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SPARTAANDTHECOMMEMORATIONOFWAR

ThetoughSpartansoldierisoneofthemostenduringimagesfrom antiquity.YetSpartans,too,fellinbattle – sohowdidancientSparta memorializeitswarsandwardead?FromthepoetTyrtaeusinspiring soldierswithrousingverseinthe 7thcentury bce toinscriptions celebratingthe 300 ’slaststandatThermopylae,andfromSpartan imperialistsposingasliberatorsduringthePeloponnesianWartothe modernreceptionoftheSpartanasabravewarriordefendingthe “West,” Spartahashadanoutsizedroleinhowwarfareisframedand remembered.ThisimagehasalsobeendistortedbytheSpartans themselvesandtheirlaterinterpreters.Whiledebatescontinueto rageabouttheappropriatenessofmonumentstosupposedwarheroes inourcivicsquares,thisauthoritativeandengagingbooksuggests thathowtheSpartanscommemoratedtheirmilitarypast,andhow thisshapedtheirmilitaryfuture,hasperhapsneverbeenmore pertinent.

matthewa.sears isProfessorofClassicsattheUniversityofNew Brunswick.Heistheauthorof Athens,Thrace,andtheShapingof AthenianLeadership (CambridgeUniversityPress, 2013)andof UnderstandingGreekWarfare (2019).Heisalsothecoauthor(with C.JacobButera)of BattlesandBattleﬁeldsofAncientGreece:AGuide toTheirHistory,Topography,andArchaeology (2019).

SPARTAANDTHE COMMEMORATIONOFWAR

MATTHEWA.SEARS

UniversityofNewBrunswick

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AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData names :Sears,MatthewA.,author. title :Spartaandthecommemorationofwar/MatthewA.Sears. description :Cambridge;NewYork, ny :CambridgeUniversityPress, 2024.| Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

identifiers : lccn 2023027770 | isbn 9781316519455 (hardback)| isbn 9781009010535 (paperback)| isbn 9781009023726 (ebook)

subjects : lcsh: Warandsociety – Greece – Sparta(Extinctcity)|War memorials – Greece – Sparta(Extinctcity)| Memorialization – Greece – Sparta(Extinctcity)|Collective memory – Greece – Sparta(Extinctcity)|Sparta(Extinct city) – Historiography.

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ForCaraandKallie

1.1 TheMenelaionoutsideofSparta.Author’sphoto. page 28

1.2 The “SmilingHoplite,” ArchaeologicalMuseumofSparta. Author’sphoto.©HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ HellenicOrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. 29

1.3 The “RoundBuilding” ontheacropolisofSparta.Author’ s photo. 30

1.4 The “Leonidaion” or “TombofLeonidas” inSparta.Author’ s photo. 31

2.1 ArchaicLaconianbronzevotive,fromtheSamianHeraion, ArchaeologicalMuseumofVathy.Author’sphoto.© HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Hellenic OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. 54

2.2 Bronzevotive,ArchaeologicalMuseumofSparta.Author’ s photo.©HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Hellenic OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. 55

2.3 ArchaicLaconianivoryvotiveshowingPerseusbeheading Medusa,fromtheSamianHeraion,ArchaeologicalMuseum ofVathy.Author’sphoto.©HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/HellenicOrganizationofCulturalResources Development. 56

2 4 LeadvotivesfromthesanctuaryofArtemisOrthia, ArchaeologicalMuseumofSparta.Author’sphoto.© HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Hellenic OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. 62

3.1 ThermopylaefromthehillockoftheThreeHundred’slast stand,lookingtowardsMountKallidromos.Inthe foregroundisamodernmonumentwithaninscriptionofthe famousSimonidesepigram.Author’sphoto.

viii

3.2 FragmentofanepigramsupposedlyhonoringMarathon. Athens,Agoraobjectno.I 4256;imageno. 2012.83.0052 (96–79–20).EphorateofAntiquitiesofAthensCity,Ancient Agora,ASCSA:AgoraExcavations.©HellenicMinistryof CultureandSports/HellenicOrganizationofCultural ResourcesDevelopment(H.O.C.RE.D.).

4.1 ThenortherntipofSphacteriaasviewedfromancientPylos. PhotobyC.JacobButera.

4.2 TheNikeofPaionios,ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia. Author’sphoto.©HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ HellenicOrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.

4.3 Theossuaryandgoldcrownfromthe “TombofBrasidas,” ArchaeologicalMuseumofAmphipolis.Author’sphoto.© HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Hellenic OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.

4.4 TheTreasuryoftheAtheniansatDelphi.Author’sphoto.

5.1 TheSpartanAdmirals’ MonumentatDelphi(ontheleft). Onlythestatuebasessurvive.ThebasesoftheAthenian Marathonmonument(ontheright)areontheothersideof theSacredWay.Author’sphoto.

5.2 TheTomboftheLacedaemoniansintheAthenian Kerameikos(theAcropoliscanbeseeninthebackground). Author’sphoto.

5.3 PartofthesurvivinginscriptionontheTombofthe Lacedaemonians,showingthenameofThibrakosandhistitle of polemarch inretrogradelettering.Author’sphoto.

