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EDITION HYSIOLOGY NATOMY PRINCIPLES OF
2ND ASIA–PACIFIC
TORTORA | DERRICKSON
BURKETT | PEOPLES
DYE | COOKE
DIVERSI | MCKEAN
SAMALIA | MELLIFONT
Compactbonetissue270
Spongybonetissue272
6.4Bloodandnervesupplyofbone274
6.5Boneformation275
Initialboneformationinanembryoandfoetus275
Bonegrowthduringinfancy,childhood,and adolescence278
Remodellingofbone281
Factorsaffectingbonegrowthandbone remodelling283
6.6Fractureandrepairofbone285
6.7Bone’sroleincalciumhomeostasis289
6.8Exerciseandbonetissue291
6.9Ageingandbonetissue292
Chapterreview296
Keyterms297
Criticalthinkingquestions299
Answerstofigurequestions299
Websites300
Endnotes300
Acknowledgements300
CHAPTER7
Theskeletalsystem:theaxial skeleton302
7.1Divisionsoftheskeletalsystem303
7.2Typesofbones306
7.3Bonesurfacemarkings307
7.4Skull308
Generalfeaturesandfunctions322
Nasalseptum322
Orbits323
Foramina324
Uniquefeaturesoftheskull324
7.5Hyoidbone329
7.6Vertebralcolumn330
Normalcurvesofthevertebralcolumn331
Intervertebraldiscs332
Partsofatypicalvertebra332
Regionsofthevertebralcolumn334
Age-relatedchangesinthevertebralcolumn341
7.7Thorax342
Chapterreview349
Keyterms351
Criticalthinkingquestions352 Answerstofigurequestions352 Websites353 Endnotes353
Acknowledgements354
CHAPTER8
Theskeletalsystem:the appendicularskeleton355
8.1Pectoral(shoulder)girdle356
8.2Upperlimb(extremity)360
8.3Pelvic(hip)girdle366
8.4Falseandtruepelves369
8.5Comparisonoffemaleandmalepelves371
8.6Lowerlimb(extremity)373
8.7Developmentoftheskeletalsystem381 Chapterreview385 Keyterms386 Criticalthinkingquestions387 Answerstofigurequestions387
Websites387
Endnotes388
Acknowledgements388
CHAPTER9
Joints389
9.1Jointclassifications390
9.2Fibrousjoints390 Sutures390 Syndesmoses392 Interosseousmembranes392
9.3Cartilaginousjoints392 Synchondroses392 Symphyses392
9.4Synovialjoints394 Structureofsynovialjoints394 Nerveandbloodsupply396 Bursaeandtendonsheaths397
9.5Typesofmovementsatsynovialjoints398 Gliding398 Angularmovements398 Rotation400 Specialmovements401
9.6Typesofsynovialjoints404 Planejoints404 Hingejoints405 Pivotjoints405
Condyloidjoints405 Saddlejoints405 Ball-and-socketjoints405
9.7Factorsaffectingcontactandrangeofmotionat synovialjoints408
9.8Selectedjointsofthebody409
9.9Ageingandjoints426 vi CONTENTS
9.10Arthroplasty426
Hipreplacements426
Kneereplacements428
Chapterreview431
Keyterms433
Criticalthinkingquestions435
Answerstofigurequestions435
Websites435
Endnotes436
Acknowledgements436
CHAPTER10
Musculartissue437
10.1Overviewofmusculartissue438
Typesofmusculartissue438
Functionsofmusculartissue439
Propertiesofmusculartissue439
10.2Skeletalmuscletissue440
Connectivetissuecomponents440
Nerveandbloodsupply442
Microscopicanatomyofaskeletalmuscle fibre442
Muscleproteins446
10.3Contractionandrelaxationofskeletalmuscle fibres451
Theslidingfilamentmechanism451
Theneuromuscularjunction455
10.4Musclemetabolism460
ProductionofATPinmusclefibres460
Musclefatigue462
Oxygenconsumptionafterexercise463
10.5Controlofmuscletension464
Motorunits464
Twitchcontraction465
Frequencyofstimulation466
Motorunitrecruitment467
Muscletone468
Isotonicandisometriccontractions469
10.6Typesofskeletalmusclefibres470
Slowoxidativefibres470
Fastoxidative–glycolyticfibres470
Fastglycolyticfibres470
Distributionandrecruitmentofdifferenttypesof fibres471
10.7Exerciseandskeletalmuscletissue472
Effectivestretching473
Strengthtraining473
10.8Cardiacmuscletissue473
10.9Smoothmuscletissue474
Microscopicanatomyofsmoothmuscle475
Physiologyofsmoothmuscle476
10.10Regenerationofmusculartissue477
10.11Developmentofmuscle478
10.12Ageingandmusculartissue480
Chapterreview483
Keyterms486
Criticalthinkingquestions488
Answerstofigurequestions489
Websites489
Endnotes490
Acknowledgements490
CHAPTER11
Themuscularsystem491
11.1Howskeletalmusclesproduce movements492
Muscleattachmentsites:originandinsertion492 Leversystemsandleverage493
Effectsoffasciclearrangement495
Coordinationamongmuscles496
11.2Howskeletalmusclesarenamed497
11.3Principalskeletalmuscles499
Chapterreview578
Keyterms579
Criticalthinkingquestions581 Answerstofigurequestions581
Websites582
Endnotes582
Acknowledgements583
CHAPTER12
Nervoustissue584
12.1Overviewofthenervoussystem585 Organisationofthenervoussystem585
Functionsofthenervoussystem586
12.2Histologyofnervoustissue588
Neurons588
Neuroglia592
Myelination596
Collectionsofnervoustissue598
12.3Electricalsignalsinneurons599
Ionchannels601
Restingmembranepotential602
Gradedpotentials605
Generationofactionpotentials607
Propagationofactionpotentials612
Encodingofstimulusintensity615
Comparisonofelectricalsignalsproducedby excitablecells615
12.4Signaltransmissionatsynapses616
Electricalsynapses617
Chemicalsynapses618
Excitatoryandinhibitorypostsynaptic potentials620
Structureofneurotransmitterreceptors620
Removalofneurotransmitter621
Spatialandtemporalsummationofpostsynaptic potentials623
12.5Neurotransmitters625
Small-moleculeneurotransmitters628
Neuropeptides629
12.6Neuralcircuits631
12.7Regenerationandrepairofnervous tissue632
NeurogenesisintheCNS633
DamageandrepairinthePNS633
Chapterreview637
Keyterms639
Criticalthinkingquestions642
Answerstofigurequestions643
Websites644
Endnotes644
Acknowledgements644
CHAPTER13
Thespinalcordandspinal nerves645
13.1Spinalcordanatomy646
Protectivestructures646
Externalanatomyofthespinalcord649
Internalanatomyofthespinalcord651
13.2Spinalnerves655
Connectivetissuecoveringsofspinalnerves656
Distributionofspinalnerves657
Dermatomes668
13.3Spinalcordphysiology671
Sensoryandmotortracts671
Reflexesandreflexarcs672
Chapterreview685
Keyterms686
Criticalthinkingquestions688
Answerstofigurequestions688
Websites689
Endnotes689
Acknowledgements690
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER14
Thebrainandcranial nerves691
14.1Brainorganisation,protection,andblood supply692
Majorpartsofthebrain692
Protectivecoveringsofthebrain693
