WorkandSociety
Viewingworkthroughasociologicallensenablesconsiderationofthevariedwaysin whichworkandsocietyinterrelate.Forexample,attheindividuallevel,workshapes identity,values,andbeliefs,aswellasahostofotheroutcomesrangingfrommentaland physicalhealthtopoliticalattitudes.Negativehealthconsequenceshavebeenassociated withworkingtoomanyhoursorworkingtoofew,andbothextremesarecommoninthe currenteconomicera(JacobsandGerson2004).Formanyprofessionalsormanagers, workisa“greedy”institution,withever-increasingdemandsonpeople’stime,emotional energies,andcommitments(Moen,Lam,Ammons,andKelly2013)Forothers,workis precariousandinsecure.Alackofaccesstoemploymentcreatesitsownsetofproblems, especiallyforUSworkerswhodependonemployersforaccesstoinsuranceandother typesofbenefits(Kalleberg2011).
Oneoftenoverlookedfeatureofworkisthatittypicallybringspeopleintocontact withotherscoworkers,subordinates,supervisors,and,increasinglyformany,the public.Socialinteractionandintergrouprelationsarejustasimportantintheworkplace astheyareinothersocialarenasAnearly,influentialsociologicalstudyfirstcalled attentiontothewaysthatthesocialrelationsofworkshapedworkers’reactionstotheir jobs(Mayo1933)Forcontemporaryresearchers,thisinsightisreflectedinstudiesof workteams,coworkerrelations,andespeciallyinteractionsbetweenworkersandtheir clientsandcustomers(Lopez2010).Thecontentandqualityofworkplacerelationships matterforunderstandingtheconsequencesandsignificanceofworkWorkplacesare settingsinwhichbothexpressiveandinstrumentaltiesbetweenpeopleareimportant, notonlyforunderstandingworkers’responsestotheirjobs,butalsoforunderstanding thebroaderwaysinwhichworkshapesmeaningsandlifeexperience.
Althoughtheworkplacehasneverbeentrulyseparatefromothersocietalinstitutions andtrends,itsinterdependencewiththelargerenvironmenthasperhapsneverbeen greater.Societalchanges,suchaswomen’srisinglaborforceparticipation,declining birthrates,andchanginggenderroles,havetransformedrelationsbetweenfamiliesand work.Jugglingworkandfamilycommitmentsisachallengeforfamiliesacrossthe occupationalspectrumandhasdrawnattentionfromemployersandpolicy-makers throughouttheindustrializedworld(MoenandRoehling2005)Technologyhasalso contributedtochangedrelationsbetweenworkandnonwork.Byenablingpeopleto workanytime,anywhere,mobiledeviceshavehelpedtoblur,ifnotcompletely eliminate,theboundariesbetweenthesetworealms(Perlow2012).Thesetrendshave pushedsociologiststodevelopnewconceptualapproachestounderstandingrelations betweenworkandotherinstitutions.Thefieldhasmovedawayfromrigiddichotomies, suchaspublicandprivateorimpersonalandpersonal,thatcompartmentalizedworkand familylifetowardmorecomplexportrayalsofthesesocialinstitutionsandthosewho
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AlienatedLabour
KarlMarx
Wehaveproceededfromthepremisesofpoliticaleconomy.Wehaveacceptedits languageanditslaws.Wepresupposedprivateproperty,theseparationoflabor,capital andland,andofwages,profitofcapitalandrentofland likewisedivisionoflabor, competition,theconceptofexchangevalue,etc.Onthebasisofpoliticaleconomyitself, initsownwords,wehaveshownthattheworkersinkstothelevelofacommodityand becomesindeedthemostwretchedofcommodities;thatthewretchednessoftheworker isininverseproportiontothepowerandmagnitudeofhisproduction;thatthenecessary resultofcompetitionistheaccumulationofcapitalinafewhands,andthusthe restorationofmonopolyinamoreterribleform;andthatfinallythedistinctionbetween capitalistandlandlord,likethatbetweenthefarmerandthefactoryworker,disappears andthatthewholeofsocietymustfallapartintothetwoclassespropertyownersand propertylessworkers. Politicaleconomystartswiththefactofprivateproperty;itdoesnotexplainittousIt expressesingeneral,abstractformulasthematerialprocessthroughwhichprivate propertyactuallypasses,andtheseformulasitthentakesforlawsItdoesnot comprehendtheselawsi.e.,itdoesnotdemonstratehowtheyarisefromthevery natureofprivatepropertyPoliticaleconomythrowsnolightonthecauseofthedivision betweenlaborandcapital,andbetweencapitalandland.When,forexample,itdefines therelationshipofwagestoprofit,ittakestheinterestofthecapitaliststobethe ultimatecause,ie,ittakesforgrantedwhatitissupposedtoexplainSimilarly, competitioncomesineverywhere.Itisexplainedfromexternalcircumstances.Asto howfartheseexternalandapparentlyaccidentalcircumstancesarebuttheexpressionof anecessarycourseofdevelopment,politicaleconomyteachesusnothing.Wehaveseen howexchangeitselfappearstoitasanaccidentalfact.Theonlywheelswhichpolitical economysetsinmotionaregreed,andthewaramongthegreedy,competition Preciselybecausepoliticaleconomydoesnotgraspthewaythemovementis connected,itwaspossibletooppose,forinstance,thedoctrineofcompetitiontothe doctrineofmonopoly,thedoctrineofcraftfreedomtothedoctrineoftheguild,the doctrineofthedivisionoflandedpropertytothedoctrineofthebigestate.For competition,freedomofthecraftsandthedivisionoflandedpropertywereexplained andcomprehendedonlyasaccidental,premeditatedandviolentconsequencesof monopoly,oftheguildsystem,andoffeudalproperty,notastheirnecessary,inevitable andnaturalconsequences.
