Introduction
Landuseregulationsarecommonurbanpoliciesinmostcitiesalloverthe world.Commonregulationsinclude(1)zoningbywhichlanduseisrestricted zonebyzone;(2)lotsize(LS)regulation,whichrestrictsthesizeofeachhousinglot;(3)urbangrowthboundary(UGB)control,whichseparatesurban developmentareasfromurbanizationcontrolareas;and(4)floorarearatio (FAR)regulation,a whichrestrictsbuildingsizes.Theadoptionandimplementationoftheseregulationsvaryaccordingtothecountryorthecity.In somecases,multipleregulationsmaybeappliedtoasinglebuilding;likewise, eachregulationcouldbeimplementedinslightlydifferentways.b
Whydocitiesimposelanduseregulations?Inpractice,citiesimposeland useregulationsforvariousreasonssuchastomitigatetrafficcongestionand noise,improveurbanaesthetics,controlairpollution,recoverpublicservice cost,orreducefrictionsbetweenagents(e.g.,landownersandresidents)and conflictsinlanduse.c Similartootherpublicpolicies,thetargetsofpractical landuseregulationsarenotnecessarilyeconomicallyreasonable.Nevertheless,sufficientaccountabilityisrequiredforregulationsbecausetheregulationsrestrictresidentsandlandownersfromfreelyusingtheirpropertyas theywish,andinmostcases,regulationsresultincostsforthem.Hence,land useregulationsshouldbejustifiable.
Moreover,buildingsareprobablyoneofthemostdurablegoodsever produced.Accordingly,ifaregulationatacertaintimeleadstoinefficient urbanlanduse,itremainsinefficientformanyyears.Aninefficientresultof landuseregulationcanbeseeninMoscow.Asshownin Fig.1.1 borrowed from BertaudandRenaud(1997),theMoscowbureaucraticdensitycontrol ledtoaperverse,invertedpopulationdensitypatterninwhichsuburban areashavemoreresidentsthanthecentralareas,incontrasttoPariswhere thereverseistrue.ThedensitypatterninMoscowgeneratesheavytraffic burdens.AnotherexampleisseeninsuburbsinTokyo. Fig.1.2 shows
a FARistheratioofthetotalfloorareaofabuildingtothesizeoftheplotonwhichthebuildingisbuilt.
b Forexample,anurbangrowthboundarycanbeimplementedbyusingagreenbelt.Inmanycountries, forregulatingabuilding,aLSrestrictionissetalongwitharestrictionontheFARofthebuilding.
c Somelanduseregulationsmightbeusedforlessbenignpurposessuchastoservelandowners’benefits (see BruecknerandLai,1996). TrafficCongestionandLandUseRegulations
Fig.1.1 ComparisonofdensitygradientsofMoscowandParis. (Source:Bertaud,A., Renaud,B.,1997.Socialistcitieswithoutlandmarkets.J.UrbanEcon.41(1),137–151.)
Fig.1.2 ComparisonofdensitygradientsamongtownsinTokyo. (Source:Sagamihara City,2011.OutlookofSagamiharaandMachidaUsingMaps,p.52.)
changeinthepopulationdensityinthreesuburbtownsaccordingtothedistancefromtheneareststationin2005(SagamiharaCity,2011).Thesethree townsarenewtowns,informallycalled“bedtowns,”whichwerebuiltas residentialplacesforemployeesworkinginthecenterofTokyo.Comparing thedensitypatternsamongthethreetowns,whilethepopulationdensity decreaseswithdistanceinHachioujiandHashimoto,thedensityisalmost constantinMachida.TheconstantdensityofMachidageneratesgreater congestionofcommutingtripsthanintheothertwotowns.Thisdifference inpopulationdensitypatternsisprobablycausedbypastlanduseplanning.
Asthesedifferentdensitypatternsshow,itisimportanttosetappropriate landuseregulationsorpoliciestoachieveefficientpopulationdensitypatterns.However,asthisbookwillshow,theurbanmechanismbehindland useregulationsisnotstraightforward.Accordingly,carefulconsiderationin cityplanningisrequiredatanytime.
Ineconomics,policiescanbeevaluatedandaccountedforfromtwo viewpoints:efficiencyandincomedistribution.Inthisbook,weexplore landuseregulationsfromthesetwoperspectives.However,wefocusmore onefficientlanduseregulationsbecausetheeffectoflanduseregulationson incomedistributionissoindirectandcomplexthatpolicymakersdonot adoptlanduseregulationsfromtheviewpointofincomedistributionin mostcases.Nevertheless,becauselanduseregulationsdonotnormally involveincomeredistribution,itisimportanttoknowtheeffectsofland useregulationontheincomedistributionbetweenagents.Thisbook exploresthedifferenteffectsonlandownersandresidents.
