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AERIALWARFARE PRAISEFOR AERIALWARFARE ‘Argumentssurroundingtheroleofairpoweralongsidelandandsea powerhaveragedforacentury.Theriseofdigitalnetworksandputative cyberpoweraddsanewandurgentdimension.Ledwidgewriteswith compellinggoodjudgment,astylishenergy,andpanache.’
DavidBetz,ProfessorofWarintheModern World,King’sCollegeLondon
‘FrankLedwidge’sshortandconciseAerialWarfaretiesstrategy,tactics, andtechnologyneatlytogether.Itisa first-ratesurveyoftheevolution, impact,andrelevanceofairpower:past,presentandfuture.Highly recommended.’
ColonelJohnAndreasOlsen,PhD.,RoyalNorwegianAirForce
‘Aconciseandup-to-dateaccountoftheevolutionofairpowerandits variousrolesovertimethatisinsightfulandcomprehensive. “AerialWarfare” willappealtoanybodyinterestedincontemporarystrategicstudies.’
BettinaRenz,AssociateProfessorin InternationalSecurity,UniversityofNottingham
3 GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OXDP, UnitedKingdom
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Acknowledgements vii
ListofIllustrations ix
ListofAbbreviationsandAcronyms xi
Foundations Beginnings:TheFirstWorldWar
TheoryandPractice:TheInterwarYears
TheSecondWorldWar:AirOperationsintheWest
TheSecondWorldWar:TheAirWarinthePaci
ColdWar
TheApotheosisofAirPower
AerostatstoAlgorithms
PerArduaadAstra?
References
FurtherReading
Index
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Overthecourseofresearchingandwritingthisbookmany peoplewithgreatknowledgeofairpoweranditshistoryhave givenvitalhelp.Itisalwaysdifficulttodojusticetoeveryone,but heregoes.
MycolleaguesatRAFCranwellhavebeensuperb,sharingtheir academicandoperationalknowledge.DrAndrewConway,Wing Commander(retd)MalCraghill,GroupCaptain(retd)ChrisFinn, CarlHartford,DrBenJones,DrPeterLee,SqnLdrAggiMorrison, DrStevenPaget,DrMatthewPowell,andMaj.RobSpaltonwere goodenoughtoreadallorpartofthetextandmakecorrections orsuggestions,aswasDrEitanShamiroftheBegin-SadatCenter inIsrael.I’dalsoliketothankthesuperblibrarystaffatCranwell fortheirkindness,refuge,andgoodadvice.DrEdBurkeand DrBettinaRenzatNottinghamandDrVladimirRautaatStaffordshirewereextremelyhelpfulandkind.ColonelJohnAndreas Olsen,thedoyenofair-powerscholarshipwascharacteristically extremelyhelpfulandencouraging.
ShashankJoshakandJustinBronk,twooftheRoyalUnited ServicesInstitute’sleadingcommentatorsandexpertslookedover asectioneach,somethingbeyondthecallofdutyandIamvery grateful.
IwouldalsoliketothanktheanonymousreviewersforOxford UniversityPressandalsothebook’spatienteditorJennyNugee,
theproductionteamledbyClementRaj,copy-editorBrianNorth, andproofreaderRebeccaBryant.Everythingtheysuggestedwas constructiveandhelpfulandhasmadethisafarbetterbook. Wherethereareerrors,theyaremine.
ImustalsomentiontheRAFofficersandofficercadetsat Cranwell,thehomeoftheRoyalAirForce.Ihavelearnedavery greatdealfromthemovertheyearsandIhavetriedtoincorporatesomeofthatinthisbook.Theirexpertisehasrangedfromthe complexitiesoflayeredairdefencesduringtheColdWartohow hand-helddronesassistincontemporarycombat.
Thehelpandadviceofalltheseremarkablepeoplewasinvaluable;wheremistakeshavebeenmadeitisbecauseIhaveignored thatadvice.
