyviatheconsumption ofcontaminatedwaterwithfecesofinfectedpeopleorexcretaofinfectedanimals(Haseena etal.,2017).
4.2Ecosystems Waterpollutionhasanegativeimpactonecosystems.Agricultureisthemainsectorofeconomicactivity.Itiswellknownthatagriculturalactivitiescontaminatewaterresources.Fertilizersareessentialforagriculturalproductionbutsurfacerunofffromagriculturalareasis onemajorsourceofwaterpollutionasitcontainshighloadsofnutrientsandpesticides.Some farmlandactivitieslikelivestockraisingalsocontributenutrient-loadedtothesurfaceand groundwaterresources,especiallytheincreaseinnitrateconcentrationingroundwater.This nutrient-richsurfacerunoffcancauseeutrophicationinlakes.Surfacerunoffandleachingare themajorsourcesofpesticideentryinreceivingwaterbodies.Pesticidesarenonbiodegradableandpersistentinnature.Aquaticpoorwaterqualityaffectscropproductionand disturbsthefoodchain,especiallyaquaticlife,andeventually,itaffectshumanhealth.For example,ironandleadcouldbeharmfultofishandthenforhumanhealthasmetals bio-accumulatewiththecomplexityofthefoodweb.
Waterpollutionnotonlyaffectsflorabutfaunaaswell.Manymusclespeciesarecurrently threatenedorendangered.Amphibiansarealsoaffectedbybadwaterquality.Thefrogslive
intheirearlylifeinwaterandareconsideredasanindicatorofwaterquality,andthereisa declineinfrogspeciesasamphibiansaresusceptibletodermalabsorptionoftoxicantsin water.Thepresenceofherbicidesandpesticidesinwaterhasdelayedthegrowthoftadpoles andfrogsandcanevenleadtodeath.
4.3Economicloss Theundesirableecologicalandenvironmentalconsequencesofwaterpollutionaresome ofthemostevidentglobalconcerns.Thediminishingwaterqualityforthewaterbodieslike lakesismorealarmingduetotheireconomic,social,andecologicalimportance.Thesewater bodiesareeconomicallyimportantforfisheries,livestock,irrigation,forestry,andsustain habitats;thesearesociallyimportantforwatersupplyandecologicalfunctionssuchasnutrientandmineralrecycling,watertablerecharging,breedinggroundforamphibiansand formaintainingbiodiversity.Thereisanotherconcernforthesewaterbodiesofbecoming asinkforwastefromurbansources,industries,anduntreatedsewagedischarge,whicheven furtherdegradewaterquality.Industrialandmunicipalsolidwastecanbedischargedinto surfacewaterdirectlywhereregulationsarenotsostrict.
Mostoftheriverwaterpollutioncomesfrommanysmallsourcesofpollutantslikelocal industries,households,restaurants,hotels,hospitals,etc.Surfacerunoffcanhaveoil,pesticides,andfertilizers,roadsalts,andheavymetalsfromnumeroussourcesthatoftendrain directlyintostreamsorlakes. Table2 summarizesthesource,type,example,andeffecton waterqualityofvariouspollutants.
5Socio-economicandenvironmentalchallenges Socio-economicchallengesrefertothesocialaswellaseconomicimpactsontheenvironment.Waterisconsideredauniversalresourcethatdirectlyinfluencesourday-to-dayactivities.AccordingtotheUnitedNations,“2.2Billionpeoplelackaccesstosafeandcleandrinking waterandmorethan290,000childrenundertheageof5dieeveryyearduetolackofsafedrinking water”(WHO/UNICEF,2019).Weusewaterforhouseholdaswellasrecreationalpurposes. Italsosupportswildlife,biodiversity,andcommunities.Wealsousewaterforthemanufactureofmostconsumerproducts.Intheirnaturalandconservedstates,rivers,lakes,and streamscouldcreatevalue.Sourcewatersareoftenavailabletopeopletouse,recreatein, anddischargepollutionunlessregulated.Unlessthereisinterventionfromthegovernment orregulatoryagencies,watercontaminationisaninadvertentconsequence.
Therearenumerousresponsestoecologicalcontamination.Forexample,externalcostsassociatedwithpollutioncanbeaddressedusingdischargetaxes,cap-and-tradeplans,andregulations.Employingtheseresponsesnecessitatesanunderstandingofthesizeoftheproblem. Whentherearecontaminationexternalities,economiesfailtopreciselyconveythepublic costsconnectedwiththecontamination.Insuchcases,avaluableperceptionisthepubliccost ofcontamination,whichcanbedefinedasthecosttothecommunity(ies)asaresultofincreasedpollution.Inthecontextofclimatechange,thisisawell-knownconcept.Studieshave shownarelationshipbetweenincreasedCO2 emissionsandtheirimpactsoneconomic
TABLE2 Pollutantsource,type,example,andeffectonwaterquality.