6.1 LionfunerarymonumentattheArchaeologicalMuseumof Thebes.Author’sphoto.PermissioncourtesyoftheEphorate ofAntiquitiesofBoeotia.©HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/HellenicOrganizationofCulturalResources Development(H.O.C.RE.D.).

6.2 LionfunerarymonumentsattheArchaeologicalMuseumof Sparta.Author’sphoto.©HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/HellenicOrganizationofCulturalResources Development.

6.3 TheBoeotianvictorymonumentatLeuctra.Photoby C.JacobButera.

7.1 Jacques-LouisDavid, LeonidasatThermopylae (1814).Paris, Louvre 3690.©RMN-GrandPalais/ArtResource,NY.

7.2 StatueofUSPresidentHarryTrumaninAthens(splashed withredpaintafteranapparentactofrecentanti-American protest).PhotobyLeeBrice.

7.3 ModernLeonidasmonumentatThermopylae,withthe inscription “molōnlabe ” Author’sphoto.

7.4 TheRomantheatreofSpartabeneaththeacropolis,withthe moderntowninthemiddledistanceandMountTaygetusin thebackground.Author’sphoto.

7.5 ModernmonumentinthecentralsquareofSparta,with aparaphrasefromTyrtaeusinscribedonit.Author’sphoto.

7.6 MonumentinSpartatoLaconianOlympicvictorsfrom 776 bce tothepresentday.Author’sphoto.

E.1 TheCanadianNationalVimyMemorialinFrance,showing ﬁguresrepresentingCanadaBereft,theSpiritofSacriﬁce,and thePassingoftheTorch.Author’sphoto.

1 GreeceandtheAegean,fromS.Pomeroy,S.M.Burstein, W.Donlan,J.T.Roberts,D.Tandy. 2012, AncientGreece: APolitical,Cultural,andSocialHistory (3rdedition),Oxford, insidefrontcover.©OxfordUniversityPress.Reproduced withpermissionoftheLicensorthroughPLSclear. page xx

2 Sparta,topographyandmajorlandmarks,fromSanders 2009. ReproducedbypermissionoftheBritishSchoolatAthens.

Acknowledgements

Ihavethepleasureofthankingmanyinstitutions,colleagues,andfriends whohavehelpedoverthecourseofthisproject.TheSocialSciencesand HumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanadagenerouslyfundedthisresearch throughanInsightGrant.TheUniversityofNewBrunswick(UNB)has supportedtheworkthroughoutbyprovidingresearchfunding,sabbatical leavein 2019,andacongenialenvironmentinwhichtoteachandwrite. IhavebeneﬁttedfromworkingwithmanycolleaguesintheDepartments ofHistoryandClassicsandAncientHistory,particularlyCindyBrown, CarolynMacDonald,JamesMurray,LisaTodd,GaryWaite,andLee Windsor.SusanParkerandSpencerPaddock,twoofUNB’sstellargraduatestudents,helpedmesortoutinnumerableissuespertainingtocommemorationandcombatmotivation.TheAmericanSchoolofClassical StudiesatAthens,forwhichIdirectedthe 2019 SummerSession,isthe idealacademichomeinGreece.TheSummerSessionstudentschallenged meonahostofquestionsandprovidedkeeninsightsinthe ﬁeld.In Greece,LeeBrice,GlennBugh,MariaListon,AndyStewart,andGeorgia Tsouvalaarealwayswonderfulconversationpartnersonallthingsrelated tothecountry.JackDavis,GuySanders,andSharonStockersparkedmy deepinterestinSpartaandthePeloponnesewhentheydirectedschool tripstotheregionwhileIwasagraduatestudentfellow.

C.JacobButeraandAlanSearsreadtheentiredraftmanuscriptcarefully andconscientiously.Thisbookwouldhavebeenmuchpoorerwithout theirhelp.Manyothersengagedwithmyideastoofferaid,correction,and unpublishedoryet-to-be-publishedmaterial.IthankNathanArrington, DavidBedford,PaulCartledge,TimCook,JosephDay,JohnDenault, StephenHodkinson,SimonOswald,JessicaRomney,AlanSheppard, BarryStrauss,JonathanVance,ThomWorkman,andJoanneWright.

Iamgratefultotheaudiencesthatheardandcommentedonpartsofthis researchasitwasdeveloping,includingtheSocietyforClassicalStudies, theArchaeologicalInstituteofAmerica,theAtlanticClassicalAssociation,

theCanadianMilitaryHistoryColloquium,theHellenicSociety’ s Thermopylae 2500 Conference,MemorialUniversityofNewfoundland, HollinsUniversity,theUniversityofChicago,andtheUniversityof Winnipeg.TheClassicalAssociationofCanadahostedmeasits 2022 lecturerforOntarioandQuébec,whichaffordedamatchlessopportunity tospeakwithfellowclassicistsatmorethanadozeninstitutionsasIputthe ﬁnishingtouchesonthebook.