Now,therefore,wehavetograsptheintrinsicconnectionbetweenprivateproperty,
production
Tillnowwehavebeenconsidering,thealienationoftheworkeronlyinoneofits aspects,ie,theworker’srelationshiptotheproductsofhislaborButtheestrangement ismanifestednotonlyintheresultbutintheactofproduction,withintheproducing activity,itself.Howcouldtheworkercometofacetheproductofhisactivityasa stranger,wereitnotthatintheveryactofproductionhewasestranginghimselffrom himself?Theproductisafterallbutthesummaryoftheactivity,ofproduction.Ifthen theproductoflaborisalienation,productionitselfmustbeactivealienation,the alienationofactivity,theactivityofalienation.Intheestrangementoftheobjectoflabor ismerelythesummaryofthealienation,intheactivityoflaboritself.
What,then,constitutestheexternalizationandalienationoflabor?
First,thefactthatlaborisexternaltotheworker,i.e.,itdoesnotbelongtohisintrinsic nature;thatinhiswork,therefore,hedoesnotaffirmhimselfbutdenieshimself,does notfeelcontentbutunhappy,doesnotdevelopfreelyhisphysicalandmentalenergybut mortifieshisbodyandruinshismind.Theworkerthereforeonlyfeelshimselfoutside hiswork,andinhisworkfeelsoutsidehimselfHefeelsathomewhenheisnot working,andwhenheisworkinghedoesnotfeelathome.Hislaboristhereforenot voluntary,butcoerced;itisforcedlaborItisthereforenotthesatisfactionofaneed;itis merelyameanstosatisfyneedsexternaltoit.Itsaliencharacteremergesclearlyinthe factthatassoonasnophysicalorothercompulsionexists,laborisshunnedlikethe plagueExternallabor,laborinwhichmanalienateshimself,isalaborofself-sacrifice, ofmortification.Lastly,theexternalcharacteroflaborfortheworkerappearsinthefact thatitisnothisown,butsomeoneelse’s,thatitdoesnotbelongtohim,thatinithe belongs,nottohimself,buttoanother.Justasinreligionthespontaneousactivityofthe humanimagination,ofthehumanbrainandthehumanheart,operatesontheindividual independentlyofhimthatis,operatesasanalien,divineordiabolicalactivitysoisthe worker’sactivitynothisspontaneousactivity.Itbelongstoanother;itisthelossofhis self
Asaresult,therefore,man(theworker)onlyfeelshimselffreelyactiveinhisanimal functionseating,drinking,procreating,oratmostinhisdwellingandinhisdress;and inhishumanfunctionshenolongerfeelshimselftobeanythingbutananimal.Whatis animalbecomeshumanandwhatishumanbecomesanimal.
Certainlyeating,drinking,procreating,etc,arealsogenuinelyhumanfunctionsBut takenabstractly,separatedfromthesphereofallotherhumanactivityandturnedinto soleandultimateends,theyareanimalfunctions
Wehaveconsideredtheactofestrangingpracticalhumanactivity,labor,intwoofits aspects.
(1)Therelationoftheworkertotheproductoflaborasanalienobjectexercising poweroverhim.Thisrelationisatthesametimetherelationtothesensuousexternal world,totheobjectsofnature,asanalienworldinimicallyopposedtohim
(2)Therelationoflabortotheactofproductionwithinthelaborprocess.Thisrelation istherelationoftheworkertohisownactivityasanalienactivitynotbelongingtohim;
itisactivityassuffering,strengthasweakness,begettingasemasculating,theworker’s ownphysicalandmentalenergy,hispersonallifeforwhatislifebutactivity?asan activitywhichisturnedagainsthim,independentofhimandnotbelongingtohimHere wehaveself-alienation,aspreviouslywehadthealienationofthething.
