The dynamic loss of earth's radiation belts: from loss in the magnetosphere to particle precipitatio

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TheDynamicLossof Earth’sRadiationBelts

TheDynamicLossofEarth’s RadiationBelts

FromLossintheMagnetosphereto ParticlePrecipitationintheAtmosphere

DepartmentofPhysics&Astronomy,UniversityofIowa, Iowa,UnitedStates

MARIAE.USANOVA

LaboratoryforAtmosphericandSpacePhysics, UniversityofColoradoBoulder,Colorado,UnitedStates

Elsevier

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EditorialProjectManager: KaterinaZaliva

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Listofcontributors

LaurenW.Blum

NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenter,Greenbelt,MD,UnitedStates

JacobBortnik

DepartmentofAtmosphericandOceanicSciences,UniversityofCaliforniaatLosAngeles, LosAngeles,CA,UnitedStates

AaronW.Breneman

SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofMinnesota,TwinCities,Minneapolis,MN, UnitedStates

ThiagoV.Brito

DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

LunjinChen DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofTexasatDallas,Richardson,TX,UnitedStates

MarkA.Clilverd

BritishAntarcticSurvey(NERC),Cambridge,UnitedKingdom

ChrisM.Cully

DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofCalgary,Calgary,AB,Canada

ScotR.Elkington

LaboratoryforAtmosphericandSpacePhysics,UniversityofColorado,Boulder,CO, UnitedStates

MarkJ.Engebretson

AugsburgUniversity,Minneapolis,MN,UnitedStates

BerndFunke

InstituteofAstrophysicsofAndalusia,CSIC,Granada,Spain

AlexaJ.Halford SpaceSciencesDepartment,AerospaceCorporation,Chantilly,VA,UnitedStates

AaronT.Hendry

DepartmentofSpacePhysics,InstituteofAtmosphericPhysics,Prague,Czechia

RobertJ.Irvin

SRIInternational,MenloPark,CA,UnitedStates;DepartmentofElectricalandComputer Engineering,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign,Urbana,IL,UnitedStates

StephenR.Kaeppler

DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,ClemsonUniversity,Clemson,SC,UnitedStates

RobertA.Marshall

AnnandH.J.SmeadDepartmentofAerospaceEngineeringSciences,UniversityofColorado, Boulder,CO,UnitedStates

RobynM.Millan

DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,DartmouthCollege,Hanover,NewHampshire, UnitedStates

AshtonS.Reimer

SRIInternational,MenloPark,CA,UnitedStates

PabloM.Reyes

SRIInternational,MenloPark,CA,UnitedStates

CraigJ.Rodger

DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofOtago,Dunedin,NewZealand

JohnG.Sample

DepartmentofPhysics,MontanaStateUniversity,BozemanMT,UnitedStates

EnnioSanchez

SRIInternational,MenloPark,CA,UnitedStates

MiriamSinnhuber

InstituteofMeteorologyandClimateResearch,KarlsruheInstituteofTechnology,Karlsruhe, Germany

DrewL.Turner

SpaceSciencesDepartment,TheAerospaceCorporation,ElSegundo,CA,UnitedStates

AleksandrY.Ukhorskiy

JohnsHopkinsUniversityAppliedPhysicsLaboratory,Laurel,MD,UnitedStates

RogerH.Varney

SRIInternational,MenloPark,CA,UnitedStates

LeslieA.Woodger

DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,DartmouthCollege,Hanover,NewHampshire, UnitedStates

Preface

Lossofradiationbeltelectronsisoneoftheimportantoutstandingquestionsofmodernspacephysics.Althoughsignificantprogresshasbeenmadeinunderstandingradiationbeltaccelerationprocessesandradialtransport,lossprocesseshaveyettobefully understood.Thisisthefirstbookintheareatofocusexclusivelyonlossandnottarget accelerationbylocalprocessesorradialtransport.

Thisbookpresentsatimelyreviewofprecipitationandmagnetosphericlossdata fromvariousexplorativemissions,includingtheNASAVanAllenProbesand MagnetosphericMultiscale(MMS)missions,severalcurrentCubeSatmissions,the completionoffourBARRELstratosphericballooncampaigns,verylowfrequency (VLF)receivernetworks,andincoherentscatterradars.

