AdvancedBiosensorsforVirusDetection-Smart DiagnosticstoCombatSARS-CoV-21sted.2022 Edition
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AdvancedBiosensorsfor VirusDetection AdvancedBiosensorsfor VirusDetection Editedby RajuKhan
CSIR-AdvancedMaterials& ProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India
ArpanaParihar
CSIR-AdvancedMaterials& ProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India
AjeetKaushik
AssistantProfessorofChemistry,NanoBioTechLaboratory,Departmentof EnvironmentalEngineering,FloridaPolytechnicUniversity,Lakeland, FL,UnitedStates
AshokKumar DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS), Bhopal,India
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CHAPTER1Theemergenceofsevereacuterespiratory syndrome-coronavirus2epidemicandpandemic .............................. 1 TabassumZafar
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................1
1.2 Severeacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2:thememberofthe coronavirusfamily......................................................................................................1
1.2.1SARS-CoV-2inconnectionwithsevereacuterespiratorysyndromecoronavirusandMiddleEastrespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus...................2
1.3 Virionstructureofsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2......................3
1.4 Pathophysiologyofsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2 infection......................................................................................................................
1.5 Transmissibilityofsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2.....................7
1.6 Originandetiologyofsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2................8
1.7 Fromepidemictopandemic....................................................................................10
2.1
2.6
3.3
3.5 Pathogenesisofcoronavirus19...............................................................................46
3.5.1Infectionandviremia.....................................................................................47
3.5.2Inflammationandcytokinestorm..................................................................48
3.5.3Postinflammatorypulmonaryfibrosis...........................................................52
3.6 Extrapulmonarymanifestationsofcoronavirus19..................................................53
3.6.1Cardiacinvolvement......................................................................................53
3.6.2Hematologicalmanifestations........................................................................53
3.6.3Renalmanifestation.......................................................................................54
3.6.4GastrointestinalandHepatobiliarymanifestations........................................54
3.6.5Endocrinemanifestations...............................................................................54
3.6.6Neurologicalmanifestations..........................................................................54 3.7
4.2
4.3 qRT-PCRfordetectionofSARS-CoV-2RNA.......................................................64
4.4 Cartridge-basednucleicacidamplificationtests.....................................................67
4.5 Poolingofspecimensfornucleicacidamplificationtest.......................................67
4.6 Isothermalassays......................................................................................................68
4.7 Rapidantigendetectiontest.....................................................................................69
4.8 QualitycontrolofCOVID-19testing......................................................................70
4.9
5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................79
5.2 Pathophysiologyofcoronavirusdisease..................................................................79
5.2.1Stageofinfectionandviremia......................................................................80
5.2.2Stageofinflammationandcytokinestorm...................................................80
5.2.3Postinflammatorypulmonaryfibrosisanditscomplications........................80
5.3 Therapeuticsofprovenutility,targetingstageofinfectionandviremia...............81
5.3.1Monoclonalantibodies...................................................................................81
5.4 Therapeuticsoflimitedorunprovenutility,targetingstageof Infectionandviremia...............................................................................................82
5.4.1Remdesivir.....................................................................................................82
5.4.2Hydroxychloroquine.......................................................................................83
5.4.3Ivermectin......................................................................................................84
5.4.4Lopinavir........................................................................................................84
5.5 Therapeuticsofprovenutility,targetingcytokinestorm........................................85
5.5.1Glucocorticoids..............................................................................................85
5.5.2Anticoagulants................................................................................................86
5.6 Therapeuticsoflimitedutility,targetingcytokinestorm........................................86
5.6.1Tocilizumab....................................................................................................86
5.6.2Interferons......................................................................................................86
5.6.3Baricitinib.......................................................................................................87
5.6.4Bevacizumab..................................................................................................87
5.6.5Infliximab.......................................................................................................87
5.6.6Artesunate.......................................................................................................87
5.7 Therapeuticsoflimitedoruncertainutility,targetingpost-coronavirus diseasecomplications...............................................................................................88
5.7.1Drugstargetingpulmonaryfibrosis:nintedanibandpirfenidone.................88
5.7.2Colchicine......................................................................................................88
5.7.3Drugstargetingpulmonaryhypertension......................................................88
5.7.4Longtermanticoagulationtherapy................................................................89
5.8 Conclusion................................................................................................................89 References.................................................................................................................90
