Preface
Welcome to the seventh edition of Communication for Business and the Professions: Strategies and Skills. This book’s plain-English writing style is supported by an accessible design to provide a clear how-to guide to help students understand communication principles and apply them in their interpersonal and professional interactions.
We have written this book for students who are seeking to enhance their communication skills and opportunities for employment and career progression within businesses, organisations and the professions. The journey through your professional career pathway includes seeking a workplace that gives you a sense of purpose and belonging as well as opportunities for fulfilling and productive work. Perceptions and expectations about the hierarchy and culture of the organisation, the quality of tools provided to do the work, and types of communication, as well as feelings of inclusion, equality and acceptance of diversity within the organisation influence the quality of your journey.
Communication competence enhances your employability and expands your professional business and career opportunities. Employers realise that both individuals and their organisation depend on effective communication and a strong, well-nurtured and unifying communication system. Communication is something real people do in organisations every day, in face-to-face interactions or along digital channels of communication. Communication between employers and employees is too often ignored and left to chance.
The graduate who wants a challenging and rewarding career not only has the technical competence to fulfil the job functions, but also the communication skills and emotional intelligence—personal and social competence—to manage self and relationships.
Selection criteria for employees recruiting graduates in Australia include: cultural alignment; values fit; flexibility and adaptability in response to change; emotional intelligence (including self-awareness, strength of character, confidence, motivation); critical reasoning and analytical skills (problem solving, lateral thinking, technical skills, teamwork skills); knowledge of industry, drive, commitment, attitude; leadership skills; work experience; academic qualifications; and interpersonal and communication skills, both written and oral. Communication Skills for Business and the Professions, seventh edition, has been updated to provide knowledge and practice to enable you to build and enhance the skills and attributes employers are seeking from graduates.
Acknowledgements
Communication for Business and the Professions: Strategies and Skills helps so many readers because it is the product of the collaborative will and high standards set by so many academics and practitioners.
I extend my thanks to Nicole Hopwood for the chapters and advice she has contributed throughout the planning and writing of this edition. Her work has been invaluable in bringing to life the many aspects of communicating visually.
My gratitude to Kyall Coulton for his help and support throughout the preparation of the manuscript and for the new case study in Chapter 2. I also wish to thank Gregory Punshon for his advice regarding the impacts of technological advances on communication, workplaces and job search. Thank you to Scott Walkom for the new long report example in Chapter 20, and to Jace Pedonese for the new case study in Chapter 8.
The publisher and I wish to thank the following reviewers: Tony Cannell, University of Sydney; Rosie Kerr, Curtin University; Krista Mathis, Bond University; David Paterno, RMIT; Donella Piper, University of New England; Terry Sheehan, RMIT; Christian Ware, James Cook University; Christa Wood, University of Wollongong.
I also extend my sincere thanks to the many outstanding professionals at Pearson Australia, including Judith Bamber (Development Editor) for her support and
encouragement, Nina Sharpe (Portfolio Manager), Linda Chryssavgis (Production Editor), Lisa Woodland (Rights & Permissions Editor), Robyn Flemming (Copy Editor), and the marketing and sales team.
Most importantly, I wish to thank my husband, John Burns, for helping me to stay focused and for his constant support, interest and enthusiasm throughout each edition of the book. His encouraging and constructive feedback helped bring this edition to completion.
About the author
Judith Dwyer is an acknowledged communication expert, educator and author. She has written 18 books on, and conducted research and lectured in, communication studies for more than 20 years. A longstanding member of the Institute of Managers and Leaders, her areas of expertise are communication studies, economics, management and leadership. She has consulted on and managed a number of industry projects.
Judith has a Master of Management (Public) from the University of Technology Sydney, a Bachelor of Economics from the University of New England, and a Diploma in Education from the University of Newcastle.
Her fundamental message is that an understanding of people and social processes is more important than our knowledge of facts; however, we must research and integrate theory into efficient working practice.
About the contributing author
Nicole Hopwood holds a Graduate Diploma of Management from the Australian Graduate School of Management and a Bachelor of Economics from the University of Sydney, and is a member of CPA Australia. Her professional experience comprises working in various industries, including professional services, banking and telecommunications. She has also specialised in business reconstruction and insolvency in the professional services industry. From Nicole’s extensive professional experience in Australia and the UK she has gained the realisation that each member within an organisation has a responsibility for continual improvement both within themselves and the organisation. Her philosophy is that continual improvement and learning are integral to improvement in every aspect of an organisation’s activities.
What’s new in this edition?
In this seventh edition of Communication for Business and the Professions you will find the importance of communication skills to employability and career progression continues as the central theme across the five parts: Part 1: The communication factor; Part 2: Leadership and communication; Part 3: Researching, evaluating and presenting information; Part 4: The writing process; and Part 5: Digital communication. There are two new chapters in this edition— Chapter 10: Customer engagement and Chapter 12: Managing big data and knowledge—as well as a new Workplace insight feature at the start of each chapter, nine new case studies, and additional group work exercises in both the Apply your knowledge feature within chapters and the Activities and questions section at the end of each chapter.