Pollutant source Source
Multiple(waste sites,spills, agriculture, combustion, andothers)
typePollutanttypeIllustrateexampleEffectonwaterqualityHealtheffectMajorchallenge
Globally distributed pointand diffuse
Persistentorganic pollutants(POPs)
PCBs,PBDEs,DDT, PAHs,PCDDs, PCDFs
AgricultureDiffusePesticidesTriazines, chloroacetanilides, DDT,lindane
Biomagnificationinthe foodchain
Diverse healtheffects
Natural, geographic,and biogenic contaminants
DiffuseInorganic contaminants, cyanotoxins, taste,andodor compounds
MiningMostly point
As,F,Se,U, microcystins geosmin
Contaminationof groundandsurface waterwithbiologically activechemicals, accidentalpoisoning
Contamination, aesthetics(tasteand odor)
Diverse healtheffects
Phase-outexistingPOPs, confineexistingsources, preventtheuseofnew POPs
Controlofpesticiderunoff fromagriculturalland, pesticidemisuse
Hazardous waste
Urban wastewaterin industrialized countries
Urban wastewaterin developingand emerging countries
Acids,leaching agents,heavy metals
Sulfuricacid, cyanide,mercury, copper
PointDiverseU,technetium, chromium, chlorinatedsolvents, nitroaromatic explosives
PointPharmaceuticals, hormones
Diclofenac, 17 α-ethinylestradiol
Human health: cancer, fluorosis
MetalremobilizationAcute toxicity, chronic neurotoxicity
Long-term contaminationof drinkingwaterresources
Developmentofeffective householdtreatment systems,control eutrophication,consumer acceptance
Acidneutralization,metal removal,introducing effective,nontoxic reagents
Diverse healtheffects
Containmentof pollutants,monitoringof mitigationprocesses includingnatural attenuation
Eco-toxicologicaleffects inrivers,the feminizationoffish
Diverse healtheffects
Reductionof micropollutantsloads fromwastewaterby polishingtreatment
PointMicroorganisms andviruses
Cholera,typhoid fever,diarrhea, hepatitisAandB, schistosomiasis, dengue
Microbialcontamination ofwater
Human health,child mortality, malnutrition
Improvingsanitationand hygiene,safedrinking water,affordabledrinking waterdisinfection techniques
Abbreviations: As,arsenic; DDT,dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; F,fluorine; PAHs,polyaromatichydrocarbons; PBDEs,polychlorinateddiphenylethers; PCBs,polychlorinatedbiphenyls; PCDDs,polychlorinateddibenzo-p-dioxines; PCDFs,polychlorinateddibenzofurans; Se,selenium; U,uranium.
ReproducedwithpermissionfromSchwarzenbach,R.P.,Escher,B.I.,Fenner,K.,Hofstetter,T.B.,Johnson,C.A.,etal.,2006.Thechallengeofmicropollutantsinaquatic systems.Science313,1072–1077.
growthusingmultipleclimatemodels.Theseestimateshavebeenextremelyimpactfulin communicatingtheinfluenceofclimatechangetothepublic.However,thesocialcostof aquaticcontaminationdidnotreceivesimilarattention.Itcomplicatestheestimationof thesocialcostofpollutionmostprobablybecauselocationplaysanimportantrole.Forexample,CO2 fromurbanareas,forests,orrurallocationsgeneratessimilardamagetotheecosystem.However,thisisnottrueintermsofwaterpollution.Forexample,antibioticsor pharmaceuticalsreleasedintowaterwaysneardrinkingwatertreatmentplantsarelikely tolevymuchsophisticatedsocialdamagesthanthesameamountofpollutantsenteringwaterwaysfarawayfromdrinkingwatertreatmentplants.Similarly,nutrientrunoffsfromagriculturesignificantlydamagestreamsnearthefarmlandanddiluteoutatfartherdistances.