Goodeditorsareaboonforanywriter.AdrianLeeatthe GlobeandMail hassupportedmeforseveralyears,helpingtorendermythoughtsabout SpartaandGreecepalatabletoawiderpublic.AtCambridgeUniversity Press,ithasbeenadelighttoworkwithMichaelSharp,whoseimportance fortheworldofclassicalscholarshipcannotbeoverstated.Themembersof theproductionandeditorialteam,includingAdamBell,KatieIdle, BethanyJohnson,andBhavaniVijayamani,wereapleasuretowork with.Theanonymousreadersforthepressrescuedmefromfactualerrors, scholarlyinfelicities,andstylisticquirks.WhileIaloneamresponsiblefor thisbook’sarguments,thesereadershavemadethebookfarbetter.

Mywife,Jenny,andourchildren,CaraandKallie,makemyhome ablessedplace.Theyalso,withmostlygoodhumor,accompaniedmeto SpartaandonatoolongitineraryofGreeksitesimportantforSpartan history.Icouldonlycompensatethemwithgyrosandtheoccasional beach.Theycompensatedmebymakingtheresearchprocessfarmore delightfulthanitshouldhavebeen.

Prologue

BrasidasatAmphipolis

Thucydides,thehard-nosedrealistwhowrotethehistoryofthe PeloponnesianWar,wasnotoneforfancifultales.Otherwriters coulddazzletheiraudienceswithstories “ reekingofmyth, ” while Thucydideswouldprovideallfutur egenerationswithauseful,ifdry, accountingofhumannatureandwhystatesactthewaytheydo. Despitethisreproachaimedathisfellowhistorians – including,perhaps,Herodotus,the “ FatherofHistory ” himself – Thucydideswasnot immunetothecharmsofreal-lifeheroes.Themostobviousherofor ThucydideswasPericles,thevisio narypoliticianandgeneralwholed AthensintowarwithSpartaandwhodeliveredoneofthemost importantandmemorablespeeches oftheClassicalGreekworld,the FuneralOration.ButitwasaSpartan,asoldiernamedBrasidas,who bothbeatThucydidesinthemilitaryarenaandevokedforthehistorian thedashing ﬁ gureofawarriorfromHomer ’ s Iliad ﬁ ghtingonthe plainsofTroyduringalong-lostHeroicAge.

AsbeﬁttingaherointheHomericmold,Brasidasdiedinbattle.Agreat tactician,strategist,anddiplomat,BrasidashadtakenthePeloponnesian WartoAthens’ subjectstatesinthenorthAegean,onwhichAthens dependedforitsgiganticnavy’srawmaterials.Thejewelinthecrownof Athens’ northerncitieswasAmphipolis,defensivelylocatedonabendin theStrymonRiver,afewkilometersfromthesea.In 424 bce ,Brasidas marchedthroughnorthernGreeceintheguiseofaliberatoragainst Atheniantyranny(if,perhaps,threateningacityortwowith “forced freedom” shouldtheyrefusetoembracehisofferofliberation),and managedtowrestmanycitiesfromAtheniancontrol,including Amphipolis.TaskedwithdefendingAmphipoliswasnoneotherthan Thucydides,buthewasawayontheislandofThasosandonlymanaged toarriveafterthecityhadbeentaken,earninghimselfexilefromAthens andthusplentyoftimetowritehis History.ThelossofAmphipolishit

Athenshard(theywouldtrytoretakethecity,unsuccessfully,formuchof thenextseveraldecades),andBrasidashaddemonstratedhimselftobe Athens’ mostdangerousenemy.Athenssentanarmyin 422 toretakethe city,butBrasidas,aftergivingarousingspeechtohismen,stormedoutof thecitygatesinaboldsurpriseattackagainsthismorenumerousfoe. Perplexedbythesuddenattack,theAthenianforcewasbrokenintwo,and thosewhoavoidedbeingkilledorwoundedranfortheirshipsonthecoast. TheAtheniancommander,thewarmongeringdemagogueCleon,was killedintheaction.So,too,wasBrasidas,dashingintothefraytoback uphisinspiringwordswithaction.

SuchbravadowastypicalfortherenownedSpartansoldier.Afewyears earlier,in 425,Brasidasfaintedfromhiswoundsashestoodonthedeckof awarshiptourgehisrowerstoramtheirvesselagainsttherockyshoreof Pylos.OnthatshorewereAtheniansdefendingthenewbasetheywere buildinginSpartanterritory,andBrasidassawthatheneededtotakeany andeverymeasuretopreventtheAtheniansfromsucceeding.Whilemost oftheSpartanslosttheirnerveagainsttheAtheniansatPylos,especially oncetheAthenians’ superiorshipsenteredthebattle,Brasidaskeptupthe fightatgreatpersonalrisk,iftonoavailintheend.Inhisshortmilitary career,BrasidasstoodoutmorethananyotherSpartan,beingthe firstin thePeloponnesianWartoreceiveofficialcommendationatSpartafor valorinthe fieldwhenonanotheroccasionhefendedoffasurprise amphibiousattack.