Brainbloodflowandtheblood–brainbarrier693
14.2Cerebrospinalfluid696
FunctionsofCSF696
FormationofCSFintheventricles697
CirculationofCSF698
14.3Thebrainstemandreticularformation701
Medullaoblongata701
Pons704
Midbrain705
Reticularformation707
14.4Thecerebellum708
14.5Thediencephalon710
Thalamus711
Hypothalamus712
Epithalamus714
Circumventricularorgans714
14.6Thecerebrum715
Cerebralcortex715
Lobesofthecerebrum715
Cerebralwhitematter715
Basalnuclei715
Thelimbicsystem718
14.7Functionalorganisationofthecerebral cortex720
Sensoryareas720
Motorareas722
Associationareas723
Hemisphericlateralisation726
Brainwaves726
14.8Cranialnerves728
14.9Developmentofthenervoussystem748
14.10Ageingandthenervoussystem751
Chapterreview754
Keyterms757
Criticalthinkingquestions761
Answerstofigurequestions761
Websites762
Endnotes763
Acknowledgements763
CHAPTER15
Theautonomicnervous system764
15.1Comparisonofsomaticandautonomic nervoussystems765
Somaticnervoussystem765
Autonomicnervoussystem765
Comparisonofsomaticandautonomicmotor neurons766
15.2Anatomyofautonomicmotorpathways768
Anatomicalcomponents768
Structureofthesympatheticdivision776
Structureoftheparasympatheticdivision778
Structureoftheentericdivision779
15.3ANSneurotransmittersandreceptors781
Cholinergicneuronsandreceptors781
Adrenergicneuronsandreceptors783
Receptoragonistsandantagonists784
15.4PhysiologyoftheANS785
Autonomictone785
Sympatheticresponses785
Parasympatheticresponses786
15.5Integrationandcontrolofautonomic functions789
Autonomicreflexes789
Autonomiccontrolbyhighercentres790
Chapterreview793
Keyterms795
Criticalthinkingquestions797
Answerstofigurequestions797
Websites798
Endnotes798
Acknowledgements798
CHAPTER16
Sensory,motor,andintegrative systems799
16.1Sensation800
Sensorymodalities800
Theprocessofsensation800
Sensoryreceptors802
16.2Somaticsensations805
Tactilesensations806
Thermalsensations808
Painsensations808
Proprioceptivesensations810
16.3Somaticsensorypathways814
Posteriorcolumn–mediallemniscuspathwaytothe cortex815
Anterolateralpathwaytothecortex815
Trigeminothalamicpathwaytothecortex817
Mappingtheprimarysomatosensoryarea819
Somaticsensorypathwaystothecerebellum820
16.4Somaticmotorpathways821
Organisationofuppermotorneuron pathways823
Rolesofthebasalnuclei828
Modulationofmovementbythecerebellum828
16.5Integrativefunctionsofthecerebrum831
Wakefulnessandsleep831
Learningandmemory833
Chapterreview836
Keyterms837
Criticalthinkingquestions840
Answerstofigurequestions840
Websites840
Endnotes841
Acknowledgements841
CHAPTER17
Thespecialsenses842
17.1Olfaction:senseofsmell843
Anatomyofolfactoryreceptors843
Physiologyofolfaction844
Odourthresholdsandadaptation845
Theolfactorypathway846
17.2Gustation:senseoftaste847
Anatomyoftastebudsandpapillae847
Physiologyofgustation848
Tastethresholdsandadaptation848
Thegustatorypathway851
17.3Vision851
Electromagneticradiation852
Accessorystructuresoftheeye853
Anatomyoftheeyeball857
Imageformation865
Convergence869
Physiologyofvision869
Thevisualpathway873
17.4Hearingandequilibrium876
Anatomyoftheear876
Thenatureofsoundwaves883
Physiologyofhearing883
Theauditorypathway885
Physiologyofequilibrium887
Equilibriumpathways890
17.5Developmentoftheeyesandears892
Eyes892
Ears894
17.6Ageingandthespecialsenses895
Chapterreview898
Keyterms900
Criticalthinkingquestions904
Answerstofigurequestions904
Websites905
Endnotes905
Acknowledgements906
CHAPTER18
Theendocrinesystem907
18.1Comparisonofcontrolbythenervousand endocrinesystems908
18.2Endocrineglands909
18.3Hormoneactivity911
Theroleofhormonereceptors911
Circulatingandlocalhormones911
Chemicalclassesofhormones912
Hormonetransportintheblood913
18.4Mechanismsofhormoneaction914
Actionoflipid-solublehormones915
Actionofwater-solublehormones916
Hormoneinteractions918
18.5Controlofhormonesecretion918
18.6Hypothalamusandpituitarygland919
Anteriorpituitary919
Posteriorpituitary927
18.7Thyroidgland931
Formation,storage,andreleaseofthyroid hormones931
Actionsofthyroidhormones934
Controlofthyroidhormonesecretion934
Calcitonin934
18.8Parathyroidglands936
Parathyroidhormone938
Controlofsecretionofcalcitoninandparathyroid hormone938
18.9Adrenalglands939
Adrenalcortex941
Adrenalmedulla945
18.10Pancreaticislets946
Celltypesinthepancreaticislets948
Controlofsecretionofglucagonandinsulin948
18.11Ovariesandtestes952
x CONTENTS
18.12Pinealglandandthymus953
18.13Otherendocrinetissuesandorgans, eicosanoids,andgrowthfactors954
Hormonesfromotherendocrinetissuesand organs954
Eicosanoids954
Growthfactors955
18.14Thestressresponse956
Thefight-or-flightresponse957
Theresistancereaction957
Exhaustion957
Stressanddisease959
18.15Developmentoftheendocrinesystem959
18.16Ageingandtheendocrinesystem961
Chapterreview967
Keyterms970
Criticalthinkingquestions974
Answerstofigurequestions975
Websites976
Endnotes976
Acknowledgements976
CHAPTER19
Thecardiovascularsystem: theblood978
19.1Functionsandpropertiesofblood979
Functionsofblood979
Physicalcharacteristicsofblood979
Componentsofblood980
19.2Formationofbloodcells984
19.3Redbloodcells987
RBCanatomy987
RBCphysiology988
RBClifecycle990
Erythropoiesis:productionofRBCs991
19.4Whitebloodcells994
Typesofwhitebloodcells994
Functionsofwhitebloodcells995
19.5Platelets998
19.6Stemcelltransplantsfrombonemarrowand cordblood1000
19.7Haemostasis1001
Vascularspasm1001
Plateletplugformation1002
Bloodclotting1002
RoleofvitaminKinclotting1006
Homeostaticcontrolmechanisms1006
Intravascularclotting1007
19.8Bloodgroupsandbloodtypes1008
ABObloodgroup1008
Transfusions1009
Rhbloodgroup1010
Typingandcross-matchingbloodfor transfusion1010
Chapterreview1016
Keyterms1018
Criticalthinkingquestions1020
Answerstofigurequestions1021
Websites1021
Endnotes1021
Acknowledgements1022
CHAPTER20
Thecardiovascularsystem: theheart1023
20.1Anatomyoftheheart1024
Locationoftheheart1024
Pericardium1024
Layersoftheheartwall1027
Chambersoftheheart1028
Myocardialthicknessandfunction1032
Fibrousskeletonoftheheart1033