Wehavestillathirdaspectofestrangedlabortodeducefromthetwoalready considered
Manisaspecies-being[3],notonlybecauseinpracticeandintheoryheadoptsthe species(hisownaswellasthoseofotherthings)ashisobject,butandthisisonly anotherwayofexpressingitalsobecausehetreatshimselfastheactual,livingspecies; becausehetreatshimselfasauniversalandthereforeafreebeing.
Thelifeofthespecies,bothinmanandinanimals,consistsphysicallyinthefactthat man(liketheanimal)livesfrominorganicnature;andthemoreuniversalman(orthe animal)is,themoreuniversalisthesphereofinorganicnatureonwhichhelivesJustas plants,animals,stones,air,light,etc.,constitutetheoreticallyapartofhuman consciousness,partlyasobjectsofnaturalscience,partlyasobjectsofarthisspiritual inorganicnature,spiritualnourishmentwhichhemustfirstpreparetomakepalatable anddigestiblesoalsointherealmofpracticetheyconstituteapartofhumanlifeand humanactivityPhysicallymanlivesonlyontheseproductsofnature,whetherthey appearintheformoffood,heating,clothes,adwelling,etc.Theuniversalityofman appearsinpracticepreciselyintheuniversalitywhichmakesallnaturehisinorganic bodybothinasmuchasnatureis(1)hisdirectmeansoflife,and(2)thematerial,the object,andtheinstrumentofhislifeactivity.Natureisman’sinorganicbodynature, thatis,insofarasitisnotitselfhumanbodyManlivesonnature meansthatnatureis hisbody,withwhichhemustremainincontinuousinterchangeifheisnottodie.That man ’sphysicalandspirituallifeislinkedtonaturemeanssimplythatnatureislinkedto itself,formanisapartofnature.
Inestrangingfromman(1)nature,and(2)himself,hisownactivefunctions,hislife activity,estrangedlaborestrangesthespeciesfrommanItchangesforhimthelifeofthe speciesintoameansofindividuallife.Firstitestrangesthelifeofthespeciesand individuallife,andsecondlyitmakesindividuallifeinitsabstractformthepurposeof thelifeofthespecies,likewiseinitsabstractandalienatedform.
Forlabor,lifeactivity,productivelifeitself,appearstomaninthefirstplacemerelyas ameansofsatisfyinganeedtheneedtomaintainphysicalexistenceYettheproductive lifeisthelifeofthespecies.Itislife-engenderinglife.Thewholecharacterofaspecies, itsspecies-character,iscontainedinthecharacterofitslifeactivity;andfree,conscious activityisman’sspecies-character.Lifeitselfappearsonlyasameanstolife.
TheanimalisimmediatelyonewithitslifeactivityItdoesnotdistinguishitselffrom it.Itisitslifeactivity.Manmakeshislifeactivityitselftheobjectofhiswillandofhis consciousness.Hehasconsciouslifeactivity.Itisnotadeterminationwithwhichhe directlymergesConsciouslifeactivitydistinguishesmanimmediatelyfromanimallife activity.Itisjustbecauseofthisthatheisaspecies-being.Oritisonlybecauseheisa
Theestrangementofman,andinfacteveryrelationshipinwhichman[stands]to himself,isrealizedandexpressedonlyintherelationshipinwhichamanstandstoother men
Hencewithintherelationshipofestrangedlaboreachmanviewstheotherin accordancewiththestandardandtherelationshipinwhichhefindshimselfasaworker.
Wetookourdeparturefromafactofpoliticaleconomytheestrangementoftheworker andhisproduction.Wehaveformulatedthisfactinconceptualtermsasestranged, alienatedlabor.Wehaveanalyzedthisconcepthenceanalyzingmerelyafactof politicaleconomy
Letusnowsee,further,howtheconceptofestranged,alienatedlabormustexpress andpresentitselfinreallife
Iftheproductoflaborisalientome,ifitconfrontsmeasanalienpower,towhom, then,doesitbelong?
Toabeingotherthanmyself
Whoisthisbeing?