Chapter 10: Customer engagement replaces the previous edition’s chapter on Customer service It discusses the stages of customer engagement, the organisational needs at each stage and the features of an organisational culture that embraces customer engagement.
Chapter 12: Managing big data and knowledge replaces the previous edition’s chapter on Knowledge management. It discusses the attributes of big data and trends impacting on big data, the big data life cycle, and the purpose, applications and ethics of big data.
Part 5: Digital communication now groups together the sixth edition’s Chapters 2, 22 and 25 (Social media, Writing for the Web and The job search, résumés and interviews) to reflect the increasing importance of advancing technology and the proliferation of digital channels of communication.
Overview of the book’s five parts
Part 1: The communication factor helps readers learn how to use an effective communication model comprising both traditional and digital channels of communication in their everyday personal and workplace relationships, experiences and task completion. In the digital age, it is more important than ever to understand the place of courtesy, common sense, emotional intelligence and intercultural communication competence in an effective communication model, because the nonverbal cues that create positive first impressions in face-to-face interactions and negotiations are missing. There is an expanded discussion of globalisation, and of strategies that can be used to facilitate inclusive work practices in an increasingly diverse workforce. A new section on digital communication tools highlights the opportunities for interaction, association and exchange of written and graphic information provided by digital technology. Attention is drawn to the central role of the two categories of emotional intelligence, managing self and managing relationships, in the process of negotiation and conflict management. A new section on conducting one-on-one difficult conversations emphasises the importance of handling such conversations with generosity, respect and integrity. A new case study allows students to identify strategies to use in response to workplace conflict. The characteristics of high-context and low-context cultural styles are outlined.
Part 2: Leadership and communication highlights the dynamics of interpersonal communication and relationships in traditional workplaces as well as flexible digital workspaces in relation to organisational communication, leadership, teamwork and group communication, effective meetings, customer engagement and public relations. A new section on interactions within an organisation includes discussion of unacceptable behaviours such as discrimination, bullying and sexual harassment, and identifies suggested control measures and complaint-handling procedures. Expanded discussion of the impact of leadership on employee engagement and motivation is complemented by updated activities and a new case study. Team and work group communication has new sections on intergenerational teams, team civility and values; and identifies risk factors leading to the emergence of negative acts and disruptive team behaviour. There is new discussion of communication problems arising from physical dispersion of members on shared digital workspaces, and a new case study. Chapter 10: Customer engagement is a new chapter that discusses the stages of customer engagement and the organisational needs at each stage; the features of an organisational culture that embraces customer engagement; the characteristics of a customer experience ecosystem and customer journey; the drivers of customer engagement and barriers; the role of communication in the customer engagement conversion and growth stages; complaint-handling procedures; the characteristics of good customer experiences and personalised service on a range of traditional and digital communication channels; interactions with and expectations of virtual customers; and privacy of information. Examples and learning activities have been updated. Chapter 11: Public relations includes a new section on crisis management, along with updated statistics and learning activities.
Part 3: Researching, evaluating and presenting information begins with the new Chapter 12: Managing big data and knowledge, which covers the attributes of big data and trends impacting on it; the big data life cycle; the purpose and applications of big data; tacit, implicit and embedded knowledge and the use of the SECI model to explain how knowledge is acquired; as well as the purpose of knowledge management within an organisation. Examples are provided of knowledge management enablers and practices, and of the importance of handling big data and knowledge ethically. Readers have opportunities to build on research, critical thinking and digital literacy skills, as well as to use digital resources such as Survey Monkey to collect, analyse, evaluate and present data and information. Discussion of decision making, and of researching and processing information, is supported by new case studies. New learning activities provide readers with the opportunity to build on their knowledge through research, analysis, critical thinking and evaluation. Oral presentations and public speaking are supported by a new case study,
and by expanded discussion of audience analysis, the attention curve of a typical audience, how to vary the texture of delivery, and techniques for managing challenging audience members. A new section addresses ethical public speaking.
Part 4: The writing process strengthens earlier discussion of positive, negative and persuasive messages, and reinforces the value of business letters regardless of the popularity of email. Examples of a number of written business communication are provided. The text further aims to help readers develop a strategy for planning and writing effective business and academic documents by highlighting the importance of good practice and ethical principles when using new technologies to collect, catalogue, analyse and present data and information. There is a new section on dashboard reports, with an example, and a new sample long analytical report. The sections on writing reflective journals and academic documents highlight the importance of reflection to learning. The text examines the function of each part of an academic document, and the principles underpinning thoughtful, coherent academic essay writing.