20.2Heartvalvesandcirculationofblood1034
Operationoftheatrioventricularvalves1034
Operationofthesemilunarvalves1034
Systemicandpulmonarycirculations1037
Coronarycirculation1037
20.3Cardiacmuscletissueandthecardiac conductionsystem1041
Histologyofcardiacmuscletissue1041
Autorhythmicfibres:theconductionsystem1041
Actionpotentialandcontractionofcontractile fibres1045
ATPproductionincardiacmuscle1046
Electrocardiogram1047
CorrelationofECGwaveswithatrialandventricular systole1048
20.4Thecardiaccycle1050
Pressureandvolumechangesduringthecardiac cycle1050
Heartsounds1053
20.5Cardiacoutput1054
Regulationofstrokevolume1055
Regulationofheartrate1056
20.6Exerciseandtheheart1060
20.7Helpforfailinghearts1061
20.8Developmentoftheheart1065
Chapterreview1075
Keyterms1077
Criticalthinkingquestions1081
Answerstofigurequestions1081
Websites1082
Endnotes1082
Acknowledgements1082
CHAPTER21
Thecardiovascularsystem: bloodvesselsand haemodynamics1084
21.1Structureandfunctionofbloodvessels1085
Basicstructureofabloodvessel1085
Arteries1087
Anastomoses1089
Arterioles1089
Capillaries1090
Venules1092
Veins1093
Blooddistribution1096
21.2Capillaryexchange1097
Diffusion1097
Transcytosis1098
Bulkflow:filtrationandreabsorption1098
21.3Haemodynamics:factorsaffectingblood flow1100
Bloodpressure1101
Vascularresistance1102
Venousreturn1102
Velocityofbloodflow1105
21.4Controlofbloodpressureandblood flow1106
Roleofthecardiovascularcentre1106
Neuralregulationofbloodpressure1107
Hormonalregulationofbloodpressure1110
Autoregulationofbloodflow1111
21.5Checkingcirculation1112
Pulse1112
Measuringbloodpressure1113
21.6Shockandhomeostasis1114
Typesofshock1114
Homeostaticresponsestoshock1115
Signsandsymptomsofshock1117
21.7Circulatoryroutes1117
Thesystemiccirculation1119
Thehepaticportalcirculation1158
Thepulmonarycirculation1161
Thefoetalcirculation1161
21.8Developmentofbloodvesselsand blood1165
21.9Ageingandthecardiovascularsystem1166
Chapterreview1171
Keyterms1174
Criticalthinkingquestions1176
Answerstofigurequestions1176
Websites1177
Endnotes1178
Acknowledgements1178
CHAPTER22
Thelymphaticsystemand immunity1180
22.1Lymphaticsystemstructureand function1181
Functionsofthelymphaticsystem1181
Lymphaticvesselsandlymphcirculation1181
Lymphaticorgansandtissues1186
22.2Developmentoflymphatictissues1193
22.3Innateimmunity1194
Firstlineofdefence:skinandmucous membranes1194
Secondlineofdefence:internaldefences1195
22.4Adaptiveimmunity1201
MaturationofTcellsandBcells1201
Typesofadaptiveimmunity1201
Clonalselection:theprinciple1203
Antigensandantigenreceptors1204
Majorhistocompatibilitycomplexantigens1205
Pathwaysofantigenprocessing1206
Cytokines1209
22.5Cell-mediatedimmunity1210
ActivationofTcells1210
Activationandclonalselectionofhelper Tcells1211
Activationandclonalselectionofcytotoxic Tcells1211
Eliminationofinvaders1211
Immunologicalsurveillance1215
22.6Antibody-mediatedimmunity1216
ActivationandclonalselectionofBcells1216
Antibodies1216
Immunologicalmemory1222
22.7Self-recognitionandself-tolerance1223
22.8Stressandimmunity1226
22.9Ageingandtheimmunesystem1227
Chapterreview1236
Keyterms1239
Criticalthinkingquestions1241
Answerstofigurequestions1242
Websites1243
Endnotes1243
Acknowledgements1244
CHAPTER23
Therespiratorysystem1245
23.1Respiratorysystemanatomy1246
Nose1246
Pharynx1250
Larynx1251
Thestructuresofvoiceproduction1254
Trachea1255
Bronchi1256
Lungs1259
Patencyoftherespiratorysystem1264
23.2Pulmonaryventilation1266
Pressurechangesduringpulmonary ventilation1266
Otherfactorsaffectingpulmonaryventilation1270
Breathingpatternsandmodifiedbreathing movements1271
23.3Lungvolumesandcapacities1273
23.4Exchangeofoxygenandcarbondioxide1275
Gaslaws:Dalton’slawandHenry’slaw1276
Externalandinternalrespiration1277
23.5Transportofoxygenandcarbondioxide1280
Oxygentransport1280
Carbondioxidetransport1285
Summaryofgasexchangeandtransportinlungs andtissues1286
23.6Controlofbreathing1288
Respiratorycentre1288
Regulationoftherespiratorycentre1290
23.7Exerciseandtherespiratorysystem1295
23.8Developmentoftherespiratorysystem1296
23.9Ageingandtherespiratorysystem1297
Chapterreview1303
Keyterms1305
Criticalthinkingquestions1308
Answerstofigurequestions1308
Websites1309
Endnotes1309
Acknowledgements1310
CHAPTER24
Thedigestivesystem1311
24.1Overviewofthedigestivesystem1312
24.2LayersoftheGItract1314
Mucosa1314
Submucosa1315
Muscularis1315
Serosa1316
24.3NeuralinnervationoftheGItract1316
Entericnervoussystem1316
Autonomicnervoussystem1316
Gastrointestinalreflexpathways1317
24.4Peritoneum1318
24.5Mouth1320
Salivaryglands1322
Tongue1324
Teeth1325
Mechanicalandchemicaldigestioninthe mouth1327
24.6Pharynx1328
24.7Oesophagus1329
Histologyoftheoesophagus1329
Physiologyoftheoesophagus1330
24.8Deglutition1330
24.9Stomach1332
Anatomyofthestomach1334
Histologyofthestomach1334
Mechanicalandchemicaldigestioninthe stomach1337
24.10Pancreas1341
Anatomyofthepancreas1341
Histologyofthepancreas1341
Compositionandfunctionsofpancreatic juice1343
24.11Liverandgallbladder1344
Anatomyoftheliverandgallbladder1344
Histologyoftheliverandgallbladder1344
Bloodsupplyoftheliver1348
Functionsoftheliverandgallbladder1349
24.12Smallintestine1350
Anatomyofthesmallintestine1350
Histologyofthesmallintestine1351
Roleofintestinaljuiceandbrush-border enzymes1355
Mechanicaldigestioninthesmallintestine1356
Chemicaldigestioninthesmallintestine1356
Absorptioninthesmallintestine1358
24.13Largeintestine1365
Anatomyofthelargeintestine1365
Histologyofthelargeintestine1366
Mechanicaldigestioninthelargeintestine1368
Chemicaldigestioninthelargeintestine1369
Absorptionandfaecesformationinthelarge intestine1369
Thedefecationreflex1369
24.14Phasesofdigestion1372
Cephalicphase1372
Gastricphase1372
Intestinalphase1373
Otherhormonesofthedigestivesystem1376
24.15Developmentofthedigestivesystem1376
24.16Ageingandthedigestivesystem1377
Chapterreview1382
Keyterms1385
Criticalthinkingquestions1391
Answerstofigurequestions1391
Websites1392
Endnotes1393