CHAPTER6Genomic,proteomicbiomarkersandriskfactorsassociated withCOVID-19 95 HimadriSingh,RajeevNemaandAshokKumar
6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................95
6.2 Biomarkers...............................................................................................................96
6.3 ProteomicBiomarkersforCOVID-19.....................................................................96
6.3.1Cytokines........................................................................................................96
6.3.2Acute-phaseproteins......................................................................................97
6.3.3Clinicalbiochemicalparameters...................................................................99
6.3.4IdentificationofnovelproteomicsbiomarkersforCOVID-19....................99
6.4 Geneticbiomarkers................................................................................................102
6.4.1Geneticpredispositionbiomarkers..............................................................102
6.4.2NoncodingRNA..........................................................................................105
6.5 Conclusionandfutureperspective.........................................................................106 References...............................................................................................................106
CHAPTER7Biological/syntheticreceptors(antibody,enzyme,andaptamer) usedforbiosensorsdevelopmentforvirusdetection ..................... 113 AkankshaRoberts,SubhasisMahariandSonuGandhi
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................113
7.2 Typesofbioreceptors.............................................................................................114
7.2.1Enzymes.......................................................................................................114
7.2.2Antibodyandantigen...................................................................................115
7.2.3Nucleicacid.................................................................................................115
7.2.4Wholecell....................................................................................................115
7.2.5Aptamers......................................................................................................115
7.2.6Peptides........................................................................................................116
7.2.7Molecularlyimprintedpolymers.................................................................116
7.2.8Othersensorparadigms...............................................................................116
7.3 Propertiesofbiosensorsbasedonbioreceptors.....................................................116
7.4 Examplesofbiosensorsfordetectionofcoronavirusdisease2019basedon differentbioreceptors.............................................................................................117
7.4.1Antibodyreceptorbased..............................................................................117
7.4.2Antigenreceptorbased................................................................................118
7.4.3Nucleicacidreceptorbased.........................................................................121
7.5
CHAPTER8Potentialelectrochemicalbiosensorsforearlydetectionof viralinfection ....................................................................................
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................133
8.2 Typesofviralinfectionsandtheirdetection.........................................................136
8.2.1Respiratoryviralinfection...........................................................................136
CHAPTER9OpticalbiosensorsforSARS-CoV-2detection
9.1 Introduction............................................................................................................155
9.2 Biosensors:anintroductiontoopticalbiosensors.................................................156
9.3 Surface-plasmonresonance-basedbiosensors.......................................................157
9.4 Localizedsurfaceplasmonresonance-basedopticalbiosensors...........................158
9.5 Surface-enhancedRamanscattering-basedopticalbiosensors.............................161
9.6 OpticallateralflowassayforSARS-CoV-2-detection.........................................161
9.7 Challengesindevelopingopticalbiosensors.........................................................163
9.8 Conclusionandfutureperspectives.......................................................................163
RupeshK.Mishra,NavinPai,K.YugenderGoud,RaviRanjanKumarNiraj, DeepakKumar,GaurangPatel,VinodSinghGour,AminZareei, RahimRahimi,VinaySharma,RogerNarayanandLiaStanciu
10.1 Introduction............................................................................................................167
10.2 Nucleicacid-baseddetection.................................................................................168 10.2.1RT-qPCR-baseddetection........................................................................168
10.3 Serologicaltesting..................................................................................................169
10.4 BiosensorsforCOVID-19diagnostics..................................................................170
10.4.1ElectrochemicalbiosensorsforSARS-CoV-2detection..........................171
10.4.2Opticalbiosensors......................................................................................173
10.4.3CRISPR-basedbiosensorforSARS-CoV-2..............................................175
10.5 Electricalandpiezoelectricbiosensors..................................................................176
10.5.1COVIDtestbasedonantibodydetection..................................................177
10.5.2Detectionofblockingantibodies...............................................................178
10.5.3HarnessingwearabledevicestodetectSARS-CoV-2infections.............179
10.5.4Smarttoilettechnology..............................................................................179
10.6 Futuredirections.....................................................................................................179
10.7 Conclusions............................................................................................................181
CHAPTER11Roleofmagneticnanoparticlesindevelopmentofbiosensors
12.6 Conclusionandfutureperspective.........................................................................213
CHAPTER13Multiplexedbiosensorsforvirusdetection
13.1
MintuPal,VishalDas,H.P.DekaBoruahandC.Chikkaputtaiah
13.2 Biosensors...............................................................................................................220
13.3 Applicationofmultiplexbiosensorsondetectionofviruses................................221
CHAPTER14Electricalbiosensorsforvirusdetection.........................................