Part 5: Digital communication has grouped together Chapters 2, 22 and 25 from the sixth edition to reflect the increasing importance of advancing technology and the proliferation of digital channels of communication. Chapter 2 from the sixth edition is now Chapter 23: Social media, with updated statistics on Australian users of social media, a new section on customer advocacy, and expanded and revised discussion of social media’s contribution to relationship building, task achievement, and employee and customer engagement. Chapter 22 from the sixth edition is now Chapter 24: Writing for the Web and contains revised and updated discussion of good web writing, designing scannable content to meet the needs of web audiences, the functions of organisational websites, practical strategies that enable users to find and click on a site, and how to write engaging blogs. Chapter 25 remains as Chapter 25: The job search, résumés and interviews in the digital era, with significant revision and discussion of the main characteristics of digital résumés, the need for keywords to allow applicant tracking systems to choose applicants that fit the position, expanded discussion of online recruitment sites, e-portfolios, personal websites, LinkedIn résumés and tips for writing a résumé, the increasing use of mobile devices for job searching, maintaining a clean social media presence and presenting an e-portfolio. There is a new section on psychometric testing and a new case study. The focus throughout Part 5 is on good communication in the digital world.
Special learning features
Each chapter of the book is divided into easily recognised learning stages.
Chapter openers include a list of learning objectives to focus students on key concepts for each chapter and the new Workplace insight feature, which encourages students to think about workplace activities and to consider how they do, or might, respond in similar situations.
Tables and figures , including flow charts and concept maps, are designed for visual clarification of important information. They form a user-friendly reference throughout the chapter.
Key terms are printed in bold the first time they appear, with accompanying margin definitions , providing an integrated glossary feature to aid comprehension of key terms in context.
Apply your knowledge exercises provide short review questions and practical activities completed either individually or in small groups to reinforce theoretical content. They are spread throughout the chapter at strategic study points.
A chapter summary provides a concise overview of the chapter’s main points and is an excellent tool for study and revision.
Activities and questions contains graded exercises and group activities for further critical analysis and review.
The case study feature for each chapter assists students’ understanding of how to apply the concepts in the chapter to situations in the workplace.
Educator resources
Educators are provided with a suite of resources to assist with delivery of the text, as well as to support teaching and learning.
• Solutions Manual: Provides educators with detailed, accuracy-verified solutions to inchapter and end-of-chapter questions in the book.
• Test Bank: Provides a wealth of accuracy-verified testing material. Updated for the new edition, each chapter offers a wide variety of true/false, short answer and multiplechoice questions, arranged by learning objective and tagged by AACSB standards.
• Digital Image PowerPoint® Slides: All the diagrams and tables from the text are available for lecturer use.
• Multimedia Activities: Multimedia activities include critical thinking, discussion or reflective questions around selected media (videos and podcasts).
These Educator Resources can be accessed at www.pearson.com.au/9781488620782
Chapter 1 Communication foundations
WORKPLACE INSIGHT
highlights current business practice or points of view.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
WORKPLACE
KEY TERMS
are printed in bold the first time they appear, with accompanying margin definitions providing an integrated glossary feature to aid comprehension of key terms in context.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
are short-answer questions designed for additional review purposes and to ensure comprehension of the basic theory.
feelings is putting one or both hands to the face. While an adult may rub the mouth, upper lip or nose with one finger, a teenager may cover the mouth. Children, who are less experienced than adults or teenagers at sending and interpreting messages, will cover their face.
Occasionally, nonverbal behaviours such as a sneeze are unrelated to the verbal message.
A sneeze is simply random behaviour that may distract but does not change the meaning.
Unrelated nonverbal communication can distract from the verbal message, although it has little effect on the meaning of the verbal part of the message.
Givens (2018) asserts that body-language signals can be learned behaviour, innate behaviour or a mixture of both. He lists the thumbs-up and military-salute gestures as examples of learned signals and the eye-blink and the throat-clear as examples of inborn or innate signals. Laughing, crying and shoulder-shrugging he considers to be ‘mixed’, because, although they originated as innate actions, cultural rules have later shaped their timing, energy and use. Other researchers are in disagreement about the nature–nurture issue, some believing that most or all gestures are learned.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 2.2
1 a Identify the seven aspects of nonverbal communication.
b What is the purpose of each of the five main categories of body movement identified by Ekman and Friesen?
c Briefly explain the four types of space that dictate the rules of proximity in a society or culture.
d What part do artefacts play in nonverbal communication?
2 a Develop a list of up to five examples of nonverbal communication that strengthens or reduces the impact of verbal communication.
b When faced with mixed signals between
b
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
exercises provide short review questions and practical activities completed either individually or in small groups to reinforce theoretical content. They are spread throughout the chapter at strategic study points.
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES
is a concise overview of the main points in the chapter and an excellent tool for study and revision.
Summary of learning objectives
7.1 Discuss the process of leadership, and explain how leaders influence followers to achieve common goals Effective leaders communicate the common goal(s), vision, measures, roles and tasks clearly. They influence and interact with others within the organisation’s structures and systems, lead by example and facilitate a positive culture.
are able to influence others and provide inspiration and motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. Transformational leaders influence and transform followers by increasing their awareness of task importance and value, focusing their interest on team or organisational goals rather than immediate self-interest, and concentrating on the higher-order needs of achievement and self-actualisation. Authentic
The leader relies on, and taps the resources of, group members to focus the energies of the group on the achievement of common goals and accomplishments. It is therefore necessary to motivate, organise, engage and direct the group, and to cope with any unexpected contingencies. Leaders communicate a vision, make jobs meaningful, give feedback, consult, collaborate and support group cohesiveness. Leaders influence followers to achieve outcomes.