ThehonorsBrasidasreceivedafterhisdeathsurpassedallthosehehad enjoyedinlife.ThepeopleofAmphipolisdeclaredBrasidastheirnew founderandtoredownallthebuildingsassociatedwiththeiractual founder,anAtheniannamedHagnon.Evenmoreostentatiously,the AmphipolitansburiedBrasidasintheheartofthecity,rightnexttothe agora – anextraordinaryhonor,sinceGreekburialswerealmostalways outsideofthecitywalls.ThepeopleofAmphipolisalsoinstitutedannual gamesinhishonor,notunlikethosegamesAchillesheldforhisslain companion,Patroclus,inthe Iliad .AnothercityBrasidashadliberated nearAmphipolis,Acanthus,erectedatreasurybuilding – asortofmini templeholdingdedicationsandothervaluables – inhishonoratthe PanhellenicshrineofDelphi,makingBrasidasthe ﬁ rstmortalmantobe namedonsuchabuildingsincetheageofArchaictyrantscenturies earlier.Finally,inSpartaitselfBrasidaswasgivenalargecenotaph, standingoutamongthecity’ smonumentsevenhundredsofyearslater, andnotfarfromthetombofLeonidas,theheroofThermopylae.From oneendofGreecetotheother,SpartansandotherGreekscouldsee

physicalmonumentscommemoratingBrasidas ’ excellence,his aretē .And thankstoThucydides,thisSpartan’sexamplebecameaThucydidean “ possessionforalltime.”

ManyreadersofThucydideshaveseeninBrasidasamostatypical Spartan.WheretheSpartanswereslowtoactionandstuckintheirways, Brasidaswasboldandinnovative.Afterall,hetookthewartoAthens’ northernterritorieswhentherestofSpartaseemedcontenttofollowthe sameoldstrategyofinvadingAtticayearafteryear;andheriskedhislife todislodgetheAtheniansfromPyloswhentherestoftheSpartanswere struckwitless.Brasidas,however,w asfarmorerepresentativeofSpartan militaryleadersthan fi rstmeetstheeye.OverthecourseofSpartan history,charismaticandambitiou swarriorswhosoughtgloryandfame oftenledSparta ’sarmies.Whilemanyofthese fi guresmighthaveaimed atgreaterrecognitionthantheSpart anauthoritieswerepreparedtogive, theyweredoingnothingotherthantheirHomericexemplarshaddone, andSparta,withitsemphasisonandostentatiouscommemorationof militaryprowess,implicitlyencouragedthemtodo.HowcouldaSpartan doanythingbutseekoutbattleandopportunitiestoberememberedafter death?Hehadbeenraisedfromayoungagetotoleratetheharsh conditionsofmilitarylife,walkedregularlypasttheinscribednamesof theThreeHundredwhofoughttothedeathatThermopylae,andsawthe cruelpublichumiliationoftheloneSpartanwhoreturnedhomealive afterdefeat.After 440 ,whenBrasidashadcomeofage,hewouldhave witnessedtheconstructionoftheTombofLeonidas,ashrinebuiltforthe repatriatedremainsofthedeadking.Inshort,Sparta ’semphasison militarytrainingandtheheroicdeadrefl ecteditsmilitaristicheritage whilealsoperpetuatingit.Brasidas wasmerelyamongthemostsuccessful ofSpartansdoingexactlywhattheircountryexpectedthemtodo. Militarismbreedsmilitarism.

TheSpartansandotherGreeksfoughtformanyreasons,butone concernloomedoverallothers:toberemembered.Homer’sAchilles famouslychoseashortbutgloriouslifeoveralongbutobscureone.The historianHerodotuswrotethehistoryofthewarsbetweenGreeceand Persialargelytopreserveandgiveglorytogreatdeedsandmarvelousthings donebyGreeksandnon-Greeksalike.Soldiersgavetheirlivesandtookthe livesofothersinordertoberememberedbytheirfamiliesandcommunitiesforalongtimetocome.Soldierswhowereremembered – inthestories oftheircommunity,inliterature,inscribedonstone,orburiedbeneath agleamingmonument – inspiredfuturesoldierstoaimforeverlasting memorytoo,and ﬁghtallthemoreeagerlyandvalorouslyonthe

battleﬁeld.Brasdias’ heroiclifeandheroicdeath,ascommemoratedby Greece’sforemosthistorian,acenotaphatSpartaandanotherontheslopes ofDelphi,andaprominenttombandannualgamesatAmphipolis, providedhisfellowSpartanswithashiningexampleofwhatwaspossible forthosewhofoughtanddiedwell.Brasidasinspiredothergeneralsto striveforunsurpassedglory.Hecertainlyalsoservedasamodelfor ordinarysoldiersandcitizens.