GautamBacher,SunilBhandandShreyasDeshpande 14.1
14.8
CHAPTER15Diagnosticbiosensorsforcoronavirusesandrecent developments .................................................................................... 261 ShimaaEissa
15.1 Introduction............................................................................................................261
15.2 Traditionaldetectionmethods................................................................................262
15.3 Biosensorsincoronavirusdetection......................................................................263
15.3.1Electrochemicalbiosensors........................................................................264
15.3.2Opticalbiosensors......................................................................................270
15.3.3Field-effecttransistor.................................................................................273
15.4 Conclusionsandfutureperspectives......................................................................273 References...............................................................................................................274
CHAPTER16Fluorescence-basedbiosensorsforSARS-CoV-2viral infectiondiagnostics ........................................................................ 279 JoshyJosephandBinduRameshan
16.1 Introduction............................................................................................................279
16.2 Fluorescence-basedstrategiesinbiosensors..........................................................280
16.2.1DNAstainingandfluorescencelabeling...................................................280
16.2.2Fo ¨ rsterresonanceenergytransfer-basedbiosensors................................281
16.2.3Metal-enhancedfluorescence-basedbiosensors........................................282
16.3 Fluorescence-basedbiosensorsinviraldiagnosticapplications...........................282
16.3.1Hybridization-basedprobes.......................................................................283
16.3.2Light-upRNAaptamerprobes..................................................................285
16.3.3Antibody-basedprobes..............................................................................287
16.4 Advancesinfluorescence-basedbiosensorsforSARS-CoV-2viral infectiondiagnostics...............................................................................................288
16.4.1Nucleicaciddetection................................................................................288
16.4.2Proteindetection........................................................................................291
16.4.3Otherapproaches........................................................................................295
16.5 Conclusion..............................................................................................................296 References...............................................................................................................296
CHAPTER17Miniaturizedanalyticalsystemforpoint-of-carecoronavirus infectiondiagnostics ........................................................................ 305 PushpeshRanjan,Mohd.AbubakarSadique,ShaluYadav, ArpanaPariharandRajuKhan
17.1 Introduction............................................................................................................305
17.2 Currentdiagnostictechniques................................................................................307
17.2.1Polymerasechainreaction/reversetranscription-polymerasechain reaction.......................................................................................................307
17.2.2Loop-mediatedisothermalamplification/reversetranscriptionand loop-mediatedisothermalamplification....................................................309
17.2.3Clusteredregularlyinterspacedshortpalindromicrepeats.......................310
17.2.4Computerizedtomographyscan................................................................311
17.2.5Electrochemical-basedbiosensor...............................................................312
17.2.6Optical-basedbiosensor.............................................................................314
17.2.7Lateralflowimmunoassay.........................................................................316
17.2.8Microfluidic-basedbiosensor.....................................................................319
17.2.9Mass-spectroscopy-basedbiosensor..........................................................319
17.3 Potentialpoint-of-carminiaturizedbiosensor.......................................................320 17.4 Conclusion..............................................................................................................335
CHAPTER18Microfluidicdeviceswithintegratedbiosensorsfor ArushiGupta,MayankGarg,SumanSingh,AkashDeepand AmitL.Sharma
18.1 Introductiontocoronavirus....................................................................................341
18.2 AvailabledetectionmethodsforSARS-CoV-2virus...........................................342 18.3 Microfluidic-basedbiosensorsystem.....................................................................344
CHAPTER19Approachesforfabricationofpoint-of-carebiosensorsforviral
19.7 Fabricationofmolecularlyimprintedpolymer-basedbiosensor...........................361
19.8 Fabricationofmagneticbiosensor.........................................................................363
19.9 Fabricationofthree-dimensionalprintingbiosensor.............................................366
CHAPTER20Currentlyavailablebiosensor-basedapproachesforsevere acuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2detection ..................... 373 ArpanaParihar,NidhiPuranik,DipeshSinghParihar,PushpeshRanjan andRajuKhan
20.1 Introduction............................................................................................................373
20.2 Diagnosticapproachesforviraldiseases...............................................................374
20.3 Biosensorsinthedetectionofrespiratoryviruses.................................................377 20.3.1Electrochemicalbiosensor.........................................................................377 20.3.2Opticalbiosensor........................................................................................379 20.3.3Piezoelectricbiosensor...............................................................................380 20.3.4Thermalbiosensors....................................................................................380
20.4 Presentdiagnosticmethodsforsevereacuterespiratory syndrome-coronavirus2detection.........................................................................380
20.5
CHAPTER21Biosensors-basedapproachesforotherviralinfection
SoumajitMukherjee,PetraStrakova,LukasRichtera,VojtechAdam andAmirmansoorAshrafi
21.1 Introduction............................................................................................................391
21.3 Importanceofbiosensorinthediagnostics...........................................................394
Detectionofmammalianvirusesbyabiosensor...................................................395
21.5 Importanceandsignificanceofbiologicalanalytes..............................................401
21.6 Futurescopes..........................................................................................................401
CHAPTER22Scalingupofbiosensorsforclinicalapplicationsand commercialization ............................................................................