Acknowledgements1394
CHAPTER25
Metabolismandnutrition1395
25.1Metabolicreactions1396
Couplingofcatabolismandanabolism byATP1396
25.2Energytransfer1397
Oxidation–reductionreactions1398
MechanismsofATPgeneration1399
25.3Carbohydratemetabolism1399
Thefateofglucose1399
Glucosemovementintocells1400
Glucosecatabolism1400
Glucoseanabolism1410
25.4Lipidmetabolism1414
Transportoflipidsbylipoproteins1414
Sourcesandsignificanceofblood cholesterol1416
Thefateoflipids1417
Triglyceridestorage1417
Lipidcatabolism:lipolysis1417
Lipidanabolism:lipogenesis1418
25.5Proteinmetabolism1419
Thefateofproteins1419
Proteincatabolism1419
Proteinanabolism1421
25.6Keymoleculesatmetabolic crossroads1422
Theroleofglucose6-phosphate1422 CONTENTS xiii
Theroleofpyruvicacid1422
TheroleofacetylcoenzymeA1423
25.7Metabolicadaptations1424
Metabolismduringtheabsorptivestate1425
Metabolismduringthepostabsorptivestate1426
Metabolismduringfastingandstarvation1429
25.8Heatandenergybalance1430
Metabolicrate1430
Bodytemperaturehomeostasis1430
Energyhomeostasisandregulationoffood intake1434
25.9Nutrition1436
Guidelinesforhealthyeating1436
Minerals1439
Vitamins1440
Chapterreview1446
Keyterms1450
Criticalthinkingquestions1451
Answerstofigurequestions1451
Websites1452
Endnotes1452
Acknowledgements1453
CHAPTER26
Theurinarysystem1454
26.1Overviewofkidneyfunctions1455
26.2Anatomyandhistologyofthekidneys1456
Externalanatomyofthekidneys1458
Internalanatomyofthekidneys1458
Bloodandnervesupplyofthekidneys1459
Thenephron1461
26.3Overviewofrenalphysiology1466
26.4Glomerularfiltration1468
Thefiltrationmembrane1468
Netfiltrationpressure1469
Glomerularfiltrationrate1470
26.5Tubularreabsorptionandtubular secretion1473
Principlesoftubularreabsorptionand secretion1473
Reabsorptionandsecretionintheproximal convolutedtubule1476
Reabsorptioninthenephronloop1479
Reabsorptionintheearlydistalconvoluted tubule1481
Reabsorptionandsecretioninthelatedistal convolutedtubuleandcollectingduct1481
Homeostaticregulationoftubularreabsorptionand tubularsecretion1481
26.6Productionofdiluteandconcentrated urine1485
Formationofdiluteurine1486
Formationofconcentratedurine1486
26.7Evaluationofkidneyfunction1491
Urinalysis1491
Bloodtests1493
Renalplasmaclearance1494
26.8Urinetransportation,storage,and elimination1495
Ureters1495
Urinarybladder1497
Urethra1498
26.9Wastemanagementinotherbody systems1500
26.10Developmentoftheurinarysystem1501
26.11Ageingandtheurinarysystem1503
Chapterreview1508
Keyterms1510
Criticalthinkingquestions1512
Answerstofigurequestions1512
Websites1513
Endnotes1513
Acknowledgements1514
CHAPTER27
Fluid,electrolyte,andacid–base homeostasis1515
27.1Fluidcompartmentsandfluid homeostasis1516
Sourcesofbodywatergainandloss1517
Regulationofbodywatergain1518
Regulationofwaterandsoluteloss1520
Movementofwaterbetweenbodyfluid compartments1522
27.2Electrolytesinbodyfluids1525
Concentrationsofelectrolytesinbody fluids1525
Sodium1526
Chloride1527
Potassium1527
Bicarbonate1528
Calcium1528
Phosphate1528
Magnesium1529
27.3Acid–basebalance1531
Theactionsofbuffersystems1531
Exhalationofcarbondioxide1533
KidneyexcretionofH+ 1535
Acid–baseimbalances1536
27.4Ageingandfluid,electrolyte,andacid–base homeostasis1538
Chapterreview1539
Keyterms1541
Criticalthinkingquestions1542
Answerstofigurequestions1542
Websites1543
Endnotes1543
Acknowledgements1544
CHAPTER28
Thereproductive systems1545
28.1Malereproductivesystem1546
Scrotum1547
Testes1547
Reproductivesystemductsinmales1557
Accessorysexglands1558
Semen1561
Penis1561
28.2Femalereproductivesystem1564
Ovaries1564
Uterinetubes1571
Uterus1571
Vagina1576
Vulva1577
Perineum1578
Mammaryglands1579
28.3Thefemalereproductivecycle1581
Hormonalregulationofthefemalereproductive cycle1582
Phasesofthefemalereproductivecycle1582
28.4Birthcontrolmethodsandabortion1589
Birthcontrolmethods1590
Abortion1593
28.5Developmentofthereproductive systems1593
28.6Ageingandthereproductivesystems1597
Chapterreview1604
Keyterms1607
Criticalthinkingquestions1613
Answerstofigurequestions1613
Websites1614
Endnotes1615
Acknowledgements1615
CHAPTER29
Developmentand inheritance1616
29.1Embryonicperiod1617
Firstweekofdevelopment1617
Secondweekofdevelopment1624
Thirdweekofdevelopment1626
Fourthweekofdevelopment1635
Fifththrougheighthweeksofdevelopment1638
29.2Foetalperiod1638
29.3Teratogens1641
Chemicalsanddrugs1641
Cigarettesmoking1642
Irradiation1642
29.4Prenataldiagnostictests1642
Foetalultrasonography1642
Amniocentesis1643
Chorionicvillisampling1644
Noninvasiveprenataltests1644
29.5Maternalchangesduringpregnancy1644
Hormonesofpregnancy1644
Changesduringpregnancy1646
29.6Exerciseandpregnancy1648
29.7Labour1649
29.8Adjustmentsoftheinfantatbirth1652
Respiratoryadjustments1652
Cardiovascularadjustments1652
29.9Thephysiologyoflactation1653
29.10Inheritance1656
Genotypeandphenotype1656
Variationsondominant–recessive inheritance1659
Autosomes,sexchromosomes,andsex determination1662
Sex-linkedinheritance1664
Chapterreview1668
Keyterms1671
Criticalthinkingquestions1674
Answerstofigurequestions1674
Websites1675
Endnotes1675
Acknowledgements1676
AppendixA:Measurements1677
AppendixB:Periodictable1679
AppendixC:Normalvaluesforselectedblood tests1680
AppendixD:Normalvaluesforselectedurine tests1683
AppendixE:Pronunciationkey1685
Index1686
Anintroductionto thehumanbody
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
Afterstudyingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:
1.1 defineanatomyandphysiology,andnameseveralbranchesofthesesciences
1.2 identifytheorgansystemsandmajororgansofthehumanbodyanddescribetheirlocationsandfunctions
1.3 definetheimportantlifeprocessesofthehumanbody
1.4 understandtheimportanceofhomeostaticfeedbacksystemsandhowimbalancesarerelatedto disorders
1.5 describethehumanbodyusingtheanatomicalpositionandspecificanatomicalterminology
1.6 describetheprinciplesandimportanceofmedicalimagingproceduresintheevaluationoforgan functionsandthediagnosisofdisease.