7.2 Distinguish between the features of the leadership trait, leadership style, transactional leadership, transformational leadership and authentic leadership approaches to leadership
Theories of leadership have described leaders in terms of their traits, styles, the situation, functions, contingencies of a situation, the capacity to adapt in changing circumstances, and the transactional, transformational and authentic approaches to leadership. Current theories, such as the transactional, transformational and authentic leadership theories, describe leadership in terms of motivations and ability to influence, inspire and transform groups and organisations.
Transformational leaders have the ability to evoke strong emotions in their followers. They
KEY TERMS
are listed at the end of each chapter for reference purposes.
ACTIVITIES AND QUESTIONS
contain graded activities, exercises and role-plays for further critical analysis and review. The opportunity for group work is highly suitable for student participation and application, whether in study teams or tutorials.
CASE STUDY
addresses critical thinking skills around a real-life business case related to the chapter topic.
M07_DWYE0782_07_SE_C07.indd
Activities and questions
Work
b
a
c
2
a
b
c
Work
a
b
c
overall group poster.
4 a ‘As a leadership trait, emotional intelligence appears to be an important construct.’ Discuss.
b Identify the two broad categories of emotional competence, and describe the components of each category. List the components on a flip chart.
c Develop a short group presentation to explain how emotional intelligence contributes to the authentic style of leadership.
5 a Identify and discuss the four dimensions of transformational leadership.
• Brainstorm and list strategies transformational leaders use to provide individual consideration for their followers’ needs and values.
• Describe the behaviour of leaders who demonstrate the idealised influence dimension of transformational leadership.
• Brainstorm and list strategies transformational leaders use to provide inspirational motivation.
• How can transformational leaders promote intellectual stimulation for their followers?
b Develop a profile of a transformational leader.
6 a Browse the authentic leader images on Google images at <www.google.com/imghp>.
b Choose an image that describes authentic leadership effectively. Explain the reasons for your choice.
7 a Discuss the employee-oriented style of leadership and identify its advantages.
b Brainstorm and list the characteristics of leaders who can build teams, change attitudes, and use an understanding of the self and others to collaborate and communicate effectively
c Compile a job description and a recruitment advertisement for a leader who has an employee orientation style of leadership for an organisation of your choice.
d Prepare a cover note to human resources explaining your choice of essential and desirable qualities for this leader.
phases when Kate is antagonistic and negative about the suggestions put forward in discussion?’ Larry: ‘Perhaps refer members to the standing orders, explain the importance of working in accordance with them, and ask everyone to follow procedures in future meetings.’ Hong: ‘I see. The standing orders
the minority.’ Questions 1 Consider the following statement: ‘Standing orders govern procedures for the proper conduct of a democratic and orderly meeting.’ In your opinion, what are the important items in standing orders Hong should explain to the meeting? (You might like to refer to Robert’s Rules of Order—Summary Version at 6 www.robertsrules.org/7 for a list of typical rules of order.)
2 If you were Larry, what strategies would you suggest Hong apply to encourage member participation and decision making?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
appears at the end of each chapter, with full reference details for all sources referred to in the chapter and further reading.
Bibliography
Ashkenas, R. 2013. ‘The hidden side of meetings,’ http:// blogs.hbr.org/, viewed 14 October 2018. Barker, A. 2011. How to Manage Meetings, 2nd edn, Kogan Page, London. Bartlett, M. 2017. ‘The benefits of virtual meetings and web conferencing services’, http://ezinearticles.com/, viewed 14 October 2018. Bovée, C.L. & Thill, J.V. 2017. Business Communication Today 14th edn, Global Edition, Pearson Education, Harlow, UK. Dewey, J. 1933. How We Think Heath, Boston, MA. Dollschneider, S. 1997. ‘You may be a good communicator, but are you a good facilitator?’, Communications World Vol. 14, Issue 3, February, pp. 44–6. Durham, J. 2015. ‘Business seating arrangements’, www. worketiquette.co.uk/business-seating-arrangements. html, viewed 2 January 2019. Ferrazzi, K. 2012. ‘How successful virtual teams collaborate’, HBR Blog Network http://blogs.hbr.org/, viewed 1 January 2019. Harvard Business Review. 2014. Running Meetings Harvard Business Press Books, Boston, MA. Interaction Associates. 2017. 20 Simple Ways to Improve Virtual Meetings White Paper Boston, MA. Kostner, J. 2007. ‘Eight steps to better online meetings’, www.consultpivotal.com/eight_steps.htm, viewed 1 January 2019. Magner, E. 2012. Joske’s Law and Procedure at Meetings in Australia 11th edn, Law Book Co., Melbourne. Parker, G.M.