Thegods?Tobesure,intheearliesttimestheprincipalproduction(forexample,the buildingoftemples,etc.,inEgypt,IndiaandMexico)appearstobeintheserviceofthe gods,andtheproductbelongstothegodsHowever,thegodsontheirownwerenever thelordsoflabor.Nomorewasnature.Andwhatacontradictionitwouldbeif,the moremansubjugatednaturebyhislaborandthemorethemiraclesofthegodswere renderedsuperfluousbythemiraclesofindustry,themoremanhadtorenouncethejoy ofproductionandtheenjoymentoftheproducttopleasethesepowers.
Thealienbeing,towhomlaborandtheproductoflaborbelongs,inwhoseservice laborisdoneandforwhosebenefittheproductoflaborisprovided,canonlybeman himself.
Iftheproductoflabordoesnotbelongtotheworker,ifitconfrontshimasanalien power,thenthiscanonlybebecauseitbelongstosomeothermanthantheworker.If theworker’sactivityisatormenttohim,toanotheritmustgivesatisfactionand pleasure.Notthegods,notnature,butonlymanhimselfcanbethisalienpowerover man.
Wemustbearinmindthepreviouspropositionthatman’srelationtohimself becomesforhimobjectiveandactualthroughhisrelationtotheotherman.Thus,ifthe productofhislabor,hislaborobjectified,isforhimanalien,hostile,powerfulobject independentofhim,thenhispositiontowardsitissuchthatsomeoneelseismasterof thisobject,someonewhoisalien,hostile,powerful,andindependentofhim.Ifhetreats hisownactivityasanunfreeactivity,thenhetreatsitasanactivityperformedinthe service,underthedominion,thecoercion,andtheyokeofanotherman.
Everyself-estrangementofman,fromhimselfandfromnature,appearsintherelation inwhichheplaceshimselfandnaturetomenotherthananddifferentiatedfromhimself. Forthisreasonreligiousself-estrangementnecessarilyappearsintherelationshipofthe laymantothepriest,oragaintoamediator,etc.,sinceweareheredealingwiththe
intellectualworldIntherealpracticalworldself-estrangementcanonlybecome manifestthroughtherealpracticalrelationshiptoothermen.Themediumthrough whichestrangementtakesplaceisitselfpractical.Thusthroughalienatedlabormannot onlycreateshisrelationshiptotheobjectandtotheactofproductionasalienand hostiletohim;healsocreatestherelationshipinwhichothermenstandtohis productionandtohisproduct,andtherelationshipinwhichhestandstotheseother men.Justashecreateshisownproductionasthelossofhisreality,ashispunishment; hisownproductasaloss,asaproductnotbelongingtohim;sohecreatesthe dominationofthepersonwhodoesnotproduceoverproductionandovertheproduct. Justasheestrangeshisownactivityfromhimself,soheconfersuponthestrangeran activitywhichisnothisown
Wehaveuntilnowconsideredthisrelationshiponlyfromthestandpointofthe workerandlateronweshallbeconsideringitalsofromthestandpointofthenonworker.
Throughestranged,alienatedlabor,then,theworkerproducestherelationshiptothis laborofamanalientolaborandstandingoutsideitTherelationshipoftheworkerto laborcreatestherelationtoitofthecapitalist(orwhateveronechoosestocallthe masteroflabor)Privatepropertyisthustheproduct,theresult,thenecessary consequence,ofalienatedlabor,oftheexternalrelationoftheworkertonatureandto himself.
Privatepropertythusresultsfromtheanalysisoftheconceptofalienatedlabor,ie,of alienatedman,ofexternalizedlabor,ofestrangedlife,ofestrangedman.
True,itisasaresultofthemovementofprivatepropertythatwehaveobtainedthe conceptofalienatedlabor(ofalienatedlife)inpoliticaleconomy.Butonanalysisofthis conceptitbecomesclearthatthoughprivatepropertyappearstobethereason,thecause ofalienatedlabor,itisratheritsconsequence,justasthegodsareoriginallynotthe causebuttheeffectofman’sintellectualconfusion.Laterthisrelationshipbecomes reciprocal
Notes
1Marx,stillusingHegel’sterminologyandhisapproachtotheunityoftheopposites,counterposestheterm “Verwirklichung”(realisation)to“Entwirklichung”(lossofrealisation).
2.InthismanuscriptMarxfrequentlyusestwosimilarGermanterms,“Entäusserung”and“Entfremdung,”to expressthenotionof“alienation”Inthepresenteditiontheformerisgenerallytranslatedas“alienation,” thelatteras“estrangement,”becauseinthelatereconomicworks(TheoriesofSurplus-Value)Marxhimself usedtheword“alienation”astheEnglishequivalentoftheterm“Entäusserung”
3Theterm“species-being”(Gattungswesen)isderivedfromLudwigFeuerbach’sphilosophywhereitisapplied tomanandmankindasawhole