Ye¸serenSaylan,SemraAkgonullu,NilayBereli,HandanYavuzand AdilDenizli
22.1
22.2
CHAPTER23Futureaspectsofbiosensor-baseddevicesindisease
23.1
Listofcontributors VojtechAdam
DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic; CentralEuropeanInstituteofTechnology,BrnoUniversityofTechnology,Brno,CzechRepublic
SemraAkgo ¨ nu ¨ llu ¨
DepartmentofChemistry,HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
P.Aparna
DepartmentofMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
NehaArya
TranslationalMedicineCentre,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences,Bhopal,India
AmirmansoorAshrafi
DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic; CentralEuropeanInstituteofTechnology,BrnoUniversityofTechnology,Brno,CzechRepublic
OnkarAwadhiya
DepartmentofGeneralMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
GautamBacher
DepartmentofElectricalandElectronicsEngineering,BITSPilaniKKBirlaGoaCampus,Goa, India
NilayBereli
DepartmentofChemistry,HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
SunilBhand
BiosensorLab,DepartmentofChemistry,BITSPilaniKKBirlaGoaCampus,Goa,India
DebasisBiswas
RegionalVirologyLaboratory,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India; DepartmentofMicrobiology,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
ThomasBriese
CenterforInfectionandImmunity,ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates
PriyaChauhan
SchoolofStudiesinEnvironmentalChemistry,JiwajiUniversity,Gwalior,India
C.Chikkaputtaiah
BiotechnologyGroup,BiologicalSciencesandTechnologyDivision,CSIR-NorthEastInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Jorhat,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch, Headquarters,CSIRHRDCCampus,Ghaziabad,India
RashmiChowdhary
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
VishalDas
BiotechnologyGroup,BiologicalSciencesandTechnologyDivision,CSIR-NorthEastInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Jorhat,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch, Headquarters,CSIRHRDCCampus,Ghaziabad,India;SchoolofHealthSciences,Department ofMedicalLaboratoryTechniques,TheAssamKazirangaUniversity,Koraikhowa,Jorhat,India
AkashDeep
CSIR-CentralScientificInstrumentsOrganisation,Chandigarh,India;AcademyofScientificand InnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
H.P.DekaBoruah
BiotechnologyGroup,BiologicalSciencesandTechnologyDivision,CSIR-NorthEastInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Jorhat,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch, Headquarters,CSIRHRDCCampus,Ghaziabad,India;GovernmentModelCollege,Kaziranga, Golaghat,India
AdilDenizli
DepartmentofChemistry,HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
ShreyasDeshpande
DepartmentofElectricalandElectronicsEngineering,BITSPilaniKKBirlaGoaCampus,Goa, India
ShimaaEissa
DepartmentofChemistry,AlfaisalUniversity,Riyadh,SaudiArabia
SonuGandhi
DBT-NationalInstituteofAnimalBiotechnology(NIAB),Hyderabad,India
MayankGarg
CSIR-CentralScientificInstrumentsOrganisation,Chandigarh,India;AcademyofScientificand InnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
AmritaGhosh
DepartmentofChemistry,NationalInstituteofTechnology(NIT)Kurukshetra,Kurukshetra,India
K.YugenderGoud
DepartmentofNanoEngineering,UniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego,LaJolla,CA,UnitedStates
VinodSinghGour
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityRajasthan,Jaipur,India
ArushiGupta
CSIR-CentralScientificInstrumentsOrganisation,Chandigarh,India;AcademyofScientificand InnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
DivyaGupta
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
AmilanD.Jose
DepartmentofChemistry,NationalInstituteofTechnology(NIT)Kurukshetra,Kurukshetra,India
JoshyJoseph
PhotosciencesandPhotonicsSection,CSIR-NationalInstituteforInterdisciplinaryScienceand Technology,Thiruvananthapuram,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch (AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
RajnishJoshi
DepartmentofMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
RajuKhan
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India;Academy ofScientificandInnovativeResearch(AcSIR),CSIR-AMPRI,Bhopal,India
AshokKumar
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
DeepakKumar
DepartmentofBotany,CenterofAdvancedStudyinBotany,InstituteofScience,Banaras HinduUniversity,Varanasi,India
SubhasisMahari
DBT-NationalInstituteofAnimalBiotechnology(NIAB),Hyderabad,India
H.S.Mann
StateVirologyLaboratory,DepartmentofMicrobiology,GandhiMedicalCollege,Bhopal,India
AdarshMeher
DepartmentofMicrobiology,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
RupeshK.Mishra
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityRajasthan,Jaipur,India;SchoolofMaterials Engineering,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates
AtripanMukherjee
DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic; CentralEuropeanInstituteofTechnology,BrnoUniversityofTechnology,Brno,CzechRepublic
SoumajitMukherjee
DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic
DivyaNamdeo
RegionalVirologyLaboratory,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
RogerNarayan
DepartmentofBiomedicalEngineering,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,Raleigh,NC,UnitedStates
VanyaNayak
DepartmentofBiotechnology,IndiraGandhiNationalTribalUniversity,Amarkantak,India
RajeevNema