Thisbookwillexplorehow ﬁgureslikeBrasidas,andtheircommemoration,reﬂectedandshapedattitudestowardswarinancientGreece, especiallyinSparta.Assupposedlyoneofthemostmilitaristicsocieties inworldhistory,theSpartansreliedonthegloryandmemoryattachedto warfareinordertoperpetuatetheirwayoflifeandachievecontinued militarysuccess.Withoutunderstandingthemotivesofsoldiersgoingto war,andthewaysocietycraftedandexploitedthosemotivestokeep soldiersgoingtowar,wecannotunderstandSpartaanditsroleinGreek history.AndinlightofThucydides’ famousideathat “thehumanthing” tendstoremainthesameacrosstimeandspace,Spartanmilitarismcan helpusunderstandourownworldalittlebetter,especiallygiventhe increasingpopularityofSpartaandSpartanimageryinmanyoftoday’ s politicalandactivistmovements.Thus,understandinghowSpartanmilitarismworked,particularlyinlightofhowSpartacommemoratedand remembereditswardead,isatopicthatisnotonlyinterestingbuttimely andimportant.Ifwarandviolencearethingswereallyseektoavoid,we besttakealookatancientGreece’smoststereotypicallywarlikeandviolent society,andhowitgotandstayedthatway.

AsidefromtheliterarymonumentstofallenSpartans,includingthe workofThucydidesandotherhistoriansandthepoetryofTyrtaeusand Simonides,wewillexplorehowthephysicalspacesofancientSpartawere steepedinmemoriesofthewardead.TheRoman-eratravelwriter PausaniastellsaboutthemanymonumentsscatteredaroundtheSpartan landscapethatgloriﬁedwarandthewardead,includingnotonlytombsto famousfallenleaderslikeBrasidasandLeonidasbutalsoanelaboratestoa supposedlyadornedwithspoilsfromXerxes’ Persianarmy.Archaeologists havespentthelastcenturytryingtosortoutexactlywhatwentwhereinthe ancientSpartancity,butthereisstillalotwecanlearnbyexamining Sparta’stopographyandmonuments,nestledundertheforbidding Taygetusmountainrange.Sparta’sarchaeologicalmuseumandother museumsthroughoutGreececontainmanyfunerary,honorary,andvotive piecesthatilluminateSpartanmilitarism.Thesepiecesontheirowncan tellusagreatdeal,buttheyalsowereoncesetupinrealphysicalspaces.

Forinstance,thefamous “smilinghoplite,” whomanyhavebelievedtobe Leonidashimself,wasfoundbythesanctuaryofAthenaChalkioikos, “of theBronzeHouse,” ontheSpartanacropolis.Thiswastheveryspotwhere anotherSpartangeneralofthePersianWars,theex-regentPausanias,was starvedtodeathafterfallingoutoffavorwiththeSpartantopbrass, allegedlybecausehewastooeagertoglorifyhimselfinsteadofallthe GreeksforthevictoryatPlataeain 479,butmorelikelybecausehetriedto takeSpartanarmiestoofarfromSpartaandfortoolong.Spartanssetup monumentsinotherplacestoo,fromthefabledpassatThermopylae,to thesanctuaryofHeraontheislandofSamos,allofwhichcanhelpus understandSpartanmilitarismmorefully.

WhenwelookatSpartancommemorationandhowitchangedover time,wediscoversomesurprisingthings.DespitetheSpartans’ fearsome reputation,theyfoughtremarkablyfewwars;andwhentheydid fight,they werenotnearlyasinvincibleastheirancientandmodernreputation suggests.Forsometimenow,historianshavebeenpokingholesinthe mythofSpartaninvincibility.Whatnoonehasnoticeduntilnowisthat Spartanmilitarismwaskeptincheckbytheverydesireforfameandglory thatanimatedsoldiersinbattle.Theintuitivepresumptionaboutasociety obsessedwithmilitarygloryisthatitsmembersmust fightatevery opportunity.LateArchaicandClassicalSparta,though,seemstohave foughtfewwarspreciselybecausegloryandfamewereitsonlyoverriding concerns.Otherreasonsforgoingtowar,suchasdefendingtheGreeks fromforeigninvadersorfreeingtheoppressed,reasonswemight findmore palatabletoday,werenotcompellingmotivationsfortheSpartans,which keptthemoutofmanymilitaryconflicts.OtherGreeks,mostnotablythe Athenians,embracedtherhetoricofliberation,of “Greek” versus “barbarian,” andthusfoughtmoreoften,furtherfromhome,andforlonger periods.WhentheSpartanseventuallyembracedthesereasonsthemselves, whichtheirchangingcommemorativepracticesreflect,theyfought,killed, anddiedmoreoften,withdisastrousconsequencesforSpartanpower. Commemorationprovidesinsightintothereasonswhysocieties fight,and thosereasonshaveabearingonthelikelihoodofsocietiesembracingwaras agoodoption.