Contaminatedseepageintoriversandcontaminantsofemergingconcernsuchasantibiotics,personalcareproducts,per-andpolyfluoroalkylsubstances(PFASs)thatmaybeconcentratedinindustrialareaswheredamagescouldbesignificant,however,haslittleinfluence outsidethosezones.Similarly,industrialchemicalssuchaspolychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs),andnaturallyoccurringmetalslikearsenicandleadaretoxinsthatmaybeconcentratedinzonesclosertothefactories.Theimpactsofthesecontaminantsarealsodependent uponthesoil,groundwater,andstreamcharacteristicswheretheyarereleased.
Toxicreleasesthathappeninurbanlocationswithhigherpopulationdensitymayresultin muchhighersocialimpactcomparedtoruralorlowpopulationdensitylocations.Estimating thesocialcost,identificationofthesourcesofcontamination,theirfateandtransport,and influenceonourecosystemservicesoughttobeunderstood.
Also,itiscrucialtounderstandhowpeoplevaluetheseenvironmentalservices. Gomezetal. (2019) havereportedthesocio-economicfactorsinfluencingaccessinthecountrysideoflowandmiddle-incomenations.Theirstudysuggestedthatthesocio-economicfactorsarelinkedto wateraccess.Theyreportedthatwomen’saccesstoeducationhasavitalroleinthelower-and lower-middle-incomecountries(Wanninger,1999).Also,grossnationalincome,farming, growingruralresidents,andgovernanceguidelines,aswellaspoliticalconsistency,and regulatorystrategieswereinterconnectedandplayavitalroleinthepolicymakingprocess.
Thecurrentstateofeducation,income,health,occupationsacrossthepopulation,andthe combinationsofthesefacetsinthesociety,andtheirfinancialdevelopmentfactors,reflecton thegeneralsocio-economicstandingofthesociety.Somestudieshavepointedoutthatcontaminationhasanadverseimpactonthelocationandpubliclivingwithin(Adeola,2011).Environmentalpollutionposesathreattohumansaswellastotherestoftheecosystem. Likewise,whenitcomestofinancialgrowthandprogress,contaminationhasadverseeffects onthelives,commerce,schooling,andprofessionoftheresidentsingeneral.Othereffectsof contaminationmayincludedamagetobiodiversityandreducednutritionandfarminggoods andtheiryield.Forexample,intheNigerregion,thesourceofrevenueforthepublicisreliant onlandandwater,whereoccurrencesofoilspillsareverycommon.Countlesspeoplelose theirsourceofrevenuesuchasfishing,carvingcanoes,andforestmanagementthataccounts for70%oftheentireemployment,oftenleadingtochildrenfromfamiliesaffectedbythese disasters,whocannolongerpaytheirfeestodropoutofschools(Ipingbemi,2009).Therefore, waterpollutioncouldbelinkedwithpoverty.Forinstance, Ahmadetal.(2007) havereported problemsofarsenicpollutioninBangladesh.Peoplesufferingfromarsenicexposurearenot allowedinpublic,schools,andpublicevents,andalsoarerestrictedbytheirfriendsandfamilies(Alametal.,2002; Rahmanetal.,2016).Generally,thesicknessesoriginatedby
contaminationperpetrateasubstantialfinancialcostworldwideaswellasdirecthealthcosts, andopportunitycostsensuinginreducedoutputoftheindividualsimpairedbycontamination(LandriganandFuller,2015). Kongetal.(2020) havereportedthathousingtypesignificantlyaffectedthewaterandsanitationissuesinMalaysia.Lowerhouseholdincomeand lowereducationalsoinfluencedthedisposalpractices(Kongetal.,2020).TheUnitedStates spendsapproximately76.6billiondollarsontreatmentofillnessesinkidsbecauseofenvironmentalcontamination(TrasandeandLiu,2011),whilethepriceofoccupationaldiseasesand injurieshasbeenreportedat250billiondollars(Leigh,2011; LandriganandFuller,2016).
6Waterpollutioncontrol In1972,theUnitedStatesCongressrespondedto publicoutragebypassingtheCleanWaterAct (CWA).Dischargeofraweffluentsfromindustries, cities,andcommercialinstitutionsresultedin extensivecontaminationofsurfacewaters(USEPA,1972).ThekeygoalofCWAisto“restoreand maintainthechemical,physical,andbiologicalintegrityofthenation’swaters”(USEPA,1972).CWA’s permittingrequirementswerefoundedontheidea of“selecteduse.”Itmeanssurfacewaterbodies areanticipatedtopersistforvaluableuses,andsupportmarinelife,recreationalactivities,andpreservingwatersupplyrequirements.Allregulatedwaterbodieswererequiredtopreservebalanced,nativepopulationsofaquaticvegetationandwildlife(USEPA,1998).UndertheCWA, US-EPAhasemployedcontaminationcontrolagendassuchassettingstandardsforthebusinesses.EPAestablishednationwideaquaticqualitynormsforcontaminantsinriversandstreams. AccordingtoCWA,itisillegaltoreleaseanycontaminantfromapointsourceintomaneuverablewaterswithoutapermit.