Urbanactivitiesinthemarketmechanismsloseefficiencyinvarious manners.Landuseregulationscandealwithseveraltypesofmarketfailures suchasagglomerationeconomiesinbusinessareas,congestionexternality, pollution(e.g.,noiseandairpollution),blockedsunlightoraircirculation betweenbuildings,aestheticdegradationoflandscape,andnonoptimal investmentcostsofpublicfacilitiessuchasroadsandwaterandsewagesystems.Thesemarketfailuresincurhugesocialcosts.
Oneimportantmarketfailureistrafficcongestionexternalities.Traffic congestionintheUnitedStatesin2007causedanadditional4.2billion hoursoftravelandanextra2.8billiongallonsoffuelconsumption,costing alossof $87.2billionintraveltimeandfuelalone(SchrankandLomax, 2009).InJapan,about8billionhoursperyeararelostduetotrafficcongestion,andthisamountcorrespondstoabout40%ofthetraveltime(Ministry ofLand,Infrastructure,TransportationandTourism,2015).Trafficcongestionexternalityspatiallyextendsfromthecenterofacitytoitsboundary,
anditsmagnitudedependsonthelocation.So,landuseanddensitiesatlocationsinacitywithtrafficcongestionareobviouslyinefficient.
Anotherimportantmarketfailureisagglomerationeconomies,which arisefromhighemploymentdensitybecauseofeasyaccesstointermediate goodsandlabor,facilitatingjobmatching,andknowledgespillovers,among others(FujitaandThisse,2013; RosenthalandStrange,2004; Puga,2010). Theemploymentelasticityofcityproductivity,whichisatypicalmeasureof agglomerationeconomies,isestimatedtobe0.05intheEUregion (Ciccone,2002)andJapan(Nakamura,1985)and0.06intheUnitedStates (CicconeandHall,1996).d Inotherwords,doublingtheemploymentdensitywouldincreasethecityoutputby5%intheEUregionandJapanand6% intheUnitedStates.
Agglomerationeconomiesgeneratespatialconcentrationofworkers, althoughtheconcentrationlevelisinsufficient.Thegeographicalconcentrationofworkerssimultaneouslyproducescommutingtripsfromresidentialareastothebusinessareas.Asagglomerationeconomiesincrease,the numberofconcentratedworkersincreases,andsimultaneouslythetotal lengthoftripsinacityincreases.Wehavetodealwithsuchspatialland usepatternstoincreasethewelfareofcityresidents.
TheseexternalitiescanbecompletelyinternalizedbyspatiallydifferentiatedPigouviantax(orsubsidies),whicharedifferencesbetweenthesocial marginalcost(benefit)andtheprivatemarginalcost(benefit).However,for politicalreasonsinparticular,itishardtoimplementsuchspace-dependent Pigouviantaxesandsubsidies.
Indeed,Pigouviantaxes,orevendilutedversionsofPigouviantaxes, haveneverbeenthecommonmeasurestoaddressurbanspatialexternalities suchascongestionandagglomerationeconomies.Forexample,although mostcitiesintheworldsufferfromseveretrafficcongestion,whenafew advancedcities(e.g.,London,Milan,Oslo,Singapore,andStockholm) introducedcongestionpricing,ithadbeenmorethan50yearssinceJohn
d Elasticityofproductivitycanalsobemeasuredintermsofindustrysize(employment)andcitysize(population).Forexample,theemploymentelasticityofproductivityinJapanesecitiesisestimatedat0.05by Nakamura(1985),thatinBraziliancitiesat0.11by Henderson(1986),andthatintheUSmetropolitan statisticalareasat0.19by Henderson(1986).ThepopulationelasticityofproductivityinJapanesecities isestimatedat0.03by Nakamura(1985) and0.04by Tabuchi(1986) andthatinGreekregionsat0.05 by Louri(1988).Recently,suchquantitativeanalyseshavebeenconductedatmicrolevels(individual firmsandplants)owingtotheincreaseindataavailability.Thisbodyofresearchincludes Henderson (2003), RosenthalandStrange(2003), Moretti(2004),and Jofre-Monsenyetal.(2014) Henderson (2003),usingpaneldata,estimatesplantlevelproductionfunctionsthatallowforscaleexternalitiesfrom otherlocalplantsinthesameindustryandfromthediversityoflocaleconomicactivitiesoutsidethe industry.