Whilethe “ monumentwars ” rageconcerningtheplaceofConfederate statuesandothercontroversialpiecesincontemporaryAmerica,andthe purposeofcommemorativesitesandritualscomesintoquestioninmany othercountriestoo,itisnowtimetotakeanewlookattheSpartan commemorationofwar,itsliteraryaccounts,materialmonuments,and topographicalspaces.Spartaisnotonlyrelevantbecauseitwasseemingly

moremilitaristicthanotherGreekstateswere.Spartanimageryand Spartanexamplesfrequentlyhaveacentralplaceintheactivismofvarious pro-warandanti-immigrantgroupsinNorthAmericaandEurope.From atleastthe 18thcentury,Spartahasservedasamodelforarangeof movements,fromthepoliticalphilosophyofRousseautothelobbying oftheNationalRiﬂeAssociation.Letusthereforeconsidermilitary ﬁgures likeBrasidas,themodeltheysetfortheirfellowSpartans,andhowthatcan informourownideasabouthowonegenerationofwarriorspassesthe torchontothenext,eventoday.

Map 1 GreeceandtheAegean,fromS.Pomeroy,S.M.Burstein,W.Donlan, J.T.Roberts,D.Tandy. 2012, AncientGreece:APolitical,Cultural,andSocial History (3rdedition),Oxford,insidefrontcover.©OxfordUniversityPress. ReproducedwithpermissionoftheLicensorthroughPLSclear.

MemoryandMirage

Introduction:WhySparta?WhyNow?

Spartaneedsnointroduction,letaloneajustificationforwhyitisworth studying.AsancientRomansvisitedSpartacenturiesafteritsheydayand weretreatedtoanexaggeratedthemeparkofsortsofwhatClassicalSparta wasreallylike,so,too,doesmuchofthemodernworldretainafascination forthesestrangeGreeks – fromEnlightenmentpoliticaltheorists,to modernGreeknationalists fightingforindependencefromthe Ottomans,andtopopularculturetoday.AncientSpartagrabsourimaginationbecauseitwasso weird,eventoitsfellowGreeks.Phalanxesofsocial equals fightingwithpeerlessskillandbraveryeveninthefaceofcertain deathisboundtocompel,andisanimagedrawnfromcarefullycrafted propaganda,apublicrelationscampaigninitiatedbytheSpartansthemselves.IamnotpreparedtogoasfarasMykeCole,who,inhisrecentbook, TheBronzeLie,arguesthatSparta’smilitaryprowessandinvincibilitywere entirelyfabricatedbytheSpartansandrepeatedbycreduloussources.1 Ido agree,however,thatweneedtoexaminethisancientsocietyanditsimage withacriticaleye.Evenoncewehavedoneso,Ibelievewecanstill understandtheSpartansasdifferent,asoutliers.Militarycommemoration isonesubjectinwhichthisdifferenceisstarkest.

Spartais,nexttoAthens,thesecond-moststudiedClassicalGreekpolis.It isadistantsecond,though,sinceAthenshasleftanoverwhelmingprofusion ofevidencebycomparison – literary,architectural,artistic,archaeological, andepigraphical.SinceatleastthetimeofthePericleanFuneralOrationin Thucydides’ HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,Atheniancommemoration hasbeenbetterunderstoodandtheinspirationformoreworksofscholarship thananyotherGreeksociety.Brilliantrecentstudies,suchasNathan Arrington ’ s Ashes,Images,andMemories:ThePresenceoftheWarDeadin

Fifth-CenturyAthens ,continuetooffernewinsightsintoandinterpretationsofAtheniancommemoration,andtherelationshipbetweensoldiers,theirfamilies,andthestateforwhichtheyfoughtanddied. 2 ScholarssuchasPollyLowhavebeguntotakethesescholarly approachestopartsofGreecebeyon dAthens,includingSparta,but alotmoreworkneedstobedone. 3 UntanglingSparta ’ scommemorative pastisadifferentbusinessthandoingsoforAthens,butthereissome interestingevidencetoworkwithandwecanmakeuseofsomeilluminatingcomparisons.

Thisisamomentinhistoryatwhichmemory,monuments,and commemorationhaveneverbeenmoreimportantandmorecontroversial. Howwethinkaboutthepastisinthenewseveryday,fromthe fightto removeConfederatemonumentsintheUnitedStatestotheideological battleswagedoverthehistoryandethnicitybehindclaimstoeastern UkrainewhileRussiacontinuesitsassaultonthatcountryasIwrite thesewords.Modernmilitarycommemorationtendstostraddlethe awkwarddividebetweencelebratingheroisminordertoinspirepatriotic serviceinfuturegenerationsandrevealingthehorrorsofwarinorderto discouragepeoplesandstatesfromtakinguparms.Iwanttoinvestigate howoneofhistory’smostsupposedlymilitaristicsocietiescommemorated war,andthelinksthatcommemorationhadtowhetherandhowoftenthat societywenttowar.Intheprocess,wewilllearnmoreabouttheSpartans andtheancientGreeks,butwewillalsohaveoccasiontothinkaboutour ownformsofcommemorationandourownrelationshipwitharmed conflict.Thecommemorationofwar,ancientandmodern,bothreflects andformsasociety’sattitudestowardswar.InthecaseofSparta,that particularancientsocietyhasoftenbeenbroughttobeartocommenton warstoday.