Ninechapterscoverthefollowingtopics:outwardtransportandmagnetopause shadowing,radiationbeltlossesduetowave-particleinteractions,CubeSat-and balloon-basedstudiesofradiationbeltloss,ground-basedVLF-networkandradar observationsofenergeticparticleloss,ionosphericeffectsofenergeticparticleprecipitation,andfinally,effectsofenergeticparticleprecipitationonatmosphericchemistry andpotentialimpactonclimate.

Eachchapterwasreviewedbyaleadingexpertinthefieldandbyoneoftheeditors.Wewouldliketoacknowledgeourreviewersfortheirinsightfulcomments, time,anddedicationtoimprovethequalityofthisvolume(inalphabeticalorder):Jay Albert,LaurenBlum,ChrisCully,AaronHendry,StephenKaeppler,Robert Marshall,AnnikaSeppala,DrewTurner,AleksandrUkhorskiy.Wewouldalsoliketo thankourfriendandcolleague,AndyKale,forthedesignofthecoverartworkand Elseviereditors,KaterinaZalivaandReddingMorse,andproductionprojectmanager, OmerMuktharfortheirhelpinpreparingthismanuscriptforpublication.

CHAPTER1

Outerradiationbeltlossesby magnetopauseincursionsandoutward radialtransport:newinsightand outstandingquestionsfromthe VanAllenProbesera

DrewL.Turner1 andAleksandrY.Ukhorskiy2

1SpaceSciencesDepartment,TheAerospaceCorporation,ElSegundo,CA,UnitedStates

2JohnsHopkinsUniversityAppliedPhysicsLaboratory,Laurel,MD,UnitedStates

Contents

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 ObservationalresultsduringtheVanAllenProbesera6

1.2.1 Statisticalstudies6

1.2.2 Casestudies 9

1.3 Newmodelingapproachesandresults14

1.3.1 Lossesofelectronstothemagnetopause14

1.3.2 Lossesbyoutwardradialtransport15

1.3.3 Quantifyingtherelativeimportanceofdifferentlossmechanisms duringdropouts18

1.4 Outstandingquestionsandsuggestionsforfuturestudies19

1.1Introduction

Earth’selectronradiationbeltsconsistoftwotoroidalzonesinnear-Earthspacecharacterizedbyveryhighintensitiesofrelativisticelectronsthatarequasi-stablytrappedin thegeomagneticfield.Electronsintheinnerradiationbelt(e.g., Selesnick,2015; Fennelletal.,2015; Lietal.,2017),locatedinsideof B2Earthradii(RE),aremost oftenstableovertimescalesofdaystomonths,withonlyintermittentsudden enhancementsobservedduringsomeofthemostgeomagneticallyactiveperiods (e.g., Blakeetal.,1992,2004; Suetal.,2016; Turneretal.,2016; Zhaoetal.,2017). 1

TheDynamicLossofEarth’sRadiationBelts DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813371-2.00001-9

Theinnerandouterelectronradiationbeltsareseparatedbyaslotregion,whichisgenerallydevoidofhighintensitiesofelectronsandlocatedat L-shells(orwhereanyparticularmagneticequipotentialfieldlineintersectsthemagneticequatorialplanein RE) between B2and4 RE.Thelocationandwidthoftheslotregionisenergy-dependent (e.g., Reevesetal.,2016)andformsfromtheinterplaybetweeninwardradialdiffusion fromasourceofelectronsintheouterbeltandenergy-dependentatmosphericscattering lossfrominteractionsbetweenradiationbeltelectronsandplasmaspherichiss(e.g., Lyons andThorne,1973; Ripolletal.,2016).Earth’souterradiationbeltislocatedat B3 , L , B7andconsistsofelectronsrangingfrom100skeVto . 5MeV.The intensityofouterbeltelectronsvariesdrastically,bymanyordersofmagnitude,overa rangeoftimescalesfromaslongasdecades(e.g.,solarcycles)toasshortasjustafewhours (e.g., Friedeletal.,2002).Suchvariabilityresultsfromthecombinedeffectsofouterbelt sourceandlossmechanisms,withtheefficienciesofeachmechanismbeingthecomplex productofsolarwindandgeomagneticconditionsduringanyparticularevent.