KainandWilliamVickreyproposedpracticalversionsofcongestionpricing inthe1950sfollowing Pigou’s(1920) initialproposal(see Harsmanand Quigley,2011).Furthermore,currentpracticalapplicationsofcongestion pricingareintheformofcordonorareapricingandarefarfromthe first-bestcongestionpricing.Foragglomerationeconomies,laborsubsidies havebeenproposedbymanystudies(e.g., Kanemoto,1990; Fujitaand Thisse,2013; LucasandRossi–Hansberg,2002).Nevertheless,laborsubsidieshaveneverbeenintroducedinanycitiesandprobablyneverbeen discussedeither.
Incontrasttosuchfirst-bestpolicies,landuseregulationshavebeen imposedforalongtimeinmanycitiesaroundtheworld.e Thiscommon useoflanduseregulationsispartlybecausegovernmentstendtoprefer quantityregulationstopriceregulations.Forexample,intheUnitedStates, 92%ofthejurisdictionsinthe50largestmetropolitanareashavezoning ordinancesofonekindoranotherinplace,andonly5%ofthemetropolitan populationlivesinjurisdictionswithoutzoning(Pendalletal.,2006).In Japan,mostcitieshavetheirownlocalcityplanningcouncilstomakecity plans.However,itisnotaneasytaskforthegovernmentstorationallydesign optimallanduseregulationsbecauseoftheneedtoconsiderchangeinprice distortionscausedbytheregulationsandchangeinspatialexternalities.f Indeedthemechanismsinvolvingaspatialequilibriumarecomplex.
Againstthisbackground,itisveryimportanttofindoptimallanduseregulations,byclarifyinghowthedistortionsandexternalitieschangeaccording tolanduseregulationsandbyclarifyingthemechanisms,whichdependon theurbansituation(e.g.,whetherornotpopulationchangesinresponseto landuseregulation)ortheexternalitycharacteristics.g Forthispurpose,we needatheoreticalmodelinwhichtheoutcomesofalltheagents’behaviors areinequilibriumandtheequilibriumdependsonlanduseregulations.
Inthischapter,wereviewtheoreticalstudiesonlanduseregulations. Thepurposeofthisreviewistocapturetheoverallflowofdevelopment ofmodelsforanalyzinglanduseregulationsandnottoshowacomprehensivereviewofthestudies.Toaddressthespatialmechanismsoflanduse
e Theprevalenceoflanduseregulationsallovertheworldcouldbeattributedtothesocialpreferencefor policiesthatinvolvenodirectmoneypayment,makingiteasyforpolicymakerstoimplementsuch policies.
f Sometimes,somemembersinthelocalcityplanningcouncilsinJapanarguethattheyfollowmarket equilibriumtosetregulations.However,suchcommentisillogicalbecauseifthemarketequilibriumis followed,thereisnoneedtosettheregulations.
g Notethatlanduseregulationscanbereplacedbyequivalentpropertytaxpolicies(see PinesandKono, 2012).
regulations,webasicallyreviewonlygeneralequilibriummodelsandignore empiricalresearchonlanduseregulations.h Inaddition,wedonotreview growthcontrolpapersthatconsideronlythepopulationdistributionacross citiesandignoreheterogeneousspaceswithtransportationandamenities withinacity.Basically,wefocusontheingredients,whichplayanimportant roleindetermininglanduseregulationsinacity.
Thefollowingdiscussionclassifiesthetheoreticalstudiesintofivecategories.Thefirstfourcategoriesofthestudiesexploreefficiencyoflanduse regulationsratherthanincomedistribution.Thefirstcategoryincludesstudiesuptotheyear2000.ManystudiesinthisperioduseAlonso-typemodels andregardthecentralbusinessdistrict(CBD)asapointinthecenterofthe city(apointCBD).Thesecondcategoryofstudies,publishedafter2000, alsofeaturesAlonso-typemodelsbutwithsomemodification(e.g.,acity withhigh-riseresidentialbuildingsbutapointCBD).Thethirdcategory extendstheAlonsomodelfromapointCBDbyaddingnonzerobusiness areasorconsideringduocentriccity.Thefourthcategoryleapsfromthe Alonsomodeltodemonstratedynamicsandasystemofcitiesandispublishedafter2000.Thelastcategoryexploresmainlyincomedistributionof landuseregulations,ratherthanefficiency.Thestudiesineachcategory aresummarizedinthetablesonthefollowingpages.