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
RaviRanjanKumarNiraj
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityRajasthan,Jaipur,India
NavinPai
DepartmentofNanoEngineering,UniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego,LaJolla,CA,UnitedStates
MintuPal
BiotechnologyGroup,BiologicalSciencesandTechnologyDivision,CSIR-NorthEastInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Jorhat,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch, Headquarters,CSIRHRDCCampus,Ghaziabad,India;SchoolofHealthSciences,Universityof PetroleumandEnergyStudies(UPES),EnergyAcres,Dehradun,India
SmritiPanda
DepartmentofMedicine,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
AnnuPandey
DepartmentofChemistry,ChandigarhUniversity,Mohali,India
ArpanaParihar
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India
DipeshSinghParihar
EngineeringCollegeTuwa,Godhra,India
GaurangPatel
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityRajasthan,Jaipur,India
PriyankaPulugu
DepartmentofMedicalDevices,NationalInstituteofPharmaceuticalEducationandResearch, Ahmedabad,India
NidhiPuranik
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India
RahimRahimi
SchoolofMaterialsEngineering,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates;Birck NanotechnologyCenter,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates;Schoolof ElectricalandComputerEngineering,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates
BinduRameshan
PhotosciencesandPhotonicsSection,CSIR-NationalInstituteforInterdisciplinaryScienceand Technology,Thiruvananthapuram,India;AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch (AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
PushpeshRanjan
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India;Academy ofScientificandInnovativeResearch(AcSIR),CSIR-AMPRI,Bhopal,India
LukasRichtera
DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic
AkankshaRoberts
DBT-NationalInstituteofAnimalBiotechnology(NIAB),Hyderabad,India
Mohd.AbubakarSadique
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India
SaurabhSaigal
DepartmentofAnesthesiology,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
Yes¸erenSaylan
DepartmentofChemistry,HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
AmitL.Sharma
CSIR-CentralScientificInstrumentsOrganisation,Chandigarh,India;AcademyofScientificand InnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
VinaySharma
AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityRajasthan,Jaipur,India
AnirudhK.Singh
DepartmentofMicrobiology,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
HimadriSingh
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
KshitijR.B.Singh
DepartmentofChemistry,Govt.V.Y.T.PGAutonomousCollege,Durg,India
RavindraPratapSingh
DepartmentofBiotechnology,IndiraGandhiNationalTribalUniversity,Amarkantak,India
SumanSingh
CSIR-CentralScientificInstrumentsOrganisation,Chandigarh,India;AcademyofScientificand InnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India
AyushiSinghal
AcademyofScientificandInnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,India;IndustrialWaste Utilization,NanoandBiomaterials,CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute (AMPRI),HoshangabadRoad,Bhopal,India
LiaStanciu
SchoolofMaterialsEngineering,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates
PetraStrakova
DepartmentofInfectiousDiseasesandPreventiveMedicine,VeterinaryResearchInstitute, Brno,CzechRepublic
M.K.Verma
DepartmentofBasicSciences,AmericanUniversitySchoolofMedicine,Aruba,Netherlands
Y.K.Verma
DepartmentofLifeScience,MandasaurUniversity,Mandasaur,India
AkankshaWakhare
DepartmentofMedicalDevices,NationalInstituteofPharmaceuticalEducationandResearch, Ahmedabad,India
AshviniKumarYadav
RegionalVirologyLaboratory,AllIndiaInstituteofMedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,India
ShaluYadav
CSIR-AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Bhopal,India;Academy ofScientificandInnovativeResearch(AcSIR),CSIR-AMPRI,Bhopal,India
HandanYavuz
DepartmentofChemistry,HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
TabassumZafar
DepartmentofBioscience,BarkatullahUniversity,Bhopal,India
AminZareei
BirckNanotechnologyCenter,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates;Schoolof MaterialsEngineering,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,UnitedStates
Preface Coronavirusesareagroupofvirusesandthesourceofseveralrecentoutbreaks,includingsevere acuterespiratorysyndrome(SARS)in2003,MiddleEastrespiratorysyndrome(MERS)in2012, andmostrecentlytheoutbreakofsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2(SARS-CoV-2) [coronavirusdisease2019(COVID-19)].Commonly,coronaviruscaninfectbothanimalsand humanbeings,andcancausearangeofrespiratoryillnesses,butinfectionofSARS-CoV-2remains asymptomaticin25%population,andthusinfectedpeopleremainindistinguishablefromhealthy onesandbecomeaseriousthreatastheycanspreadinfectionunknowinglyamongalargechunkof populations.Inpastdecades,threehighlypathogenichumancoronavirusesincludingSARS-CoV, MiddleEastrespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus(MERS-CoV),andSARS-CoV-2haveemergedand triggeredglobalpandemicsthatresultedinhighmorbidityandmortalityglobally.SARS-associated coronavirus,SARS-CoVwasthefirstoutbreakinChina,2002,andspreadswiftlytoover30countries,resultinginmorethan8000casesofSARS-CoV.