Finally,myfamily NeviandJames haveenduredmany eveningswhenIgrumpilytoldthem ‘don’tyouknowI’ vea booktowrite?’ Enoughofthatfornow!
LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS ‘L’Entreprenant’ attheBattleofFleurus WikimediaCommons
AnItalianaircraftdivesonTurkishtroops
©AlfredoDagliOrti/REX/Shutterstock
ReconnaissancephotographofthevillageofAllaines
Chronicle/AlamyStockPhoto
GothaVIIBomber
ImperialWarMuseums(Q )
GiulioDouhet
©Tallandier/BridgemanImages
‘Youngpeople,taketotheair!’
Courtesyofsovietart.me
SupermarineSpitfireMarkIIandHawkerHurricaneMarkI
MinistryofDefence(OpenGovernmentLicencev.)
‘Guernica’ byPicasso
©SuccessionPicasso/DACS,London .Photo©FineArt Images/agefotostock
TheLuftwaffe’s ‘OperationalAirWar’ inaction
Bundesarchiv,Bild I-
-
FlightofP- Mustang fighters
©PhotoQuest/GettyImages
.Photo:RichardOpitz
WW inthePacifictookplaceovervastdistances
FrankLedwidge
TheUSS Essex
NationalArchivesphotono. -G-
Theworld’s firstnuclearattack
NationalArchivesphotono.
TheRussianTupolevTu strategicbomber
©SebastianSowa
Algeria ©ReportersAssociés/GettyImages
Soviet-suppliedSA- anti-aircraftmissile
©HultonArchive/GettyImages
RoyalNavySeaHarrier
©TrusteesoftheNationalMuseumoftheRoyalNavy
TheOODALoop
Warden’sRings
AdaptedfromJ.Warden, , TheAirCampaign:Planning forCombat
TheF- Stealth fighter
USAirForce
ANorwegianC-
©AntoineGyori/Corbis/GettyImages
Backtothefuture
USArmyPhoto
ARoyalAirForceTyphoon fighternexttoaBAE Taranisdrone
CourtesyofBAESystems
LISTOFABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS Aswithmostmilitarytopics,airpowerisrepletewithacronyms andabbreviations.Thefollowingareusedinthisbook:
AARair-to-airrefuelling
ABMAerospaceBattleManagement
ACTSAirCorpsTacticalSchool
AEWairborneearlywarning
AWACSairborne[early]warningandcontrolsystem
C commandandcontrol
C command,control,andcommunications
CAScloseairsupport
ECMelectroniccountermeasures
FAAFuerzaAereaArgentina,theArgentineAirForce
GBADground-basedairdefences
GPSglobalpositioningsystem
IADSintegratedairdefencesystem
IAFIsraeliAirForce
IDFIsraeliDefenceForces
JSTARSjointsurveillancetargetattackradarsystem
MEDEVACmedicalevacuation
NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization
NLFNationalLiberationFront
NVANorthVietnameseArmy
OCAoffensivecounter-air
OODAObserve,Orient,Decide,andAct
PGMsprecision-guidedmunitions
RAFRoyalAirForce
RAPrecognizedairpicture
RDFradiodirection finding(after betterknownasradio directionandranging:radar)
RFCRoyalFlyingCorps
RPASremotelypilotedaircraftsystem(alsoknownasUAV ordrone)
SAMsurface-to-airmissile
SEADsuppressionofenemyairdefences
UAVunmannedaerialvehicle(alsoknownasRPASordrone)
USAACUnitedStatesArmyAirCorps(whichbecametheUSAAF in )
USAAFUnitedStatesArmyAirForce(whichbecametheUSAF after )
USAFUnitedStatesAirForce
USSBSUSStrategicBombingSurvey
WW FirstWorldWar
WW SecondWorldWar
Foundations ‘Airpoweristheuseofaircapabilitiestoinfluencethebehaviour ofactorsandthecourseofevents’;thisRoyalAirForcedefinition isasgoodasany.Fordecadesairpowerhasbeentheprimarytool usedbymajorpowerstocoercerecalcitrantopponents.Those ‘air capabilities’ arealmostaslikelytobewieldedtodaybyunmanned aircraftoraguidedmissileastheyarebyanaeroplanewithacrew droppingbombs.Theprinciplesofthedeployment,thegrammar asitwereofairpower,havechangedlittleoverthelastonehundred yearsorso.Onlythetechnology,thevocabulary,hasaltered.In ,oil-streakedaircrewinopencockpits flewfabric-covered biplanesovershell-pockedFirstWorldWarbattlefields.In theirgreat-grandchildren,gazingatcomputerscreensincabins hummingwithtechnology,pilotdronesoverdustyvillagesthousandsofmilesaway.Therolestheycarryoutarebroadlythesame.