Theoreticalstudiesontheefficiencyoflanduseregulationsfirstappearin the1970s,followingthe Muth(1961) model,the MillsandDeFerranti (1971) model,andthe Solow(1973) model,whichincorporateroadcongestionintothe Alonso(1964) model. Table1.1 summarizessuchstudies onlanduseregulationsfromthe1970supto2000.
Studiesinthisperiod,exceptfor ArnottandMacKinnon(1978) that numericallycalculatethewelfarecostofbuildingsizeregulation,take accountofcitiescomposedofonlydetachedhousesandroads.Moststudies useanAlonso-typemodel,thatis,astaticmonocentriccity.Forexample, Kanemoto(1977), Arnott(1979), PinesandSadka(1985),and Wheaton (1998) useAlonso-typemodelstoexploredeviationofshadowpricesfrom marketpricesofhousingatdifferentlocationsunderunpricedcongestion.
Agraphicalrepresentationofthistypeofcitiesisshownin Fig.1.3,where eachcylinderonthecitycircleindicatesahouse,andthebaseofthecylinder representsthelotsize.Asaresultofrentcompetitionamongresidents,the
h Landuseinterventionsandtheireffectsonthewelfarelevelofurbanresidentshavebeendiscussedin manypreviousstudies(see Brueckner,2009,forasurveyoftheoreticalanalyses,or Evans,1999; Brueckner,2009,forasurveyofempiricalinvestigations).Inaddition,hugeempiricalresearchisbeing produced(e.g., Brueckneretal.,2017; Albouyetal.,2017).
Table1.1 Studiesonefficiencyoflanduseregulations(1970–2000).
Study Landuse regulation Targeted externalitiesModelcharacteristics
Stull(1974) ZoningNeighborhood externalities Nonzerobusinessarea, detachedhousing
Helpmanand Pines(1977) ZoningNeighborhood externalities Nonzerobusinessarea, detachedhousing, multiplecities
Kanemoto(1977) UGBcontrolRoadcongestionRoadspace,detached housing
Arnottand MacKinnon (1978) FAR regulation Nospecified externalities Condominiums
Arnott(1979) UGBcontrolRoadcongestionRoadspace,detached housing
PinesandSadka (1985) LSregulation andUGB control RoadcongestionDetachedhousing
Sullivan(1983) ZoningAgglomeration economies,road congestion Nonzerobusinessarea
Brueckner(1990) UGBcontrolPopulation congestion Dynamicmodelling,an opencity
Engleetal.(1992) UGBcontrolRoadcongestion andpollution Detachedhousing,twocitymodel
Sakashita(1995) UGBcontrolRoadcongestionTwo-citymodel Sasaki(1998) UGBcontrolCongestion,public goods,production Differentlandownership systems
Wheaton(1998) LSregulationRoadcongestionDetachedhousing Dingetal.(1999) UGBcontrolCongestiblepublic good Dynamicmodelling,an opencity
Abbreviations: UGB,urbangrowthboundary; FAR,floorarearatio; LS,lotsize.
Fig.1.3 Alonso-typemodelincorporatingcongestedroads.
lotsizeislargerinthesuburbsthaninthecentralarea.ThisAlonso-type modelhasonlydetachedhousesandnohigh-risebuildingssothatthe inverseofthelotsizeexpressespopulationdensity.AnotherimportantfeatureisapointCBD.
Amongotherstudiesusingsimilarmodels, Stull(1974) and Helpmanand Pines(1977) explorezoning,takingaccountofnonzerobusinessareasin additiontotheresidentialareas. Sullivan(1983) considersexternaleconomiesofscaleinproductioninnonzerobusinessareasundertrafficcongestion,usingnumericalsimulations. HelpmanandPines(1977), Engleetal. (1992),and Sakashita(1995) extendtheAlonso-typemodelstoincludemultiplecities.Incontrasttothepreviouslymentionedstaticmodelsinthis period, Brueckner(1990) and Dingetal.(1999) derivetheefficientdynamic pathoftheUGB.