OPENINGCASE
Thehumanbodyandhomeostasis
Humanshavemanywaystomaintainhomeostasis, thestateofrelativestabilityofthebody’sinternal environment.Disruptionstohomeostasisoftenset inmotioncorrectivecycles,calledfeedbacksystems,thathelprestoretheconditionsneededfor healthandlife.
Itiswellknownthatthehumanbodycanaccomplishanamazingarrayoftasksandthisresource willtakeyouonaremarkablejourneythroughthe humanbody—tobeginwefirstneedtounderstandthemeaningsandterminologyofanatomy andphysiology,followedbyadiscussionofthe organisationofthehumanbodyandtheproperties thatitshareswithalllivingthings.Next,youwilldiscoveroneofthehumanbody’soutstandingabilities— howthebodyregulatesitsowninternalenvironment.Thisunceasingprocess—calledhomeostasis—is amajorthemeineverychapterofthisresource.Wovenwithinthesethemesistheacceptedvocabulary thatwillhelpyouspeakaboutthebodyinawaythatisunderstoodbyfellowscientistsandhealthcare professionalsalike.
HomeostasisisauniversalconceptthatourAustralasianauthorteamhasbroughttolifethroughan excitingseriesofsporting,exercisescienceandclinicalscenariosthatyouwilleasilyrelateto.Take,for example,howthebonesoftheaxialskeletonprotectmanyofbody’sorgansasexperiencedbyAustralian boxer,JeffHorn,orhowtheshoulderjointhasanextensiverangeofmotion,buthowthisalsomakesit susceptibletodislocation,asBronco’splayerAnthonyMilfordknows.Weexplorewhyfastbowlersand balletdancerssofrequentlysufferfromstressfractures,andevenhowtheexcitingsportofalpineski racingstimulatesnerveimpulses.
Didyoueverwonderwhyanautopsyisperformed?
1.1Anatomyandphysiologydefined
LEARNINGOBJECTIVE1.1 Defineanatomyandphysiology,andnameseveralbranchesofthesesciences. Twobranchesofscience—anatomyandphysiology—providethefoundationforunderstandingthe body’spartsandfunctions. Anatomy (a-NAT-o-me; ana- = up;-tomy = processofcutting)isthescience ofbody structures andtherelationshipsamongthem.Itwasfirststudiedby dissection (dis-SEK-shun; dis- = apart;-section = actofcutting),thecarefulcuttingapartofbodystructurestostudytheirrelationships.Today,avarietyofimagingtechniques(seetable1.3)alsocontributetotheadvancementof anatomicalknowledge.Whereasanatomydealswithstructuresofthebody, physiology (fiz′ -e-OL-o-je; physio- = nature;-logy = studyof)isthescienceofbody functions —howthebodypartswork.Table1.1 describesseveralbranchesofanatomyandphysiology,suchas cellbiology and embryology.
TABLE1.1 Selectedbranchesofanatomyandphysiology
BranchofanatomyStudyofBranchofphysiologyStudyof
Embryology
(em′ -bre-OL-o-je; embry- = embryo; -logy = studyof)
Developmentalbiology
Thefirsteightweeksof developmentafter fertilisationofahumanegg.
Thecompletedevelopment ofanindividualfrom fertilisationtodeath.
Cellbiology Cellularstructureand functions.
Histology (his-TOL-o-je; hist - = tissue)
Microscopicstructureof tissues.
Grossanatomy Structuresthatcanbe examinedwithouta microscope.
Systemicanatomy Structureofspecific systemsofthebodysuch asthenervousor respiratorysystems.
Regionalanatomy Specificregionsofthebody suchastheheadorchest.
2 Principlesofanatomyandphysiology
Neurophysiology (NOOR-o-fiz-e-ol′ -o-je; neuro- = nerve)
Endocrinology (en′ -do-kri-NOL-o-je; endo- = within;-crin = secretion)
Cardiovascularphysiology (kar-de-o-VAS-ku-lar; cardi- = heart; vascular = bloodvessels)
Immunology (im′ -u-NOL-o-je; immun- = notsusceptible)
Respiratoryphysiology (RES-pi-ra-tor-e; respira- = tobreathe)
Renalphysiology (RE-nal; ren- = kidney)
Exercisephysiology
Functionalpropertiesofnerve cells.
Hormones(chemicalregulatorsin theblood)andhowtheycontrol bodyfunctions.
Functionsoftheheartandblood vessels.
Thebody’sdefensesagainst disease-causingagents.
Functionsoftheairpassageways andlungs.
Functionsofthekidneys.
Changesincellandorgan functionsduetomuscular activity.
BranchofanatomyStudyofBranchofphysiologyStudyof
Surfaceanatomy
Imaginganatomy
Pathologicalanatomy (path′ -o-LOJ-i-kal; path- = disease)
Surfacemarkingsofthebodyto understandinternalanatomy throughvisualisationand palpation(gentletouch).
Bodystructuresthatcanbe visualisedwithtechniquessuch asx-rays,MRI,andCTscans.