Asadominant,ifnot the dominantmilitarytechnologyover thelastcentury,airpowerhasdevelopedextraordinarilyquickly. Inonesense,ofcourse,aircraftaresimplyanothermilitarytechnologylike firearmsorsubmarines,bothofwhichhavegreatly
influencedmilitaryconflict.However,airpowerhasseveralunique qualities.First,ithasthepotentialof ubiquity.GiulioDouhet (–),oneoftheearly ‘prophets’ ofairpower,wrotein
that ‘theairplanehascompletefreedomofactionanddirection;itcan flytoandfromanypointofthecompassintheshortest time inastraightline byanyroutedeemedexpedient’ .
Secondly,itmaydosoatgreat height permittingextensive observation.Third,ithas reach whichappliesoverbothlandand sea;geographicalobstaclesarenotrelevant.Finally,aircraftmay operateatgreat speed actinggenerallyfarmorequicklythan ground-orsea-basedvehicles.Aircraftalsooperatewithlimitations,notablyimpermanence.Eventoday,withtheadvantages ofair-to-airrefuellingandverylongendurance,noaircraftcan remainindefinitelyoveritsobjective.Anaircraftcannothold territorynorcanitsubstitutefor ‘bootsontheground’,although thathasnotstoppedmilitaryplannersfromtryingtomakethem doexactlythat.
Atthetacticallevel,whichistosayinsupportofarmiesand navies,thereisnoquestionthataircrafthavefundamentally changedtheconductofwaronlandandatsea.However,since aircraftachievedtherangetocrossenemylinesandstrikeatan enemy ’scitiesandbases,therehasbeenastrongcurrentof thinkingthatairpowercanbemorethanjustanothermilitary capability,andthatitcanhave strategic effectandachievepolitical goalsalone.Itisthishopethatdrivescontemporarypoliticians inmanycountriestoseeairpowerasonepossiblesolutionto extremelydifficultpoliticalorsecurityproblems.Theargument astowhetheraircraftcanindeedachievestrategicresultsruns throughoutthisbook.
Vastresourceshavebeenandarespentonthedevelopment andproductionofmilitaryaircraft.Thiscontinues,nowasmuch asever.Themostexpensivemilitaryprocurementprojectin history,indeedpossiblythemostexpensivepublicprocurement projectofanykind,isthecurrentF- LightningII,amulti-role fighter-bomberaircraftdesignedforserviceintothe s.This willcosttaxpayersinthecountriesitisdesignedtoequip,particularlytheUSA,wellinexcessof$ trillion.Questionsconcerning thedevelopment,deployment,andpotentialofairpower,whether theylikeitornot,areeveryone’sconcern;asidefromanyother consideration,everyoneispayingforit.