Asanoptimalregulation, Kanemoto(1977) showsthattheUGBshould besmallerthanthemarketequilibriumurbanboundary. PinesandSadka (1985)i and Wheaton(1998) showthattheexcessburdenofunpricedtraffic congestioncanbecompletelyeliminatedbyappropriateLSregulations. Accordingly,underoptimalLSregulation,theUGBcanbedetermined bythemarketintheirmodel.Thisishardlysurprisingbecauseimplementing LSregulationsisequivalenttodeterminingthepopulation’sdistributionina citymodelcomposedofonlydetachedhouses.Comparing Kanemoto (1977) and PinesandSadka(1985),wefindthatsimultaneousconsideration ofmultiplelanduseregulations(LSregulationandUGB)givesadifferent optimalsolution(uselessUGBinPinesandSadka)whenaddressingasingle regulation(usefulUGBinKanemoto).Accordingly,multiplelanduseregulationsshouldbeexploredsimultaneously.Inthisperiod,mostpapers explorezoning,LSregulations,orUGBcontrol,ignoringfloorareasizeregulationsbecausetheytreatonlydetachedhouses.
Since2000,variationsofthemodelexploringlanduseregulationshave expanded.Wehaveclassifiedthisvarietyintothreetypes.Eachtypeissummarizedin Tables1.2–1.4.Asshownin Table1.2,mostpaperstakeaccount ofhigh-risebuildingsincludingcondominiumsinacitywithpointCBD andexploreFARregulations.Thispointisdifferentfromthestudiesbefore 2000.Agraphicalrepresentationofthistypeofcitiesisshownin Fig.1.4, wherehigh-risebuildingsareaddedto Fig.1.2.UnliketheAlonso-type
i PinesandSadka(1985) usehousingtaxtocontrollotsize.However,thisisequivalenttoLSregulationin termsofsocialwelfare.Landuseregulationscanbereplacedbyequivalentpropertytaxpolicies(see PinesandKono,2012).
Table1.2 CitywithapointCBD(2000onward).
StudyLanduseregulation Targeted externalities Model characteristics
Bertaudand Brueckner (2005)
Brueckner (2007)
PinesandKono (2012)
Konoetal. (2012)
MaximumFARregulationNoexternalitiesNumerical simulation
MaximumFARregulation, UGBcontrol RoadcongestionNumerical simulation
Maximumandminimum FARregulations,UGB control Roadcongestion
Maximumandminimum FARregulations,UGB control Roadcongestion
KonoandJoshi (2012) FARregulation,UGB control RoadcongestionClosedand opencities
Borck(2016)
MaximumFARregulationGHGemissions Tikoudisetal. (2018) FARregulation,UGB control Roadcongestion
Konoand Kawaguchi (2017) FARregulation,UGB control Roadcongestion
Abbreviations: UGB,urbangrowthboundary; FAR,floorarearatio; LS,lotsize; GHG,greenhousegas.
Table1.3 ExtensionsoftheAlonsomodelfromapointCBD(2000onward).
Study Landuse regulationTargetedexternalitiesModelcharacteristics
Rossi-Hansberg (2004)
AnasandRhee (2006)
ZoningAgglomeration economies,no roadcongestion Nonzerobusinessarea
UGBRoadcongestionMixedlanduse,nonzero businessarea Rheeetal. (2014)
Buyukerenand Hiramatsu (2016)
Zhangand Kockelman (2016)
KonoandJoshi (2018)
ZoningAgglomeration economies,road congestion Mixedlanduse,nonzero businessarea
UGBRoadcongestionAnuncongestedpublic transitmodeandacar mode
Zoning, UGB Agglomeration economies,road congestion Nonzerobusinessarea
Zoning, FAR, UGB Agglomeration economies,road congestion Nonzerobusinessarea
Abbreviations: UGB,urbangrowthboundary; FAR,floorarearatio; LS,lotsize.
Table1.4 LeapsfromtheAlonsomodel(2000onward).
Study Landuse regulationTargetedexternalitiesModelcharacteristics
Linetal.(2004) FAR regulation Neighborhood externalities,road congestion Dynamicmodelling
AnasandRhee (2007) UGB control RoadcongestionExistenceofasuburban businessdistrict
Anasand Pines(2008) UGB control RoadcongestionTwo-citymodel
Joshiand Kono(2009) FAR regulation PopulationcongestionTwo-zonecitywith growingpopulation Konoetal. (2010) FAR regulation PopulationcongestionTwo-zonecity
Jou(2012) UGB control PopulationcongestionStochasticrents
AnasandPines (2012) UGB control RoadcongestionMultiple-citymodel
Abbreviations: UGB,urbangrowthboundary; FAR,floorarearatio.
models,theinverseofthelotsizedoesnotrepresentpopulationdensityanymorebecausehigh-risebuildingsincludemanyhouseholds.Still,thistypeof modelassumesapointCBD.