Structuralchanges(grossto microscopic)associatedwith disease.
Pathophysiology (Path-o-fiz-e-ol′ -o-je)
Functionalchanges associatedwithdisease andageing.
Becausestructureandfunctionaresocloselyrelated,youwilllearnaboutthehumanbodybystudying itsanatomyandphysiologytogether.Thestructureofapartofthebodyoftenreflectsitsfunctions.For example,thebonesoftheskulljointightlytoformarigidcasethatprotectsthebrain.Thebonesofthe fingersaremorelooselyjoinedtoallowavarietyofmovements.Thewallsoftheairsacsinthelungs areverythin,permittingrapidmovementofinhaledoxygenintotheblood.
SPORTSPOTLIGHT
Anatomyofanathlete
Theheart,lungandskeletalmusclesarelikeany othermusclesinthehumanbodyandwillrespond totherightamountofloadapplied.Ifthestimulus fromexerciseistoolowtherewillbelittlechange (orimprovementinfunctionalcapacity)inthesekey regionsofheart,lungandskeletalmuscle.Ifthe stimulusandstressfromtrainingistoohighthese tissuescanbreakdownandtheathlete’sfunctional capacitywillbelowerthanbeforethetrainingsession.Whentheoptimalamountoftrainingisprescribedtheanatomyoftheathletecanpositively change.Studiesofanathlete’sheart,comparedto asedentaryperson’s,havefoundanincreaseinthe dimensionsoftheheart,includingwallthickness andmass.However,insomecasestherehasbeen unexplainedcardiacarrestsinapparentlyhealthy athletes.
Ina14-yearretrospectivereviewofcardiacdeathsintheAustralianFootballLeague(AFL),therewere 14casesofdeathwhilstplayingAFL.1 Althoughthecausesforthesetragicincidentscannotbeexplained, therehavebeensomepositiveresultswhentheoptimalamountoftrainingoverloadhasbeenprescribedto well-trainedmastersandyoungtriathletes.Theextentofmuscledamagefromregularintenseendurance exercisewasassessedinyoung(26yearsold)andmasters(53yearsold)triathletes,withnodifferencein muscledamagefound.2 Intheseandotherstudiestheanatomyoftheathletewasfoundtobedifferent (withanimprovementinfunctionalcapacity),whencomparedtoasedentarypopulation.
CHECKPOINT
1. Whatbodyfunctionmightarespiratorytherapiststrivetoimprove?Whatstructuresareinvolved?
2. Giveyourownexampleofhowthestructureofapartofthebodyisrelatedtoitsfunction.
1.2Levelsofstructuralorganisationandbodysystems
LEARNINGOBJECTIVE1.2 Identifytheorgansystemsandmajororgansofthehumanbodyanddescribe theirlocationsandfunctions.
Thelevelsoforganisationofalanguage—letters,words,sentences,paragraphs,andsoon—canbe comparedtothelevelsoforganisationofthehumanbody.Yourexplorationofthehumanbodywill extendfromatomsandmoleculestothewholeperson.Fromthesmallesttothelargest,sixlevelsof organisationwillhelpyoutounderstandanatomyandphysiology:thechemical,cellular,tissue,organ, system,andorganismallevelsoforganisation(figure1.1).
③1 Chemicallevel. Thisverybasiclevelcanbecomparedtothe lettersofthealphabet andincludes atoms,thesmallestunitsofmatterthatparticipateinchemicalreactions,and molecules,twoor moreatomsjoinedtogether.Certainatoms,suchascarbon(C),hydrogen(H),oxygen(O),nitrogen (N),phosphorus(P),calcium(Ca),andsulphur(S),areessentialformaintaininglife.Twofamiliar moleculesfoundinthebodyaredeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA),thegeneticmaterialpassedfromone generationtothenext,andglucose,commonlyknownasbloodsugar.Chapters2and25focuson thechemicalleveloforganisation.
③2 Cellularlevel. Moleculescombinetoform cells,thebasicstructuralandfunctionalunitsofanorganismthatarecomposedofchemicals.Justas words arethesmallestelementsoflanguagethatmake sense,cellsarethesmallestlivingunitsinthehumanbody.Amongthemanykindsofcellsinyour bodyaremusclecells,nervecells,andepithelialcells.Figure1.1showsasmoothmusclecell,one ofthethreetypesofmusclecellsinthebody.Thecellularleveloforganisationisthefocusof chapter3.
③3 Tissuelevel. Tissues aregroupsofcellsandthematerialssurroundingthemthatworktogetherto performaparticularfunction,similartothewaywordsareputtogethertoform sentences.Thereare justfourbasictypesoftissuesinyourbody:epithelialtissue,connectivetissue,musculartissue,and nervoustissue. Epithelialtissue coversbodysurfaces,linesholloworgansandcavities,andforms glands. Connectivetissue connects,supports,andprotectsbodyorganswhiledistributingbloodvesselstoothertissues. Musculartissue contractstomakebodypartsmoveandgeneratesheat. Nervous tissue carriesinformationfromonepartofthebodytoanotherthroughnerveimpulses.Chapter4 describesthetissueleveloforganisationingreaterdetail.Showninfigure1.1issmoothmuscle tissue,whichconsistsoftightlypackedsmoothmusclecells.
③4 Organlevel. Attheorganleveldifferenttypesoftissuesarejoinedtogether.Similartotherelationship betweensentencesand paragraphs, organs arestructuresthatarecomposedoftwoormoredifferenttypesoftissues;theyhavespecificfunctionsandusuallyhaverecognisableshapes.Examples oforgansarethestomach,skin,bones,heart,liver,lungs,andbrain.Figure1.1showshowseveral tissuesmakeupthestomach.Thestomach’soutercoveringisalayerofepithelialtissueandconnectivetissuethatreducesfrictionwhenthestomachmovesandrubsagainstotherorgans.Underneath arethreelayersofatypeofmusculartissuecalled smoothmuscletissue,whichcontractstochurn andmixfoodandthenpushitintothenextdigestiveorgan,thesmallintestine.Theinnermostliningisan epithelialtissuelayer thatproducesfluidandchemicalsresponsiblefordigestioninthe stomach.
③5 Systemlevel. A system (or chapter inourlanguageanalogy)consistsofrelatedorgans(paragraphs) withacommonfunction.Anexampleofthesystemlevel,alsocalledthe organ-systemlevel,isthe digestivesystem,whichbreaksdownandabsorbsfood.Itsorgansincludethemouth,salivaryglands, pharynx(throat),oesophagus(foodtube),stomach,smallintestine,largeintestine,liver,gallbladder, andpancreas.Sometimesanorganispartofmorethanonesystem.Thepancreas,forexample,is partofboththedigestivesystemandthehormone-producingendocrinesystem.
③6 Organismallevel. An organism (OR-ga-nizm),anylivingindividual,canbecomparedtoa book in ouranalogy.Allthepartsofthehumanbodyfunctioningtogetherconstitutethetotalorganism.