Sincetheverybeginningitwasclearthatthenewtechnology wouldhavemilitaryapplications.TheWrightbrothers,who madethe firstpowered flightin ,werenotthehomespun bicycle-makersoflegend,orratherwerenotonlythat.Theywere veryfamiliarwithcomplexaeronauticalmathematicsandengineeringtheory,justastoday’saircraftengineersmustbe.Itwas clearfromthestartthataircraftwouldhaveamilitarydimension, andtheWrightbrotherswereexplicitthattheywerelookingfor militarycontractstocontinuetheirwork,whichtheyeventually received.In ,LordNorthcliffe,aBritishnewspapermagnate sentatelegram: ‘aeroplaneprimarilyintendedwarmachinestop’ .
TheFirstWorldWar(WW),whichwewillexamineinChapter , demonstratedthataeroplaneswouldindeedbewarmachines, andveryformidableones.Whilstitwasneveradecisivearmon anyWW front,alltheelementsofitsfuturedeploymentwere presentwiththeexceptionofitspotentialformobility.Bythe endofthewar,thecombatantnationshadthousandsofaircraft intheirinventorieswiththeirattendantadministrativeand
logisticalstructures.Theworld’s fi rstindependentairarm,the RoyalAirForce,hadbeenformed.TheyearsafterWW ,examinedinChapter ,sawtheoristslookingathowthispromising newmilitarydimensionmightbedeployedmosteffectively. Thesetheoristsarguedthatthenatureofwaritselfhadnow changed,thatallelementsofanationmightnowbeinthefront line.Airpowercouldwinwarsalone,theysaid,eitherbyterrorizingcitizenstotheextentthattheywouldforcetheirgovernments tocapitulateorthroughdemolishingastate’sindustrialcapability tosustainawar.Thiswasandistermed ‘strategicbombing’ , althoughthereisrarelyanything ‘strategic’ aboutit.Mostimportantly,airpowerofferedthepossibilitythatfutureconflictmightbe cheaperthanthe ‘old’ wars,bothinlivesandmoney.
Notallairforcesboughtintotheseideas;thepre-SecondWorld War(WW)GermanandSovietAirForcessawtheirrolesprimarilyassupportingthearmybyattackingtheenemy’sdeployed forces.Alloftheseideasandmanymorewereputtothetestin WW andwillbedealtwithinChapters and .Wholecities weredevastatedbybombing:Dresden,Hamburg,Hiroshima, Nagasaki,andTokyobeingonlythemostwell-knownamongst dozensofothers.Whilstargumentsstillrageastothestrategic effectivenessandindeedthemoralityoftheseoperations,there isnodisputethataircraftwerevitaltobattlefieldsuccessinboth thewarinEuropeandNorthAfrica.InthePacific,USindustrial powercreatedavastandhighlyefficientaircraftcarrier fleet,with theaircraftandtrainedcrewstomanthem.
Chapters and dealwiththeColdWarperiodafterWW by examiningthe ‘smallwarsofpeace’,manyofwhichwereanythingbutsmallorpeaceful.Morebombsweredroppedduringthe
VietnamWarthanallofWW,causinggreatdamagebuthaving questionableeffect,tosaytheleast,onitspoliticaloutcome. OtherconflictsfromSouthAsiatotheMiddleEast,fromAfrica totheSouthAtlanticsawaircraftasdecisiveonthebattlefield. TheendoftheColdWarwasmarkedbywhatappearedtobe somethingofashift.Somenewthinkingbroughtairpoweronce againintoplayasapossible ‘war-winner’ intheFirstGulfWarof andtheBalkanWars.Evenherethetruthismorenuanced thanairpowerenthusiastsmightwishtobelieve.
Chapters and bringusintotoday’sworldofthewarson ‘terror’,drones,andcyber-war,andconsiderbrieflywhatair powermaylooklikeinthefuture.
Likeanyother fieldofmilitaryactivity,airwarfarehasproducedanalphabetsoupofacronyms.Thereis,Iamafraid,noreal wayofavoidingthementirely.Termsaregiveninfullat first usagealongwiththeacronymandsubsequentlyacronymonly; thereisacompletelistofabbreviationsatthestartofthebook. Beforeembarkingonthestoryofmilitaryairpower,wewillvisit anairbasenearaconflictzonetoday,whereamissionisbeing preparedtoattackatargetinenemyterritory.