•US-EPA’sNationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)programcontrols contaminantreleases,and
•Pointsourcessuchaspipingorsyntheticchannels
Privatehousesconnectedtoapublicwastewatertreatmentsystemoruseaseptic treatmentsystem,orthosewhodonothaveadirectrelease,areexemptfromNPDES permitrequirements; Manufacturing,community,hospitals,andotherfacilitiesneedtoobtainauthorization iftheyplantoreleasewasteintosurfacewaters.
Overthelast25years,therewasbettercontrolofpointsourcesofwaterpollution,andin thelast10years,nationalregulationsandguidelineshavebeenreinforcedseveraltimes (USEPA,1972,1998).Pollutioncontrolistypicallyaddressedwithenvironmentallegislation andactionplans,butalsowithinthecontextofresourcemanagement.
AccordingtotheUnitedNations“Waterisatthecoreofsustainabledevelopment,”however, almost2.2billionpeoplelackaccesstofreshwater,andapproximately4billionpeoplelack suitablesanitation(UnitedNations,2019).Around80%ofwastewatercirculatesbackwithout
7WaterqualityandUN-sustainabledevelopmentgoals
beingtreated,and70%ofthenaturalwetlandshavebeenlost,whichincludeasignificantloss offreshwaterspecies(UnitedNations,2019).Thecurrentpandemicsituationaddsadditional stressesonwaterqualitymanagement,sanitation,andhygieneservicesthatareessentialto preventthespreadofCOVID-19.
TheUNhasrecentlypublished SustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDG-6),whichfocuson thesustainablewaterfutureasapartoftheir2030goalsforsustainability( https://www. un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/).Forsustainabledevelopment andmanagementofwaterresources,itisvitaltolookatthewatercycleaswellasall ofitsusesandusers.Theworldneedstolookatanintegratedapproachandmoveaway fromthesectoraldevelopmentandmanagementofwaterresources.TheSDG-6developedbytheUNseekstoachievethisandfocusesondrinkingwaterandbasicsanitation (includingwater,wastewater,andecosystemresources).TheUNseekstoachieveSDG-6 asamajorpathtowardasustainablefutureofourwater(Table3 ).Thespecificgoalsfor 2030include(UN-SDG)( https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-andsanitation/):
Someoftheotherproposedsustainabilitygoalsincludedifferentwaterandsanitationtargets,including:
• Goal#3.3 by2030,putsanendtoAIDSepidemic,tuberculosis,malaria,andignored tropicaldiseasesandcombathepatitis,water-bornediseases,andotherinfectious illnesses;
• Goal#3.9 by2030considerablylessensthenumberofdemisesanddiseasesfrom dangeroussubstancesandair,water,andsoilcontamination;and
TABLE3 UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).
Goal#Objective
6.1•Providecollectiveandunbiasedaccesstosafeandinexpensivedrinkingwatertoallthepeople
6.2•Provideaccesstoacceptableandunbiasedsanitationandhygiene
•Endopendefecation
•Specialconsiderationswillbeprovidedtotheneedsofwomenandgirlsandindividualsinvulnerable circumstances
6.3•Reducepollution,eliminateillegaldumping,andminimizethedischargeoftoxicchemicals
•Reducerawwastewaterreuseby50%,andsignificantlyenhancewaterrecycling
6.4•Focusonenhancedwater-useefficacyacrossallsectors
•Ensuresustainableusageandsupplyoffreshwatertoaddresswatershortageissuesanddecreasethe numberofpersonssufferingfromwaterscarcities
6.5•Implementacombinedwater-resourcemanagementplan,togetherwithinternationalcooperationand coordination
6.6•Protectandre-establishwaterecologies,aswellasfoothills,woods,marshes,waterways,groundwater aquifers,andponds.
6.A•Increaseglobalcollaborationandcapacity-buildingtounindustrializednationsinwaterandsanitationrelatedactivitiesandplans
Includingwaterharvesting,distillation,waterefficacy,wastewatertreatment,reuse,andrecycling strategies
6.B•Supportandreinforcetheinvolvementoflocalsocietiesinimprovingwatermanagementandsanitation