Inwhatfollowswewillconsidersomeideasaboutcommemoration, remembrance,andcollectivememory,andhowtheseideascanbeused fruitfullyinastudyofancientSparta.Wewillnexttakealookatthe “SpartanMirage,” namelythesourceswehaveforSpartansocietyandthe uniquechallengesthosesourcespresent.Thisintroductorychapterwill concludewithsomebasicprinciplesofSparta’scommemorationofwar, particularlyhowtheyrelatetotheideasoftheirfellowGreeks.These principleswillbeexploredindepthandcomplicatedbythechaptersthat follow.WewillalsotakeatourthroughClassicalSpartaandpauseto

2 Arrington 2015.ForAthens,seealso Low 2010; Kucewicz 2021b; Pritchard 2022

3 See,forexample, Low 2003; 2006; 2011; Kucewicz 2021a

considerthetopographyandmonumentsanancientSpartanwouldhave encountered,andwhatthosemonumentsmighthavemeanttothe observer.

ANoteonTerminology

Beforemovingon,ImustclarifysomeofthemostimportanttermsIwill usethroughoutthisstudy,sincejustwhattheterms “Sparta” and “the Spartans” meanismorecomplicatedthaninthecaseofotherGreek peoples.First,Spartawasastrangepolisinthatitwasunwalledandwas moreanamalgamationofvillagesthanacentralurbancoresurroundedby ruralhinterlandasotherpoleis(thepluralfor “polis”)were.Spartawas locatedinthesouthernPeloponneseinaregionlatercalledLaconia, separatedfromMesseniatothewestbytheformidableTaygetusmountain range.TheSpartanstatewastechnicallycalledLacedaemoninantiquity, anditsfreeresidentstheLacedaemonians.Thistermwasthesourceofthe famouslambda,orinverted “V,” eventuallyemblazonedonSpartanhopliteshields.Sometimes,therefore,thetermsLacedaemonianandSpartan areusedinterchangeablyinthesources,andinthisbook.

ClassicalSpartansocietywasstratifiedintothreemaintiers.Atthetop, representingaminorityofthepopulation,werethefullcitizens,the Spartiates,sometimescalledthe homoioi,or “similars.” Thesewerethe Spartanmenwhotrainedcontinuouslyforwarandwholivedasifon campaign,diningtogethereverydayincommonmesses,evenwhileat homeandatpeace.TheSpartiateswereeligibletoserveinimportant offices,suchastheoversightbodyof fiveannuallyelectedephors,andinan assemblythatratifiedlawsandotherstateactionsandpolicies.The participationoftheseSpartiatesingovernmentmeanswecanunderstand Spartaasanoligarchy,rulebythefew,eventhoughSpartaalsohadtwo kings,sowasatthesametimeatypeofmonarchyordiarchy.

ThefemalefamilymembersoftheSpartiateshadmoreprivilegesand freedomthantheircounterpartsinplaceslikeAthens,astateexceptionally restrictivetowomen,but,evenso,womenplayednoformalroleinSpartan governmentoronmilitarycampaign.Spartanwomenandgirls,however, hadanimportantplaceinSparta’smilitarycultureanditscommemorative practices.Girls,forexample,couldexerciseinpublicjustlikeboys,and,as partofacompulsorypublictraining,wereexpectedtoobserveandmock theboysinordertospurSpartanmalestogreatermartialexcellence. Alargepercentageofthefamousaphorisms,orsayings,attributedtothe SpartansbyPlutarchandotherauthorscomefromwomen,andmanyof

theseaphorismsarestatementsofSpartanattitudestowardswarand memory.AftertheSpartanslostattheBattleofLeuctrain 371 bce , Spartanwomenwholosthusbandsandsonswalkedaroundthecitywith joyfulexpressions,happythattheirmalefamilymembershaddiedgloriouslyratherthansurvivedshamefullyaftersurrendering.Spartanwomen, atleastasportrayedbyGreekmaleauthors,wereimportantforSpartan commemoration.4

Freenon-citizenswholivedinSpartanterritorywerecalledthe perioikoi, or “dwellers-around.” The perioikoi typicallylivedintheirownvillagesin Laconia.TheyoutnumberedthefullSpartiates,probablybyasigniﬁcant margin.TheywererequiredtoserveintheSpartanarmyandtookcareof manyofthestate’snecessaryeconomictaskswhiletheSpartiatestrained forwar.ThetermLacedaemonianusuallyreferstoboththeSpartiatesand the perioikoi.Theancientsourcestendtospecifywhentheymeanonly Spartiatesinsteadofbothgroupstogether.5