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Chapter 1 Communication foundations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1 .1 identify the forms and types of communication, and describe the communication process
1 .2 differentiate between communication theories
1 .3 discuss factors impacting on business communication today
1 .4 discuss the principles of ethical communication.
WORKPLACE INSIGHT
Is communication about understanding?
Communication is the foundation of every single relationship we have in our business and personal lives. Effective communication improves understanding, helps to solve problems and minimises conflict. Courtesy and respect enable feedback to be given and received safely and with sensitivity to diversity of cultures, personalities and situations.
Simple techniques that enhance workplace communication are:
• respectful sharing of expectations and information via a mixture of face-to-face interactions, meetings, email, digital or paper-based written messages, online forums, social media and networking
• two-way communication to work together, receive and use feedback, uncover problems, find solutions and focus on what can be done in the future
• asking the relevant questions and listening (the key word in communication) to gather information and take actions to improve workplace performance and interactions
• preparing for meetings by reading the agenda before the meeting, arriving on time, contributing ideas and allowing others to speak without interruption.
Communication that transfers messages and information in a transparent, concise and clear manner is one of the most important skills in our business and personal lives. What is the one aspect of your communication above all others that you would like to improve? What do you need to do to improve that aspect?
Today, communication is affected by factors such as increasing globalisation, the popularity of innovative, collaborative communication technologies, the increasing diversity in the workforce, changing organisational and management structures, and the communication skills of individuals. Professionals in today’s competitive environment need to communicate with people inside and outside their organisation. Successful professionals know and understand the elements and rules of communication. They value diverse points of view and interact easily with people from different cultures, backgrounds, and life and career experiences. Their ability to communicate is reflected in the quality and range of their communication skills.
COMMUNICATION CONNECTS
Communication is any behaviour—verbal, nonverbal or graphic—that is perceived by another. Knowledge, feelings or thoughts are encoded and sent from at bold least one person and received and decoded by another. Meaning is given to this message as the receiver interprets the message. A connection is made between the people communicating.
An effective leader, manager, legal practitioner, medical professional, social worker, accountant, human resource manager or person working in any other occupation is able to communicate and work with others in a purposeful, supportive and flexible manner. Their communication is effective because it achieves the intended outcome. As well as achieving the intended outcome, competent communicators also make connections and build ongoing relationships with others, whereas ineffective communicators raise barriers. Communication competence reflects our ability to interact with, influence and persuade others in a variety of contexts.
People who are successful in their profession are not only proficient in their functional and technical areas of expertise. They are also communication-oriented, with the ability to demonstrate professionalism, empathy, awareness and concern for others. They use good listening skills and understand their own concerns and needs. These people are open, approachable and supportive of others.
The functions of communication are to inform, to persuade, to relate, to entertain and, in business, to promote goodwill with those inside and outside the organisation. Employers expect their staff to be competent in fulfilling these functions and to engage in a wide range of communication tasks, including:
• communicating professionally and ethically
• organising ideas and information into knowledge for use by self and others
• expressing and presenting ideas and information accurately and persuasively
• listening in order to understand others, and taking actions based on that understanding
• using communication technologies efficiently and effectively
• communicating with people from different backgrounds, experiences and cultures.
Organisations interact with a range of external stakeholders, including financial, media and government. Two-way communication between an organisation and its external stakeholders creates mutual understanding, acceptance and goodwill. Effective two-way communication:
• is audience-centred and relates to the needs and interests of the organisation’s stakeholders
• uses clear, concise, courteous, confident and complete messages to exchange ideas, receive and give feedback, enhance understanding and encourage the desired response
• uses persuasion (when required) to generate a specific response by offering recommendations and showing the benefits to the receiver (customers, colleagues, suppliers, employers) of adopting a plan of action or responding the way you want them to
• projects the organisation’s image and builds positive relationships and goodwill
• uses a variety of communication channels (face-to-face, written, technologically mediated) to inform stakeholders about the organisation’s objectives, policies, standards, products and services
• builds local, national and international relationships, partnerships and alliances
Objective 1.1
Identify the forms and types of communication, and describe the communication process
Communication is any behaviour—verbal, nonverbal or graphic—that is perceived by another.
Verbal communication is communication between two or more people in the form of spoken or written words.
Nonverbal communication consists of the part of the message that is not encoded in words.
Graphic communication represents ideas, relationships or connections visually with shapes, diagrams and lines.
Intrapersonal communication is communication within the individual through the processes of thinking and feeling.
Interpersonal communication is interaction between two people on a one-to-one basis or in small groups.
Public communication occurs when an organisation communicates with a number of receivers at the same time.
• gathers information to analyse future trends, advise on their likely impact and inform decision making
• applies ethical practices to provide relevant, truthful information, and to treat others with respect, courtesy and common sense in accordance with the accepted norms of business behaviour.