4 Principlesofanatomyandphysiology
1
FIGURE1.1 Levelsofstructuralorganisationinthehumanbody.
Thelevelsofstructuralorganisationarechemical,cellular,tissue,organ,system,andorganismal.
CHEMICAL LEVEL
QUESTION
Whichlevelofstructuralorganisationiscomposedoftwoormoredifferenttypesoftissuesthatworktogether toperformaspecificfunction?
Inthechaptersthatfollow,youwillstudytheanatomyandphysiologyofthebodysystems.Table1.2 liststhecomponentsandintroducesthefunctionsofthesesystems.Youwillalsodiscoverthatallbody systemsinfluenceoneanother.Asyoustudyeachofthebodysystemsinmoredetail,youwilldiscover howtheyworktogethertomaintainhealth,provideprotectionfromdisease,andallowforreproduction ofthehumanspecies.
TABLE1.2 Theelevensystemsofthehumanbody
Integumentarysystem(chapter5)Skeletalsystem(chapters6–9)
Components: Skin andassociatedstructures,suchas hair, fingernailsandtoenails,sweatglands,andoilglands.
Functions: Protectsbody;helpsregulatebodytemperature; eliminatessomewastes;helpsmakevitaminD;detects sensationssuchastouch,pain,warmth,andcold;storesfat andprovidesinsulation.
Muscularsystem(chapters10,11)
Hair
Skin and associated glands Fingernails
Components: Bonesand joints ofthebodyandtheir associated cartilages
Functions: Supportsandprotectsbody;providessurface areaformuscleattachments;aidsbodymovements;houses cellsthatproducebloodcells;storesmineralsandlipids(fats).
Bone Cartilage
Joint
Toenails
Components: Specifically, skeletalmuscletissue—muscle usuallyattachedtobones(othermuscletissuesinclude smoothandcardiac).
Functions: Participatesinbodymovements,suchas walking;maintainsposture;producesheat.
Nervoussystem(chapters12–17)
Components: Brain, spinalcord, nerves,andspecialsense organs,suchaseyesandears.
Functions: Generatesactionpotentials(nerveimpulses)to regulatebodyactivities;detectschangesinbody’sinternal andexternalenvironments,interpretschanges,andresponds bycausingmuscularcontractionsorglandularsecretions.
Skeletal muscle
Tendon
Nerve Spinal
cord
Brain
Endocrinesystem(chapter18)Cardiovascularsystem(chapters19–21)
Components: Hormone-producingglands(pinealgland, hypothalamus, pituitarygland, thymus, thyroidgland, parathyroidglands, adrenalglands, pancreas, ovaries,and testes)andhormone-producingcellsinseveralotherorgans.
Functions: Regulatesbodyactivitiesbyreleasinghormones (chemicalmessengerstransportedinbloodfromendocrine glandortissuetotargetorgan).
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland Posterior view Parathyroid glands
Ovary (female)
Adrenal gland
Pancreas Thyroid gland
Components: Blood, heart,andbloodvessels.
Functions: Heartpumpsbloodthroughbloodvessels;blood carriesoxygenandnutrientstocellsandcarbondioxideand wastesawayfromcellsandhelpsregulateacid–base balance,temperature,andwatercontentofbodyfluids; bloodcomponentshelpdefendagainstdiseaseandrepair damagedbloodvessels.
stis (male)
Lymphaticsystemandimmunity(chapter22)
Components: Lymphaticfluidandvessels; spleen,thymus, lymphnodes,and tonsils;cellsthatcarryoutimmune responses(Bcells, Tcells,andothers).
Functions: Returnsproteinsandfluidtoblood;carrieslipids fromgastrointestinaltracttoblood;containssitesof maturationandproliferationofBcellsandTcellsthatprotect againstdisease-causingmicrobes.
Pharyngeal
Respiratorysystem(chapter23)
Components: Lungs andairpassagewayssuchasthe pharynx (throat), larynx (voicebox), trachea (windpipe),and bronchialtubesleadingintoandoutoflungs.
Functions: Transfersoxygenfrominhaledairtobloodand carbondioxidefrombloodtoexhaledair;helpsregulate acid–basebalanceofbodyfluids;airflowingoutoflungs throughvocalcordsproducessounds.
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Pharynx
CHAPTER1 Anintroductiontothehumanbody 7
(continued)
TABLE1.2 (continued)
Digestivesystem(chapter24)Urinarysystem(chapter26)
Components: Organsofgastrointestinaltract,alongtube thatincludesthemouth,pharynx(throat), oesophagus (food tube), stomach, small and largeintestines,and anus;also includesaccessoryorgansthatassistindigestiveprocesses, suchas salivaryglands, liver, gallbladder,andpancreas.
Functions: Achievesphysicalandchemicalbreakdownof food;absorbsnutrients;eliminatessolidwastes.
Salivary gland
Oesophagus
Liver
Gall bladder
Large intestine
Reproductivesystems(chapter28)
Mouth
Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinarybladder,and urethra
Functions: Produces,stores,andeliminatesurine;eliminates wastesandregulatesvolumeandchemicalcompositionof blood;helpsmaintaintheacid–basebalanceofbodyfluids; maintainsbody’smineralbalance;helpsregulateproduction ofredbloodcells.
Pharynx Rectum Small intestine
Stomach
Pancreas (behind stomach)
Anus
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Components: Gonads (testesinmalesandovariesinfemales)andassociatedorgans(uterinetubes or fallopiantubes, uterus, vagina,and mammaryglands infemalesand epididymis, ductusdeferens or vasdeferens, seminalvesicles, prostate,and penis inmales).
Functions: Gonadsproducegametes(spermoroocytes)thatunitetoformaneworganism;gonadsalsoreleasehormonesthat regulatereproductionandotherbodyprocesses;associatedorganstransportandstoregametes;mammaryglandsproducemilk.
Uterine tube
Uterus
Uterine tube
Ductu
CLINICALCONNECTION
Noninvasivediagnostictechniques
Health-careprofessionalsandstudentsofanatomyandphysiologycommonlyuseseveralnoninvasive diagnostictechniquestoassesscertainaspectsofbodystructureandfunction.Anoninvasivediagnostic techniqueisonethatdoesnotinvolveinsertionofaninstrumentordevicethroughtheskinorabody opening.Ininspection,theexaminerobservesthebodyforanychangesthatdeviatefromnormal.For example,aphysicianmayexaminethemouthcavityforevidenceofdisease.Followinginspection,one ormoreadditionaltechniquesmaybeemployed.Inpalpation(pal-PA-shun; palp- = gentlytouching)the examinerfeelsbodysurfaceswiththehands.Anexampleispalpatingtheabdomentodetectenlarged ortenderinternalorgansorabnormalmasses.In auscultation (aws-kul-TA-shun; auscult- = listening)the examinerlistenstobodysoundstoevaluatethefunctioningofcertainorgans,oftenusingastethoscopeto amplifythesounds.Anexampleisauscultationofthelungsduringbreathingtocheckforcracklingsounds associatedwithabnormalfluidaccumulation.In percussion (pur-KUSH-un; percus- = beatthrough)the examinertapsonthebodysurfacewiththefingertipsandlistenstotheresultingsound.Hollowcavities orspacesproduceadifferentsoundthansolidorgans.Forexample,percussionmayrevealtheabnormal presenceoffluidinthelungsorairintheintestines.Itmayalsoprovideinformationaboutthesize,consistency,andpositionofanunderlyingstructure.Anunderstandingofanatomyisimportantfortheeffective applicationofmostofthesediagnostictechniques.