Atthebottomtierwerethehelots,unfreelaborerswho(themen,at least)mainlyworkedtheagriculturallandcontrolledbySparta.Wemight bestunderstandthehelotsasserfs,orperhapspersonsenslavedbythestate ratherthanownedaschattelbyindividualSpartiatesandtheirfamilies(as wasthecasewithslaveryinotherGreekpoleis,suchasAthens).6 Some helotscamefromLaconia,whileotherswerefromneighboringMesseniato thewest,whichSpartaconqueredintheArchaicperiod.Thehelotswere thebackboneofSpartanpower,providingalltheproduceandother essentialsforthesurvivalofthestate.Manyancientsourcesclaimthat aneedtocontrolthehelots,andthefearofhelotrebellion,drovemuchof Sparta’spolicyandwayoflife.7

Thisbookdealsprimarilywithwhatwemightcallthe “ofﬁcial” commemorationofwarinSparta – poemsrecitedatreligiousfestivalsand remembranceceremonies,monumentserectedinpublicspaces,

4 See Millender 2018 forageneraltreatmentofSpartanwomen,withfurtherbibliography.Seealsothe foundationalmonographonthetopicby Pomeroy 2002.ForadiscussiononSpartanwomenand war,see Powell 2004.

5 Forthe perioikoi,see Ducat 2018.Fornon-SpartansintheSpartanarmy,seetherecentarticleby Pavlides 2020.

6 Athenshadpubliclyenslavedpersonstoo.AmaindifferenceseemstobethatSpartiatesdidnotown privatelyenslavedpersons,whereasAthenshadbothcategoriesofslavery.

7 Thebestresourceonthehelotsistheeditedcollectionof LuraghiandAlcock 2003 Luraghi 2008 discussestheMesseniansinparticular.Foranup-to-datediscussionofthestateofhelotscholarship, andacomparisonofhelotagewithotherslavesystemsinantiquity,seenow Lewis 2018: 125–146.For ageneraloverviewofthepoliticalandsocialstructureofSpartaascomparedtoAthens,with suggestionsforfurtherreadingandsources,see Sears 2022.Seealso Humble 2022,inthesame volume,foracloserlookatSparta.

inscriptionscommissionedby “theSpartans” asastate,andsoon.While Iwillrefertosomeindividualmonuments,dedications,andperspectives,for themajorityofthisstudywewillbeconsideringwhat “theSpartans” didto remembertheirwarsandtheirwardead.ThesourcesforSpartaarelackingas itis,anditisaccordinglymuchmoredifficulttoassesstheideasandpractices ofindividualSpartiates,nottomentionwomen, perioikoi,orhelots.These non-elites,ormarginalizedpopulations,hadagencyoftheirown(ifwithin theconfinesofvarioussystemsofoppression),whichwouldhavehad abearingoncommemoration.Wemustkeepthatfactinmindevenas thosenon-Spartiateandnon-“official” perspectivesgetlostintheshuffle.In additiontothestudiespointedoutinnotes 4–5,Iforoneeagerlyawaitfurther workonmarginalizedpeoplesinLacedaemon,includinginthesphereofwar.

ThisbookdealsprimarilywiththeArchaicperiod,datingfromroughly 700 bce (orwhenevertheHomericepicswere ﬁrstcomposed,perhaps ﬁftyorsoyearsearlier)to 479 bce ,whenXerxes’ Persianinvasionwas repelledfrommainlandGreece;andtheClassicalperiod,whichrunsfrom 479 to 323 bce ,theyearAlexandertheGreatdied.TheHellenisticperiod (323–30 bce )followstheClassical,fromwhichseveralofoursources derive,astheydoalsofromtheRomanperiodfollowingthedeathof CleopatraVIIin 30 bce .Unlessotherwisestated,alldatesare bce .

Finally,awordontheterms “ commemoration ” and “ militarism ” , whichwillfeatureprominentlythroughoutthefollowingchapters. Commemorationoftenconjuresupimagesofformalmonumentsor ceremonies,suchastheRemembra nceDayobservancesheldeach November 11 inCanada(withanaloguesinmanyothercountries). Marchingbands,paradesofveterans,andof ﬁ cialservicesaroundthe towncenotaph,amonumentinscribedwiththenamesofthewardead andthebattlesinwhichtheyfoughtareobviousexamplesofcommemoration.I,however,takeafarmoreexpansiveview.Warsandwarheroes, battlesandbattle ﬁ elds,permeateourdiscourseandourpublicand privatespacesfarmorethanformalcommemorativeactivitieswould indicate.AsIwritethesewords,Ihavejustreturnedfromalecturetour forwhichIspokeonSpartantopicsatCanadianuniversitieswithnames like “ Waterloo,” thefamousbattlebetweenNapoleonandWellington, and “ Brock,” aprominentgeneralfromtheWarof 1812.Asdebatesrage aboutthenatureandimportanceof “ WesternCivilization, ” and CanadianorBritish “ values, ” warspastandpresenttendtofeature prominently,ifsometimesindirec tly.Warscanbecommemoratedin speakingaboutCanadaasa “ peacekeepingnation” ortheUnited Statesasbeingagreat “ experimentindemocracy” justasmuch