Asthesepost-2000studieshaveclarified,weshouldtreatFARregulation andLSregulationseparatelytoexploreoptimalregulationsbecauseFAR regulationnecessarilygeneratesdeadweightlosscausedbytheregulation itself(see Chapter2 fordetails),whereasLSregulationhasnodeadweight losses(see PinesandSadka,1985; Wheaton,1998).UnderFARregulation, householdscanchoosetheiroptimalfloorsizewithintheregulatedbuildings.Inotherwords,FARregulationcontrolspopulationdensityindirectly, whereasLSregulationdoesthisdirectly.
Detached houses
High-rise building
CBD Road
Fig.1.4 Alonso-typemodelwithhigh-risebuildingsandroads.
Consideringhigh-risebuildings, BertaudandBrueckner(2005), Brueckner(2007),and BruecknerandSridhar(2012) quantitativelycalculateinageneralequilibriumframeworkhowmuchthewelfarecostofmaximumbuildingsize(orFAR)regulationincreaseswithanincreaseinthe commutingcosts. Konoetal.(2012) and PinesandKono(2012),usinga closedcitymodel,showthat minimum FARregulationshouldbesimultaneouslyimposedalongwithmaximumFARregulationtoachieveoptimal regulation.Next, KonoandJoshi(2012) showhowoptimallanduseregulationsdifferbetweenclosedandopencities. Tikoudisetal.(2018) and KonoandKawaguchi(2017) considerroadtollsandFARregulationssimultaneously.Indeed,real-worldcitiesimplementingcongestionpricing imposelanduseregulationssimultaneously.
Landuseregulationscanalsocontributetowardmakingcitiesenvironmentfriendlybychangingpopulationdistribution.Inarelatedstudy, Borck (2016) estimateshowgreenhousegasemissionsasCO2-equivalentchange withFARregulation.
Thestudieslistedin Table1.2 havetakenaccountofonlyroadcongestionorenvironmentaldamageintheresidentialareas,assumingapoint CBD.Incontrasttosuchnegativeexternalities,concentrationofworkers inbusinessareasincitiesenhancescommunicationandthusfacilitates exchangeofinnovativeideas(see Rauch,1993; CicconeandHall,1996; DurantonandPuga,2001; Moretti,2004).Suchpositiveagglomeration economiesinbusinessareascanbeexploredbytakingaccountofnonzero businessareaasshownbypost-2000paperslistedin Table1.3
Inthe1970s, Stull(1974) and HelpmanandPines(1977) already considerednonzerobusinessareastoexploreoptimalzoningtotackleexternalitiesbetweenmanufacturingandresidentiallanduse.However,agglomerationeconomiesarisingfromemploymentdensityarenotconsidered. Rossi-Hansberg(2004) takesaccountoftheexistenceofagglomeration spilloversoffirmstoexplorezoning. Rheeetal.(2014), Zhangand Kockelman(2016),and KonoandJoshi(2018) considertheexistenceof agglomerationeconomiesandtrafficcongestiontoexplorelanduseregulations. Rheeetal.(2014) focusonmixedlandusewithresidencesand businesses.Onelandusepatternofthesemodelsisshownin Fig.1.5.An essentialfeatureofthistypeofcitiesisnouseofapointCBD.So,howland isallocatedfordifferentlandusepurposesmatters.
Allpreviousstudiessofarhaveshownthatinamonocentriccity,residentiallocationsshouldbecentralizedbyoptimallanduseregulationswhen thereisonlycarcommuting.Incontrast, BuyukerenandHiramatsu(2016),
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R.
Rain-maker, the Bahurutsi, 442; murdered among the Bauangketsi nation, 447.
Rains, the, begin as early as September and October, 125.
Rath, Mr., 61, 109, 121; his description of the track of a nondescript animal, 133.
Rehoboth, a Rhenish missionary station, 139, 281; description of, 286; the rocks in its neighborhood strongly impregnated with copper, 349.
Religion, 198.
Reptiles, numerous in Damara-land and Namaqua-land, 293; superstitions respecting, 294; antidotes used in Southern Africa for the bites of, 295.