TheoutbreakofzoonoticcoronavirusinSaudiArabiain2012knownasMERS-CoVtransferred tohumansfromdromedarycamels.Over27countrieshadreportedcasesofMERS-CoV,leading to858totaldemisesworldwide.InDecember2019,thefirstcaseSARS-CoV-2havingpneumonialikesymptomswasidentifiedinChina.Sincethen,theCOVID-19epidemichasrapidlyspread throughouttheworldandhasundergoneserioushealthconcernsandsocioeconomicburdens.The WHOannouncedCOVID-19asapandemiconMarch11,2020.Globally,asofJanuary16,2021, therehavebeenover92millionconfirmedcasesofCOVID-19ofwhichapproximately1.9million demiseshavebeenreportedandthenumberskeepgrowing.AspertheMinistryofHealthand FamilyWelfaredata,thetotalnumberofactivecoronaviruscasesinIndiastandsatapproximately 10,000,andclaimed . 350deaths,and1193patientshavebeencuredanddischargedasofApril 14,2020.
Earlyscreeningofviralinfectionamongthepopulationhasthepotentialtocombatthespread ofinfection.However,currentlyusedtechnologiesforthediagnosisofinfectionsuchasELISA, PCR,andRT-PCRaresensitiveandgivepromisingresults,buttheyaretime-consuming,require expertanalysis,andarecostly.Thusthedevelopmentofarapid,cheap,andreliablepoint-of-care (POC)testforthedetectionofSARS-CoV-2infectionistheneedofthehour.Advancedbiosensor diagnosticsoffershugepotentialforearlydiagnosisofaspecificdiseasewhichhelpstoenhance thesurvivalrateagainstinfectiousdiseases.Biosensorsofferseveraladvantagesovercurrently availablediagnostictechnologysuchastheyprovidefast,sensitive,portable,easytouse,costeffective,andreliableresultsforaccuratediagnosisofinfectionataveryearlystageevenbefore thesymptomsarise(asymptomaticinfection).Biosensorsconsistoftwoimportantcomponents:a biorecognitionelement(antibody,enzyme,aptamer)andtransducerspart(electrochemical,piezoelectric,optical,calorimetric,magnetic,fluorescence).Thepresentbookdiscussedandcompiled informationaboutthecurrentlyavailablebiosensor-baseddiagnosticapproachesfortheearlydetectionofviralinfection.Thisbookthrowslightontherecentandnovelbiosensor-basedapproaches, whichcanbeexploitedtodevelopaquantitativerapidlab-on-a-chipPOCassayforearlydiagnosis ofvarioustypesofviralinfection.Thebookspecificallyhighlightedthefabricationprocessof high-throughputbiosensor-basedtechnologiesforPOCdiagnosticsandprognosticassessment.This bookwouldprovideaplatformforresearchersandpharmaceuticalcompaniestodesignand
developpromisingbiosensorsforearlyinfectiondiagnosisandsimultaneouslyprovidethem advanced,cost-effectivehigh-throughputapproachesforPOCdiagnosticswhichcanbemultiplexed.Inthisbookweincludedchaptersthatemphasizeaboutvarioustypesofvirusesandbiomarkersalongwithvarioustypesofbiosensorsforbiomarkersbasedontheirbiorecognition elementandtransducercomponent,whicharecurrentlybeingusedorunderclinicaltrialforbiomedicalapplications.Furthermore,theadvantages,challenges,andfutureopportunitiesforapplicationsofadvancedbiosensorsinviralparticledetectionarecompiledherein.
Thesuccessfulcompilationofthisbookisexpectedtoprovideaplatformforthedevelopment ofrapidandcost-effectiveadvancedbiosensors-baseddevicesforthedetectionofSARS-CoV-2 infectionforthebenefitofsociety.Furthermore,thisbookwouldenablethereaderswiththeuseof therightapproach,rightmaterials,rightprocessingmethods,anddevelopmentofstructure propertyrelationshipintermsofdevelopmentofdiagnosticdevices.Whilealotofresearchisstill requiredtoestablishthetrueextentandnatureofthisoutbreak,itisclearthatthespreadingofthe virusisaglobalconcern.