As you build your communication skills you will be able to complete these functions and tasks effectively and build expertise in higher-level tasks that develop management and leadership skills, such as evaluating performance, building teamwork, and coaching, mentoring, facilitating and motivating others.
Forms of communication
Communication involves exchange of representations of meaning. By decoding the representation, the person receiving the message is able to construct a mental representation that matches, at least in some respects, the mental representation of the person sending the message. Rapoport (1950, p. 42) argues: ‘Experience cannot be transmitted as experience—it must first be translated into something else. It is this something else which is transmitted. When it is received it is translated back into something that resembles experience.’ Communication is an ongoing process by which people represent their feelings, ideas, values and perceptions with symbols. These symbols are in the form of verbal communication (either spoken or written), nonverbal communication and graphic communication.
Verbal communication can be in the form of spoken words between two or more people or written words in written communication. Nonverbal communication is communication sent by any means other than words or graphics. Nonverbal components exist in oral, written and graphic communication or, independently of words, in face-to-face contact. Graphic communication represents ideas, relationships or connections visually with shapes, diagrams and lines. Graphic communication can have both verbal and nonverbal components; see, for example, some of the ‘No Smoking’ signs displayed in public places or the emojis on electronic messages and web pages. Communication in the 21st century sends messages through a number of different channels.
Types of communication
Taylor, Rosegrant and Meyer (1986) outline four different types of communication: intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, public communication and mass communication. Each type is suited to a different situation.
• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself through the processes of thinking and feeling. This style of communication creates a person’s self-concept and processes information. By taking the time to think, plan and interpret ideas and messages, individuals learn more about self, others and the situation because they have the time to absorb new ideas and to plan actions.
• Interpersonal communication involves interaction between two people on a one-toone basis or in small groups. In this style of communication, you communicate with at least one other person. Staff instructions, briefings, feedback and customer relations are examples of this style.
• Public communication originates from one source and takes place when the organisation communicates with a number of receivers. This communication can be either to receivers within the organisation—for example, in the form of the staff newsletter or intranet—or to others outside the organisation in the form of reports, meetings or YouTube video clips. Williams (1996) identifies the need for people to think critically and understand their audiences when using persuasion techniques in both internal and external communication. The three forms of communication— verbal, nonverbal and graphic—are all used by those who have responsibility for communicating effectively within and outside the organisation. Communication is the public face of a company.
• Mass communication contacts the organisation’s public—for example, public relations, annual reports, advertising and webcasts. Mass communication through traditional media such as newspaper and television broadcasting is now complemented by the newer electronic and technologically mediated communication technologies.
The ability to communicate is a learned behaviour based on skills gained from others and from experience. As experience widens, new learning takes place. The communication style of individuals and organisations develops through using and adapting new techniques. Anyone who believes they can control the communication process is unaware that communication is an intricate, interactive process. The interactions of a number of elements impact on the people communicating. People can do a great deal to influence the communication process, but they cannot control the other person’s perception , outlook, values and attitudes. Each of these affects the way communication is received.
Communication: An interactive process
The seven main elements in the communication process are sender, message, receiver, feedback, channel, context or setting, and noise or interference. The elements are in constant interaction with one another. As communication occurs, sender and receiver interact by encoding /sending and decoding /receiving messages. Encoding means putting the message into words or diagrams or nonverbal signals so that it can be transmitted. The receiver hears, reads or looks in order to decode, or interpret, the message.
Figure 1.1 is an illustration of the elements in a transmission model of communication. In the transmission model, people transmit, receive, interpret and respond to messages with feedback.
Mass communication refers to the process of transferring or transmitting a message to a large group of people.
Perception of sender
Feelings
Attitudes
Values
Gender
Expectations
Physical and emotional state
Perception of
Self-concept
Family
Culture
Skills
Feelings
Attitudes
Values
Gender
Expectations
Physical and emotional state
Perception is the process by which people select, organise and interpret data in order to give meaning to a message. Encoding is putting a message into words, pictures or actions so that it can be sent.
Decoding is interpreting a message to achieve understanding.
FIGURE 1 . 1 C ommunication: An interactive process
Source: © Judith H. Dwyer.
Sender
Communication begins with the sender , the individual who reacts to situations from a unique vantage point, interpreting ideas and filtering experiences through their own perception (see Figure 1.1). Unique to each individual, and integral to all the communication they engage in, is a background of accumulated attitudes, experiences, skills, cultural conditioning and individual differences that influence how the individual communicates. If we can expand our view (our perception of events) by being aware of our background and its impact on our
The sender transmits a message to the receiver.
7. Noise or interference
7. Noise or interference 6. Context
3. Communication channel
5. Receiver provides feedback
1. Sender has a concept
2. Encodes (produces) concept into a message
4. Receiver decodes and responds to message
The message is the idea or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver to achieve understanding. The message has verbal and nonverbal elements.
perception, then we can choose to send different messages. Consequently, we will be able to operate at a higher level of effectiveness by encoding an idea or a feeling in words or signs that are appropriate to our needs and to the needs of the receiver.