Rhinoceros, the, curious anecdote preserved in the archives of Cape-Town relating to a death of one, 26; Mr. Bam’s story of his wonderful escape from one, 49, 50; tracks of, 49; one shot, 72; fall frequently on their knees when killed, 73; curious anecdote, ib.; flesh not unpalatable, ib.; hide useful, ib.; discovery of a, 84; adventure in pursuit of one, 85; its escape, 86, 87; combat between elephant and, 164; several shot at Ghanzé, 369; where found, 370; four distinct species known to exist in South Africa, 371; distinctions between the black and the white rhinoceros, 373; appearance of, 374;
food, 375; breeding, 376; Colonel Williams’s story respecting one, 377, 378; conflicts with elephants, 378; the flesh and horns, 380; adventure with a black rhinoceros at Kobis, 399; with a white one, 400; the Author shoots a white one, 407; desperate adventure with a black one, 407, 408; method of chasing, 381; Mr. Oswell’s stories respecting the chase of, 382.
Richterfeldt, a Rhenish missionary station, reached, 61; water abundant, ib.; soil fertile, ib.; when founded, 62; return to, 95; bid a final farewell to, 123.
Rifle, obtained in barter, 150; excellent weapon, ib.
Rights of succession, 198, 222, 225.
Ringel-hals, the, or ring-throat, a species of snake, 294.
Roode Natie, the (or Red Nation), a powerful tribe of Namaquas, 279; their character, 280; Cornelius, their chief, ib.; their country, 281; few Damara slaves among them, ib.
S.
Salt-lick, a, 366.
Sand Fountain, excursion to, 34; badness of its water, 35;
its disagreeable guests, 36; its advantages, 37; general aspect of the country in the neighborhood of, 38.
Sand-wells, 365.
Scarlet flower, the, emotions on first seeing, 48; observe it again, 49.
Scenery, striking, 170.
Schaap-steker, the, a species of snake, 294.
Scheppmansdorf, Mr. Galton arrives at, 40; all the baggage safely deposited at, 41; description of, ib.; first impressions of, 76; kind friends at, 77; departure from, 83.
Scheppman’s Mountain, origin of its name, 103.
Schmelen, Mr., a highly-gifted and enterprising missionary, 127.
Schmelen’s Hope, its situation, 126; origin of its name, 127; agreeable residence; abundance of game to be obtained there, 135; departure from, 146; return to, 214.
Schöneberg, Mr., 101; his mishap, 102; his wailing, 103.
Scorpions, a swarm of, 105; their fondness of warmth, ib.; their bite poisonous, but rarely fatal, ib.
Season, the rainy, in Ovambo-land, 201; in Damara-land, 217.
Sebetoane, an African chief, false report respecting, 414.
Serpent, tracks of an immense (the Ondara), 290; story of a, 291.
Serpent-stones, 297.
Servants, described, 78-83; African travelers can not be too particular in the selection of, 79; become refractory, 125; adventure of one of them with an ox, 270; Damara servants abscond, 355.
Shambok, the, 73, 74.
Shrike, a species of, 78; superstitious belief respecting, ib.
Smith, Dr. Andrew, 213, 491.
Snake, a curious species of, 292; several species occasionally met with in Damara-land and Namaqua-land, 294; antidotes for the bites of, 295; numerous in and about Lake Ngami, 435, 436.
Snake-stone, the, 298.
Snuff, manner in which the Bechuanas manufacture, 458.
Spring, hot, at Barmen, 108; at Eikhams, 230; at Rehoboth, 286.
“Spring,” Author’s ride-ox, 71.
Spuig-slang, the, or spitting-snake, 294.
St. Helena, John, officiates as head wagoner, 80; his extraordinary disposition, ib.; discourses on ghosts, 331.
Steinbok, the, a young one taken and reared, 130; its tragic end, 131.
Stewardson, Mr., 45.
Stink-hout, a species of oak, 170.
Sugar-cane, supposed to exist in many parts of Southern Africa, 188.
Sun-stroke, Author receives one, 58; usual results of a, ib.; the Author in danger of a second, 88.
Sunrise, the, in the tropics, 51; often followed by intense heat, and sufferings thereon, ib.; a mule left behind, ib.
Superstition, a, with regard to oxen, 152.
Swakop, the, first appearance of, 49; its cheerful aspect, ib.; the Author’s party attacked by two lions on the bank of, 93; the Damaras flock with their cattle to, 241.
T.
Table Mountain, 25; ascent by the Author of, ib.
Tans Mountain, 348.
Tent, the Author’s, takes fire, 299.
Teoge, the River, feeds Lake Ngami, 427; scenery along the banks of, 460; crocodiles observed on, 471.
Termites, the, Schmelen’s Hope swarms with, 136; their method of constructing their nests, ib.; encampment in the middle of a nest of, 145; instances of the fearful ravages they are capable of committing in an incredibly-short space of time, 155.