AnatomyofanAirStrike Intelligenceofficersandimageryanalystshaveporedoverimages takenfrommannedreconnaissanceaircraft,drones(alsoknown asRPAS, ‘RemotelyPilotedAircraftSystems’ orUAV, ‘Unmanned AerialVehicle’),andsatellites.Theyhaveselectedthetarget;lawyers haveconfirmedthathittingitconformswithinternationalhumanitarianlaw,thelawofwar,andseniorofficersorevenpoliticians
haveapprovedthemission.Engineershaveensuredthatthetwo aircraftareairworthy,andarmourershaveplacedthecorrect bombsandmissiles(knownas ‘ordnance’)ontothebomb-racks andloadedtheguns.Flightoperationspersonnelfueltheaircraft. Fire-crewsandmedicalpersonnelareonconstantstand-by. A ‘combatsearchandrescue’ teamisbriefed;theteamwillgoin byhelicopterand ‘extract’ aircrewswhoareshotdownandeject overenemyterritory.Allarefedandsustainedbyahighlycomplex andusuallysmoothlyfunctioningadministrationandlogistics system,whichitselfbenefitsfromtheadvantagesofferedbytransportaircraft(mobility)whichcanmovesuppliesorpersonnel anywhereintheworldveryquickly.
Thecrews flyingtheaircraftinthemission(whichissometimes calleda ‘strikepackage’)arebriefedwiththelatestimageryand informationontheenemy’sdefences.Theyentertheircockpits, completetheirownchecksensuringtheaircraftsoftwareiscorrectlyupdatedandcommunicatingwithotherelementsofthe mission.Whenthetimecomesfortake-off,airtrafficcontrol ensuresairspaceaheadofthestrikepackageisclear.Ifneutral territoryistobeoverflown,diplomatsmayhaveobtainedclearances.OncealoftAerospaceBattleManagement(ABM)teams takeoverandensurethemissioniscoordinatedwithalliedforces inthearea.
ABMissometimesbasedinlargeaircraftpackedwithradarsand detectorswhichrangetheelectronicspectrum;aswellassurveying the ‘battlespace’ lookingforenemyactivitytheyalso ‘deconflict’ withothernations’ aircraftwhichmayalsobeoperatinginthearea.
A ‘quick-reactionalert’ (QRA) fighterelementisonstandbyto protectusanddetercuriousorindeedhostileattention.Thereis
alsolikelytobean ‘electroniccountermeasures’ (ECM)aircraft, packedwithpowerfuljammingequipmentinsupport.TheECM crewwillbetryingtojamtheenemy’sradarsandperhapsdisrupt hiselectronicnetworks.Allthetimethestrikepackageisitself usinganextensivesuiteofelectronicstodetectpossiblethreats fromtheground,orindeedintheair,intheformofmissiles.Allof theseactivitiesareintendedtoensurethatthereisadequate controlof theair toenablethemissiontoproceed.ABMwillalsoco-ordinate anyair-to-airrefuelling(AAR)thatmayberequiredonalongrangemission.
Uponenteringtheenemy’sairspacethestrikeaircraftwillneed toavoidenemyairdefences,andboth fightersandground-based airdefences(GBAD).Friendly fighterswillassistineliminatingan airthreat.Asforanti-aircraftmissiles(surfacetoairmissiles (SAMs)),anotherstrikemissionmayhavebeenorderedtodeal withthoseandtheircontrollingradars ifECMhasnotalready managedtoneutralizethem.Thisiscalled ‘suppressionofenemy airdefences’ (SEAD).Low-level flyingskillscanalsohelpwiththis. Oncetheaircraftarriveattheirobjective,thetargetmaybe ‘marked’ withalaser.Insomecircumstancestroopsonthe ground,probablyspecialforces,willmarkthetarget,orglobal positioningsystem(GPS)co-ordinatesmaybeusedtoachieve greatprecisionforthestrike.Eitherway,itisimperativethatin hittingthetargetthemissionavoids,tothegreatestextentpossible,civiliancasualties,as ‘collateraldamage’ mayimpairthe overallwareffortbyreducingitslegitimacy.Theaircraftreturns tobase,withallelementsremainingvigilant.