Thebookcomprises23chapters.Chapter1dealswiththeemergenceofthecoronavirusepidemicandpandemic.Italsocoverssomeimportantaspectsofthevirusanditspathophysiology. Chapters2and3,respectively,discussthenovelcoronavirus(SARS-CoV-2)pandemicandglobal publichealthresponsealongwithlessonslearnedfromcoronavirus(SARS-CoV,MERS-CoV,and SARS-CoV-2)andthesocioeconomicimpactofthepandemic.Chapter4describestheprofiling andpathogenesisofSARS-CoV-2.Chapters5and6attempttocoverdetailedinformationabout thecurrentlyavailablediagnostictechniquesandchallengesinthedevelopmentofdiagnostic approachesforSARS-CoV-2.Chapters7and8presentinformationaboutbiomarkers(genomicand proteomic)andriskfactorsassociatedwithvirusinfectionwhichwouldbehelpfulforthedevelopmentofnovelsensors.Chapters9 11dealwiththedevelopmentofelectrochemicalandoptical biosensorsforthedetectionofvirusinfection.Chapters12and13describetheroleofdifferent nanomaterialsincludingmagneticnanoparticlesforthedevelopmentofbiosensors.Chapters14 19 presenttheinformationaboutmultiplexed,acoustic/electrical,fluorescence,miniaturized,microfluidicdevicesfordetectionofvirusinfection.Chapters20and21dealwithvariousapproachesfor thefabricationofPOCTbiosensorsalongwithcurrentlyavailablebiosensorsfordetectionof SARS-CoV-2andotherviruses.Chapter22specificallydescribesvarioustechniquesforscalingup biosensors.Chapter23presentsacriticaloverviewofthefutureprospectsandthecommercialviabilityofbiosensorsforbiomedicaltechnology.Therequiredreferencesarecitedineachchapterfor furtherstudyontherespectivetopic.
Acknowledgments Alltheeditorsaresincerelythankfultoeverycontributorofthechapters.Theirsincereefforts,hard work,analyticalapproacharehighlyacknowledged.Atthesametime,editorswouldliketo acknowledgepublishersandassociatedteamsforcontinuoussupport,guidance,andmotivation whichconstantlypushthemforwardtocompletethisbook.ThevaluableadviceandguidanceprovidedbyDirector,CSIR-AMPRI,Bhopal,MP,India,aredulyacknowledged.Dr.RajuKhan expresseshisspecialthankstohisparents,wife,daughter,andsonfortheireverlastinglove,enthusiasmforscience,andencouragementtopursueeverytasksuccessfully.Thefinancialsupportfrom SERB(IPA/2020/000130)foraprojectentitled“DevelopmentofRapidElectrochemicalbased DiagnosticsforDetectionofSARS-CoV-2Infection”isalsoacknowledgedbyDr.RajuKhanand Dr.AshokKumar.Dr.ArpanaPariharisgratefultoDSTforprovidingfinancialassistanceunder DST-WoSBscheme.Furthermore,theeditorsaresincerelythankfultoallwhohavedirectlyor indirectlyrenderedvaluableinputtothisbook.
Theemergenceofsevereacute respiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2 epidemicandpandemic TabassumZafar
DepartmentofBioscience,BarkatullahUniversity,Bhopal,India
1.1 Introduction Inthehistoryoftravelandtourism,amicroscopiccreaturewroteadarknote,whichinterruptedthe fastpaceofglobalization.InDecember2019,intheseafoodmarketofWuhancityofChina,a severeviralpneumonia-likeinfectionwasinitiated,andwhichwasnewtotheworldandresulted intheemergenceofaglobalhealthemergency.Thousandsofpassengerstraveledthroughthecity withoutknowingthatonetravelcanchangenotonlytheirlivesbutthefutureoftheworld.When WHOdeclaredthesevereacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2(SARS-CoV-2)outbreakasa globalemergency,stillnoonethoughtoftheconversionoftheepidemicintotheworstpandemic oftheongoingdecade(Cucinotta&Vanelli,2020).Initially,thespreadofSARS-CoV-2infection overawideareawithalotofpatientsatthesametimedeclareditasaglobalepidemic,butthe rapidescalationoftheinfectionatmorecomprehensivegeographicallocationswithasignificant portionoftheinfectedpopulationsoonturnedtheepidemicintothepandemic.Theimportedcases soonspreadtotheirnativeplacesandturnthediseasepandemic.Whilemanycountriesareimposingpartialorcompletelockdownforthesafetyoftravelersandcivilians,thevacanthuman-made spacesandtouristarchitecturesareaskingthatwherethelacunaewere,whichhasputtheglobein suchadevastatingphase(Wuetal.,2020).TheemergenceofSARS-CoV-2createdacolossal healthcrisisfortheentireworld.Fromaprovincialhealthconcerntoaglobalmeltdown,the impactofSARS-CoV-2hasundeniablyimpactedtheworldmedically,socially,financially,and psychologically(Alietal.,2020;Pretietal.,2020).ThefootprintsofSARS-CoV-2areimpactfully imprintedonthedecadethatwillrequirealotoftimeforglobalrecovery.