Textorerythrorhynchus, a parasitical insect-feeding bird, 213.
Thirst, suffering from, 52; water not quenching thirst, ib.
Thorn coppices, 182.
Thunder-storm, a, in the tropics, 107, 141, 352.
Tiger-wolf (or spotted hyæna), 369.
Timbo, a native of Mazapa, 81; carried into captivity by Caffres, ib.; sold as a slave to the Portuguese, 82; liberated by an English cruiser, ib.; his faithless spouse, ib.; his good qualities, ib.; his love of (native) country, 83; friendship between him and George Bonfield, 336; turns sulky, 352; the Author sends him to Lake Ngami, 393; his return, 402.
Tincas, the mountain, 52; great stronghold and breeding-place of lions, ib.
Tincas, the River, 84.
Tjobis, a river and tributary to the Swakop, 59.
Tjobis Fountain, arrive at, 60, 93; depart from, 61, 93.
Tjopopa, a great chief of the Damaras, 168; reach his werft, 169; his character, ib.; death of his mother, 176; his idleness and fondness for tobacco, ib.; sensuality, 177; leaves Okamabuti, 207.
Tobacco, great size of leaves of, 110; the Ovambo cultivate it, 189;
buy sheep for, 208.
Topnaars, a branch of the Hottentot tribe, 314.
Toucans, 59.
Trans-vaal River, the, rumors respecting the churlish conduct of the Boers on, 27.
Traveling by day injurious, 58, 61; by, night preferable, but dangerous, 84; difficulties of African, 160.
Trees, bearing an apple-looking fruit, 176, 189; enormous sized, ib.
Tsetse fly, the, where chiefly found, 468; description of, 469; poisonous nature of its bite, ib.; result of Captain Vardon’s experiment on, 470; Mr. Oswell’s examination of oxen bitten by, 471; wild animals unaffected by the poison of, ib.
Tunobis, 233; days profitably and pleasantly passed there, 235; immense quantity of game in the neighborhood of, ib.; the Author’s misadventure at, 360.
Twass, the head-quarters of the Namaqua chief Lambert, 355.
U.
Usab, the, a striking gorge, we arrive at, 83.
V.
“Venus,” a small half-breed dog, her combat with a rhinoceros, 391; great sagacity of, ib.
Voet-gangers (videlarvæ).
Vollmer, Mr., 139, 286.
W.
Waggoner, John, his sulkiness and reluctance to work, 79; dismissed at Barmen, 125; his subsequent dishonest career, 139.
Wagons, the, fifteen hundred weight a good load for, 78; accident to, 170.
Wait-a-bit thorn, the, 156; great strength of its prickles, ib.; excessively troublesome, 367, 413, 415.
Walfisch Bay, the Author’s party advised to select this place as a starting-point for their journey into the interior, 28; arrival at the entrance of, 29; appearance of the coast as seen from, ib.; description of, 30; trading establishments there, ib.; frequented by immense numbers of water-fowl, 31: outrageous conduct of the crews of whaling and guano ships visiting, 243; extraordinary number of dead fish in, 245; the Author’s second visit to, 339.
Water, difficulty of obtaining, 306, 387.
Water-courses, the periodical, afford the only really practicable roads, 124.
Wenzel, Abraham, 79; his thievish habits, ib.; dismissed at Schmelen’s Hope, 140.
Whirlwinds, 217.
Williams, John, results of his carelessness, 80.
Willow-tree, the, in the neighborhood of Omuvereoom, 155.
Witch-doctor, the Namaqua, 318.
Witchcraft, Damaras have great faith in, 219; the Bechuanas have great faith in, 442.
“Wolf,” 114.
Wolves, or hyænas, 131.
Women, Ovambo, 194; Damara, 221; Bayeye, 480.
Z.
Zebra, melancholy wail of the, 98; the Author shoots one, 102; its flesh not very palatable, ib.; a lion mistaken for one, 112; the Author shoots one, 142.
Zouga, a river which flows out of Lake Ngami, 403; runs in an easterly direction from Lake Ngami for a distance of about three hundred miles, 428; vegetation along its course varied and luxuriant, ib.
Zwartbooi, William, a Namaqua chieftain, 137; relations between Jonker Afrikaner, and, ib.; his territory, 138; assists us with servants, 140.
Zwart Nosop, many pitfalls for game constructed in the neighborhood of, 238.
Zwart-slang, the, or black snake, 294, 295.
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