CHECKPOINT
3. Definethefollowingterms:atom,molecule,cell,tissue,organ,system,andorganism.
4. Atwhatlevelsoforganisationwouldanexercisephysiologiststudythehumanbody? (Hint:referto table1.1.)
5. Referringtotable1.2,whichbodysystemshelpeliminatewastes?
1.3Characteristicsofthelivinghumanorganism
LEARNINGOBJECTIVE1.3 Definetheimportantlifeprocessesofthehumanbody.
Basiclifeprocesses
Certainprocessesdistinguishorganisms,orlivingthings,fromnonlivingthings.Followingarethesix mostimportantlifeprocessesofthehumanbody.
1. Metabolism (me-TAB-o-lizm)isthesumofallchemicalprocessesthatoccurinthebody.Onephase ofmetabolismis catabolism (ka-TAB-o-lizm; catabol- = throwingdown;-ism = acondition),the breakdownofcomplexchemicalsubstancesintosimplercomponents.Theotherphaseofmetabolism is anabolism (a-NAB-o-lizm; anabol- = araisingup),thebuildingupofcomplexchemicalsubstances fromsmaller,simplercomponents.Forexample,digestiveprocessescatabolise(split)proteinsinfood intoaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsarethenusedtoanabolise(build)newproteinsthatmakeupbody structuressuchasmusclesandbones.
2. Responsiveness isthebody’sabilitytodetectandrespondtochanges.Forexample,anincreasein bodytemperatureduringafeverrepresentsachangeintheinternalenvironment(withinthebody), andturningyourheadtowardsthesoundofsquealingbrakesisaresponsetoachangeintheexternal environment(outsidethebody)topreparethebodyforapotentialthreat.Differentcellsinthebody respondtoenvironmentalchangesincharacteristicways.Nervecellsrespondbygeneratingelectricalsignalsknownasnerveimpulses(actionpotentials).Musclecellsrespondbycontracting,which generatesforcetomovebodyparts.
3. Movement includesmotionofthewholebody,individualorgans,singlecells,andeventinystructures insidecells.Forexample,thecoordinatedactionoflegmusclesmovesyourwholebodyfromoneplace toanotherwhenyouwalkorrun.Afteryoueatamealthatcontainsfats,yourgallbladdercontracts
andreleasesbileintothegastrointestinaltracttohelpdigestthem.Whenabodytissueisdamagedor infected,certainwhitebloodcellsmovefromthebloodstreamintotheaffectedtissuetohelpclean upandrepairthearea.Insidethecell,variousparts,suchassecretoryvesicles(seefigure3.20),move fromonepositiontoanothertocarryouttheirfunctions.
4. Growth isanincreaseinbodysizethatresultsfromanincreaseinthesizeofexistingcells,anincrease inthenumberofcells,orboth.Inaddition,atissuesometimesincreasesinsizebecausetheamount ofmaterialbetweencellsincreases.Inagrowingbone,forexample,mineraldepositsaccumulate betweenbonecells,causingthebonetogrowinlengthandwidth.
5. Differentiation (dif′ -er-en-she-A-shun)isthedevelopmentofacellfromanunspecialisedtoaspecialisedstate.Suchprecursorcells,whichcandivideandgiverisetocellsthatundergodifferentiation, areknownas stemcells.Asyouwillseelaterinthetext,eachtypeofcellinthebodyhasaspecialisedstructureorfunctionthatdiffersfromthatofitsprecursor(ancestor)cells.Forexample,red bloodcellsandseveraltypesofwhitebloodcellsallarisefromthesameunspecialisedprecursorcells inredbonemarrow.Alsothroughdifferentiation,asinglefertilisedhumanegg(ovum)developsinto anembryo,andthenintoafoetus,aninfant,achild,andfinallyanadult.
6. Reproduction (re-pro-DUK-shun)referseitherto(1)theformationofnewcellsfortissuegrowth, repair,orreplacement,or(2)theproductionofanewindividual.Theformationofnewcellsoccurs throughcelldivision.Theproductionofanewindividualoccursthroughthefertilisationofanovum byaspermcelltoformazygote,followedbyrepeatedcelldivisionsandthedifferentiationofthese cells.
Whenanyoneofthelifeprocessesceasestooccurproperly,theresultisdeathofcellsandtissues, whichmayleadtodeathoftheorganism.Clinically,lossoftheheartbeat,absenceofspontaneousbreathing,andlossofbrainfunctionsindicatedeathinthehumanbody.
CLINICALCONNECTION
Autopsy
An autopsy (AW-top-se = seeingwithone’sowneyes)or necropsy isapostmortem(afterdeath)examinationofthebodyanddissectionofitsinternalorganstoconfirmordeterminethecauseofdeath.An autopsycanuncovertheexistenceofdiseasesnotdetectedduringlife,determinetheextentofinjuries, andexplainhowthoseinjuriesmayhavecontributedtoaperson’sdeath.Italsomayprovidemoreinformationaboutadisease,assistintheaccumulationofstatisticaldata,andeducatehealth-carestudents. Moreover,anautopsycanrevealconditionsthatmayaffectoffspringorsiblings(suchascongenitalheart defects).Sometimesanautopsyislegallyrequired,suchasduringacriminalinvestigation.Itmayalsobe usefulinresolvingdisputesbetweenbeneficiariesandinsurancecompaniesaboutthecauseofdeath.
CHECKPOINT
6. Listthesixmostimportantlifeprocessesinthehumanbody.
1.4Homeostasis
LEARNINGOBJECTIVE1.4 Understandtheimportanceofhomeostaticfeedbacksystemsandhow imbalancesarerelatedtodisorders.
Homeostasis (ho′ -me-o-STA-sis; homeo- = sameness;-stasis = standingstill)istheconditionof equilibrium(balance)inthebody’sinternalenvironmentduetotheconstantinteractionofthebody’s manyregulatoryprocesses.Homeostasisisadynamiccondition.Inresponsetochangingconditions,the body’sequilibriumcanshiftamongpointsinanarrowrangethatiscompatiblewithmaintaininglife. Forexample,thelevelofglucoseinbloodnormallystaysbetween70and110milligramsofglucose
Principlesofanatomyandphysiology