Thisisnottheendforthis attack mission.Satellitesorother aircraftmustnowdoabattle-damageassessmenttoseeifthe
bombshavedonetheintendeddamage.Theywillalsoconduct thebalefultaskofassessingwhethertherehasbeencollateral damageintheformofciviliandeaths.Thesystemthenbegins againandgearsupforanotherattack.
Thatwasaverysimpleexampleofarelativelystraightforward mission.Thereaderwillappreciatethatthereareverymany ‘movingparts’ insuchasimpleoperation,aswellasverymany acronyms!Thereadermightconsideritworthrecallingaswego ontolookatthehistoryofairpowerthatmanymissionswere ordersofmagnitudemorecomplexthanthisone.Imaginethe preparationforaWW thousand-bomberraidoverGermanyin thedark,opposedbyaferociouslyefficientenemywith fighter aircraftandanti-aircraftgunsdirectedbyradar.Thetechnology hasimprovedbutthefourfundamental roles ofmilitaryaircraft controloftheair, attack, reconnaissance and mobility remainthesame.
TheFourRolesofAirPower:ControloftheAir Thefourrolesofairpower(Box )areinterdependentandtoan extenttheyarelabelsofconvenience.Someoperationsmay involveallfourroles,andindeedmayincorporateothercomponentsofairpowersuchascommandandcontrol.
Withoutasignificantdegreeofcontroloftheair,theother threeelementsareimpossibletoachieve.Itisthekeyenablerfor theothermainrolesofairpower.Ifacommandercannotbe assuredofaircontrol,theshapeofoperationswillchangegreatly. Controloftheairisnotonlygainedbyotheraircraft(e.g. fighters) asGBADmayalsobehighlyeffective.Forexample,intheVietnam War, percentofUSairlosses(helicoptersandstrikeaircraft)
(
) Control oftheAir:ensuringthatitisyou,notyourenemythathas thefreedomoftheair.Theultimateaimis ‘airsupremacy’ which isunchallengedcontrol. ‘Airsuperiority’ isnextbest,where enemychallengeisreducedtoaminimum.Controloftheair isusuallygainedwiththeuseof fighters;itcanalsobechallengedbyeffectiveground-basedanti-aircraftmissilesorguns, orindeedbytakingorattackingairfields anapproachtermed ‘offensivecounter-air’ .
(
) Intelligence,Surveillance,andReconnaissance,alsotermed Intelligence andSituationalAwareness: findingtheenemyandlearningas muchasyoucanabouthim.Verycommonly,reconnaissance iscarriedoutbydedicatedandspeciallyequippedaircraftand satellites,aswellastroopsontheground.TheacronymISTAR iscommonlyusedforthisfunction(‘intelligence,surveillance, targetacquisition,andreconnaissance’).
(
) Attack:otherwiseknownasbombing.Attackisenabledby controloftheairandgoodintelligence.Itistheprimary meansbywhichairpowerisexercisedonlandoratsea. Therearethreeprimaryforms:tacticalbombingisappliedto targetsonthebattlefield;interdictionattemptsto ‘sealthe battlefield’ fromsuppliesandreinforcements;strategicbombing isdirectedagainsttheindustrialorcivilianbaseofacountry.