Message
The message is the idea or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver to achieve understanding. It makes a connection between the sender and the receiver and may be made up of signs, words or movement. The tone of voice, inflection, the rate of speech, facial expressions, touching and body movement may be misinterpreted by the receiver, or a poorly constructed message may lead to misunderstanding. The message the sender meant to send is not always the message received.
Receiver
The receiver decodes or interprets the sender’s message to achieve understanding.
Feedback is the receiver’s response to a sender’s message—the connecting, continuing or completing link.
The receiver decodes or interprets the message to achieve understanding. In doing this the receiver also acts as an individual from a unique vantage point, interpreting the idea according to a particular personal perception of the message. This perception is also the result of the receiver’s unique background of experiences, beliefs and concerns.
Feedback
Feedback is an essential part of successful interpersonal communication. It is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message, telling the sender how their message is being received and helping the receiver to confirm whether their perception of the message is correct. It can be intentional or unintentional. Feedback:
• provides continuity in the communication
• stimulates further communication and discussion
• indicates effective understanding or misunderstanding of the message.
Leavitt and Mueller (1951) support the view that feedback increases the accuracy of the message in the communication process. Although feedback increases the amount of time needed to send the message, both sender and receiver need feedback. The sender checks that the receiver’s understanding of the message is correct by asking the receiver to rephrase what has been said and indicating their agreement or disagreement. Feedback is important to the sender because it lets them determine how the message is being received and helps the receiver to understand the message.
The channel is the communication vehicle for the message.
A podcast is a type of digital media that is downloaded from the internet to computer or mobile media players in a series of files. The podcast is released episode by episode to allow the audience to download the files, check for updates, store the files and view them at their convenience.
Channel richness is the capacity of a communication channel to carry information in an effective manner:
low channel richness is impersonal and one-way; high channel richness is personal and two-way.
Feedback can help or hinder the message and the communication climate. In the workplace most people communicate face-to-face with their leaders, supervisors and colleagues, so the ability to provide appropriate feedback can assist the development of effective working relationships.
Channel
A communication channel is the means or technique used to signal or convey a message, such as a conversation, a letter, an email, a web page, a television program, a YouTube clip or a Tweet. Communication may pass along more than one channel. For example, an interaction in a meeting may include speaking and listening along a vocal channel, nonverbal gestures received through a visual channel and instructions via a digital channel such as a podcast. Messages are sent through channels to communicate affection, control, instructions, directions, relaxation, inclusion, escape, pleasure and a variety of other messages.
In traditional channels of communication the information is sender-based. The sender decides what to send, to whom to send it, and how and when to send it. Verbal, nonverbal and graphic cues convey the message and facilitate interaction. The various cues allow the sender to customise the message to the receiver and to receive high-quality, timely feedback from the receiver.
When the message is sent via Web 2.0, collaborative channels have high channel richness. The channels within a workplace are placed into a hierarchy based on information richness. Three
aspects of channel richness are the capacity to handle many kinds of cues simultaneously, to enable rapid feedback in both directions, and to allow development of a personal focus in the communication.
Messages within an organisation are sent and received through the formal and informal communication channels between the different levels in the organisation. An organisation may communicate via four broad lines or channels: downwards along vertical channels, upwards along vertical channels, horizontally across channels between colleagues at the same level, and diagonally across the vertical channels. The choice of channel is influenced by the communication context and purpose, the needs of the sender, the type of message and the needs of the receiver. Downward vertical channels, upward vertical channels, and horizontal and diagonal communication channels are discussed further in Chapter 6.
Context
Context is the situation or setting within which communication takes place, or the circumstances that surround a particular piece of communication. DeVito (1989) identifies three dimensions in the context: physical, social–psychological and temporal. The physical environment contains the tangible or concrete items in the environment. The roles, norms and mores of the society make up the social–psychological dimension. The temporal dimension describes the time in history as well as the position of the communication in the sequence of events. The same message can have a completely different meaning depending on the physical, social–psychological and temporal dimensions in different situations. For example, the context of an international peace-keeping conference will have different physical, social–psychological and temporal dimensions from the context of a formal meeting in a company office. The communication process will use different language, relationships and authority to achieve the different communication purpose in each context.
Noise or interference
Communication barriers result in a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the message. These barriers can be caused by the sender, the receiver, lack of feedback, a poor choice of channel, the wrong context, or any other element in the communication model. Even when barriers appear, something is communicated, but the noise or interference distorts the intended message.
Some of the factors that cause communication barriers are inappropriate choice of words, inappropriate message or unsuitable channel. Receiver inattention or distractions, nonverbal communication that does not support the words, and a different cultural background and language can cause perceptual differences. Inadequate feedback, inappropriate timing, and poor layout or presentation may interfere with the message. Deceptive tactics such as exaggerating benefits, downplaying risks or omitting relevant information, and lack of courtesy or knowledge of appropriate etiquette by either the sender or the receiver, may raise barriers to communication.