1.2 Severeacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2:thememberof thecoronavirusfamily
SARS-CoV-2isthepathogenofzoonoticoriginthatbelongstothefamily“Coronaviridae,”order “Nidovirales”andrealm“Riboviria.”coronavirusisnotanewentityasfourcategoriesoftheexistingcoronavirusesarealreadyknowntotheworld.Thealpha,beta,delta,andgammacoronaviruses
aretheclassesamongwhichtwocategories,alphaandbetacoronaviruses,havethepotentialto infecthumanbeings.Themutationalchangesintheseunharmfulvirusesmakethemcapableof beingathreattohumanhealth.Todate,sevenhumancoronaviruses(HCoVs)areknown,namedas severeacuterespiratorysyndrome(SARS),MiddleEastrespiratorysyndrome(MERS),SARSCoV-2,HCoV-229E,HCoV-0C43,HCoV-NL63,andHCoV-HKU1(Alsaadetal.,2018;Anderson etal.,2004;Chanetal.,2014;Lietal.,2005;Sextonetal.,2016).SARS-CoV-2wasinitially termedas“Wuhanvirus”or“Chinavirus”butlater,onFebruary11,2020,theWHOannounced thatthenameforthediseasewouldbeCOVID-19.Inthename,COreferstothevirusfamily “Corona,”VIstandsfor“Virus,”Dfor“disease,”and19referstotheyearoftheoutbreak“2019.” Lateron,basedongeneticsimilaritywiththeSARSvirusthe“TheInternationalCommitteeon TaxonomyofViruses”namedit“severeacuterespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus2,”orSARSCoV-2.
1.2.1 SARS-CoV-2inconnectionwithsevereacuterespiratorysyndromecoronavirusandMiddleEastrespiratorysyndrome-coronavirus BeforetheeruptionofthedeadlySARS-CoV-2epidemic,varioussimilaroutbreakshadhappened inthepast.Thesevirusesinfectedlivesatalargescale,withalittlelessglobalexpansion(Azhar etal.,2019;BaAbduallah&Hemida,2020;Yanetal.,2020).SARS-CoVandalsotheMERSCoVoutbreaksthathappenedinChinaandtheKingdomofSaudiArabiahaveapowerfulcorrelationwithSARS-CoV-2intermsofsimilarityofbatoriginorordinationsimilaritycompared totheotherhumanepidemicvirus(Table1.1).Severalmembersofthecoronaviruses(alpha-coronaviruses:HCoV-229EandHCoV-NL63;beta-coronaviruses;HCoV-OC43andHCoV-HKU1) presentself-limitingdelicatevirulenceentities,buttheseverityoftheSARS-CoV-2virusirruption isincreasedbecauseoftheself-modifyingnatureofthestrain.Therespiratorydisordercausedby SARS-CoV-2featuresapotentialsimilaritytoSARS-CoVandMERS-CoVincomposition, genomesequence,immunologicalresponseidentification,andothersymptoms(Guetal.,2005; Memishetal.,2020).SARS-CoV-2preferspyrimidine-richcodonstopurines(Kandeeletal., 2020).Attheearlystageoftheepidemic,thesimilaritieswiththepreexistentvirusesfacilitatethe investigationsrelatedtodrugtargetingandimmunogenpreparationagainstSARS-CoV-2infection (Hui&Zumla2019).SARSepidemicbeganinGuangdongProvince,China,inNovember2002. SeveralobservationssupportedthehypothesisofawildanimaloriginforSARS.OnMarch12, 2003,theWHOissuedaglobalalertaboutSARScasesinGuangdongProvince,whichsubsequentlyspreadrapidlyworldwide(Leungetal.,2004).SeveralstudiessuggestedthattheSARS probablyoriginatedinthehorseshoebats,andlaterpassedthroughpalmcivetsbeforereaching humans.Similarly,MERS-CoVwasfoundtopossesssimilaritywithtwobatcoronaviruses,HKU4 andHKU5withconfirmedinfectionincamelsbetheintermediatehostandhumansasapossible host(Zhuetal.,2020).InDecember2019,SARS-CoV-2infectionoriginatedinanexceedingly similarapproachfromafoodmarketinanurbancenter,HubeiProvince,China,thatatfirstshowingthesymptomsofrespiratorydisorder.Undoubtfully,SARS-CoV-2isanextremelyinfectious viruscomparedtotheSARS-CoVassociatedegreedMERS-CoVbecauseithasalreadykilled millionsofpeopleworldwidewiththeunsurpassedepidemicpotentialinanuncontrolledpattern (Rabaanetal.,2020).