(
) Mobility:theabilitytouseaircrafttotransportequipmentor people sometimestermedlogistics.Thiscanactasa ‘forcemultiplier’ forgroundforceswhethercarriedoutbyhelicopters atthebattlefieldortacticallevel,orhugetransportaircraft whichprovide ‘strategiclift’.Operationscanalsobesustained bytheuseofAAR.
weresustainedfromground fire. ‘Offensivecounter-air’ (OCA) involvesattackinganenemy’sbases;clearlyifanaircraftcannot takeoff,itisofnouse.Thisisanexampleofhowonerole,attack, canacttoachieveanother,controloftheair.Possiblythebest exampleofthistookplaceon June whentheIsraeliAir ForcedestroyedmuchoftheEgyptianAirForceonthegroundin asurpriseattack(seeChapter );fortherestoftheSixDayWar, Israeliaircraftrangedrelativelyfreelyoverthebattlefields.
Intelligence,Surveillance,andReconnaissance Theoldestfunctionofairpowerreflectstheoldmilitaryadage thatacommanderneedsto ‘seetheothersideofthehill’.The earliestdemonstrationsofthepotentialofaircraftweresimple attemptstouseballoonstoacquiresufficientheighttoseebehind enemylines.In ,justelevenyearsaftertheMontgolfierbrothershad flownthe firstmannedhotairballoon,theFrenchArmy AerostaticCorpswasformed twenty-fivesoldierswereselected fortheirexpertiseinchemistryandotherrelevant fields;commandedbyCaptainJeanMarieJosephCoutelle,theywerethe world’s firstairarm.
InJune attheBattleofFleurus,pilotsoftheCorps flewthe ‘Entreprenant’—atetheredhydrogenballoon(Figure ).Theywere abletoinformtheFrenchcommandingGeneralJourdanofthe movementsofAustriantroopsbydroppingmessagesandusing semaphore.ThebattlewasasignificantvictoryfortheFrenchand establishedtheirsuperiorityintheRevolutionaryWarsofthe period,althoughtheAerostaticCorpswasrarelyusedagain it wasdisbandedin .The firstyearsoftheAmericanCivilWar
Figure ‘L’Entreprenant’ attheBattleofFleurus
sawbothsidesdeployballoonstonodecisiveeffectandthey werealsoseenintheFranco-PrussianWarof –.Since , reconnaissancehasusuallyinvolvedtheuseofpoweredaircraft utilizingcontroloftheairtoobservetheenemyand fi ndtargets forattack.Again,thiscaninvolveusingaircraftonornearthe battle fi eld(tactical)anddeepbehindenemylines(strategic).
Sincetheearly ssatelliteshaveplayedanever-increasing role,particularlyinprovidingstrategicintelligence.Sincethelate smanyreconnaissanceaircrafthavebeenunmanned.
Attack Attackistheapplicationofexplosivesorotherformsofordnance fromtheairagainstenemyforcesorindeedcivilians.Ittoohasa longpedigree.On November , ndLieutenantGiulioGavotti oftheItalianArmyairbattalion,basedinLibya,tookoffinhis flimsysingle-seataircraftanddroppedfourgrenadesonTurkish troopsjustoutsideTripoli.Hewastheworld’s firstbomberpilot (Figure ).Exactlyonehundredyearslater,NorthAtlanticTreaty Organization(NATO)bomberssoaredoverthesameTripoli skies.The firstraidonaciviliantargetbyaheavier-than-air aircraftwason October duringtheFirstBalkanWar whenaBulgarianaircraft flownbyCaptainRadulMilkovdropped twosmallbombsonAdrianople(nowEdirne).Nocasualtieswere reportedineitheroperation.
Attackisoftenusedinthe interdiction role,denyingtheenemy resupplyorreinforcement.Forexample,duringtheArdennes Campaignof ,betterknownastheBattleoftheBulge,Allied airforceshadalmostentirelystoppedthe flowoffueltoGerman
Figure AnItalianaircraftdivesonTurkishtroops