The message received is not necessarily the same as the message sent. Something other than the intended message is received because noise or interference interrupts the intended message. Send a message by electronic mail or SMS to a person who is afraid of technology and unable to access the computer screen, and communication barriers will appear through poor choice of channel. Speak face-to-face or write a business letter to this person and the message is easily understood and accepted. Noise or interference that interrupts the message or communication flow between sender and receiver can lead to misunderstanding, or to confused or ambiguous communication.
Good communicators are able to reduce the chance of communication barriers and the associated problems by communicating with empathy : a feeling and awareness of the other person and their point of view. A good communicator is able to recognise emotions in others and respond appropriately. Dilenschneider (1996) describes empathy as the foundation for the quality of a relationship. In a satisfying relationship, both parties have empathy for the other’s point of view and are willing to provide appropriate and sufficient feedback to achieve understanding.
Context is the situation or setting within which communication takes place. It contains three dimensions: physical, social–psychological and temporal.
Communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its meaning. Noise is an interruption to the message or communication flow that can lead to misunderstanding.
Empathy is the ability to sense others’ feelings and perspectives, and to take an active interest in their concerns.
Objective 1.2
Differentiate between communication theories
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.1
1 a ‘Communication is an interactive process.’ Explain briefly.
b How is a communication orientation likely to support a graduate in their career?
2 a Define and give an example of verbal, nonverbal and graphic communication.
b Identify four different types of communication and give an example of each.
3 a ‘Communication begins with the sender.’ What are the remaining six variables at work in the communication process?
b Define the term ‘context’ and give examples of ways in which the context can affect the message.
c Write a short note explaining what is wrong with this statement: ‘The sender of the message has full control over how it is received and understood.’
C OMMUNICATION MODELS AND THEORIES
Communication is a dynamic, interactive process. As people respond, interpret and modify messages, not only do they use their intellect to place meaning and structure on the variety of messages received but they also respond emotionally and use their perceptual skills in the interaction. They use their intellectual, emotional and psychomotor skills.
Models and diagrammatic representations of how communication works illustrate different views of the process by which people transfer meaningful information. These representations cannot be regarded as a complete guide: they take the elements that are seen as most significant in the process and place them in an ordered pattern. Their purpose is to explain and classify essential features and regularities in the process.
Lasswell model
Lasswell’s (1948) model describes communication as a one-way transmission of messages. The model in Figure 1.2 shows the ‘who’ as the ‘source’, the ‘what’ as the message, the ‘how’ as the channel, the ‘whom’ as the destination and the ‘effect’ as the outcome.
Source: Based on H.D. Lasswell, ‘The structure and function of communication in society’, in L. Bryson (ed.), The Communication of Ideas Harper & Row/Institute for Religious and Social Studies, New York, 1948, p. 117.
Shannon and Weaver model
Shannon and Weaver (1949) developed a mathematical communication model based on the work done by Shannon for the Bell Telephone Company. Shannon and Weaver viewed messages as flowing from the sender to the receiver and recognised the impact of nois e or barriers on communication. Their model is identified as a transmission model of communication—communication is represented as a one-way flow. Shannon and Weaver’s model has been adapted over the years to form the process model of communication, which shows communication as a two-way process. Refer to Figure 1.1 to view a model of the two-way process of communication.
FIGURE 1 . 2
Lassw ell’s model of communication
(speaker)
(message)
(or medium) Whom (audience or listener) Ef fect
Berlo’s S-M-C-R model
A human dimension was added to the transmission model of communication in the 1950s and 1960s. Berlo’s (1960) S-M-C-R model shown in Figure 1.3 is a process model of communication. The four elements in the model are:
SOURCE
COMM. SKILLS
FIGURE 1 . 3
Berlo’s model of the process of communication
Source: Adapted from Berlo’s model of the process of communication, D. Berlo, The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960. S
S a communication source or generator-of-messages
M the message as the central element (stresses the transmission of ideas)
C the channels through which the sender encodes (words or other symbols) and the receiver decodes (words or other symbols) the message
R the receivers as the targets of communication from the source.
The source, according to Berlo, is a person or group of people with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. The purpose of the source has to be expressed in the form of a message, which Berlo saw as being translated into a code—a language—a systematic set of symbols structured to achieve meaning. The encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and expressing the source’s purpose in the form of a message.
The channel, or medium, carries the message, which is then decoded, retranslated and put into a form that the receiver can use. In Berlo’s model the channel is related to the five senses— sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste—and both the source and the receiver are treated in essentially the same way. The model acknowledges the elements and structure of the message (content, treatment and code) without discussing the impact of shared values, beliefs and attitudes, or barriers due to misunderstanding on communication. The communication skills of both the source and the receiver, as well as their attitudes, knowledge and social system, impact on communication.
Dance’s helical spiral
Dance’s helical spiral (1967, p. 296) depicts communication as a dynamic process that evolves in an individual from birth to the current point in time. ‘At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that communication while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past behaviour, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it emerges. Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower-level distortions.