Wefocusindetailononeparticularsetoflossmechanismsthatisconsideredimportantforsomeofthemostintenselossesofouterbeltelectrons.Processesthatresultin depletionsofelectronintensityintheouterradiationbeltcanbegroupedintofour categories:(1)nonadiabatictransporttowardandlosstotheouterboundaryofthe greatersystem,whichisultimatelythemagnetopause;(2)nonadiabatictransportandloss totheinnerboundaryofthesystem,whichisultimatelyEarth’satmosphere;(3)nonadiabatic(i.e.,irreversible)energyloss;and(4)someadiabaticchanges.Ourfocushereis onthefirstandfourthcategoriesofdepletionprocesses,thosetotheouterboundaryof thesystemviaoutwardradialtransport(bothadiabaticandnonadiabatic),butwewill alsodiscusssomeaspectsofatmosphericlosseswhenrelevant.Nonadiabaticenergyloss mayoccurfromnonlinearwave-particleinteractionswithwhistler-modechoruswaves (e.g., Bortniketal.,2008),butwedonotfocusonsuchprocesseshere.Forreviewsof outerradiationbeltlossprocessesandmodelingpriortotheVanAllenProbesera,see MillanandThorne(2007) and Shpritsetal.(2008a,b).

Bydefinition,radiationbeltelectronsare(quasi-)stablytrappedonfullycloseddrift trajectorieswithinEarth’smagnetosphere.Therefore,conceptually,lossesofouter radiationbeltelectronstothemagnetopausemustoccurviaeitherinwardmotion (globalorlocalized)ofthemagnetopause,outwardmotionofelectrondriftshells,or somecombinationofthosetwoprocesses;forexamples,seetheconceptualscenarios in Fig.1.1.Notethat Fig.1.1 isahighlysimplifiedtwo-dimensionalversionofavery complicatedthree-dimensionalsystemthatdoesnotaccountforsomephysical processes forexampledriftorbitbifurcation(e.g., Ukhorskiyetal.,2011).Inward motionofthemagnetopauseresultsfrompressureenhancementsinthesolarwindand erosionofthedaysidemagnetospherebyreconnectionunderthesouthwardinterplanetarymagneticfield(IMF).Forpressureenhancements,iftheinwardmagnetopause

Figure1.1 Simplifiedschematicsillustratingouterradiationbeltdriftshellsandlossesthroughthe magnetopause.Inthepanelontheleft,threedrifttrajectoriesareshownin magenta, red,and yellow.The red and yellow driftshellsareclosed,representingelectronsthatarestablytrapped withintheinnermagnetosphere;thesetwocurvesalsoillustratetheeffectofdriftshellsplitting,in whichelectronswithdifferentequatorialpitchangles(90degreesin red;15degreesin yellow) havedifferentdrifttrajectoriesowingtotheday nightasymmetryinEarth’smagnetosphere.The magenta curveshowsanelectrondrifttrajectoryattheedgeofthetrappingregiononwhich someelectronsmightbelosttothemagnetopauseviawaves[e.g.,Kelvin Helmholtzinstability (KHI)]andtransientphenomena[e.g.,fluxtransferevents(FTEs)]alongthemagnetopause (e.g., Kavosietal.,2018).Thecenterpanelillustrateshowmagnetopauseincursionscanresultin suddenlossesondrifttrajectoriesthatendupintersectingthecompressedmagnetopause.The panelontherightillustrateshowdriftshellexpansionfromthedisturbancestormtime(Dst)effect canalsoresultinlossesofelectronsonanydriftshellsthatexpandthroughthemagnetopause. L 5 adiabaticinvariant.

motionisslowrelativetoelectrondriftperiods,thentheelectronswillrespondadiabaticallytotheenhancedmagneticfieldsinthecompressedmagnetosphere (e.g., BorovskyandDenton,2016)andmoveradiallyinwardtoconservetheirthird adiabaticinvariant[Φ or L (Roederer,1970)],whichwillreducetheextentofouter beltlossestothemagnetopause.However,ifthesolarwindpressureenhancementis fastcomparedtotheelectrons’ driftperiods,thenelectronsdonothavetimeto respondadiabaticallyandcanbelostfromthesystemveryrapidly(withinafractionof theirdriftperiod)whentheirdrifttrajectoryintersectsthemagnetopause.Suchsudden inwardmagnetopausemotionmayresultfromtransientpressurepulsesinthesolar wind(e.g., Sibecketal.,1989; Sibeck,1990),thecompressionregionsatthe downstreamedgesofhigh-speed streaminteractionregionsinthesolarwind (e.g., BorovskyandDenton,2009),orthesuddenjumpinsolarwinddensityand velocityfromaninterplanetaryshock(e.g., Lugazetal.,2015).

Here,werefertosuddenmagnetosphericcompressioneventsthatresultin enhancedlossesofouterbeltelectronsas “magnetopauseincursions.” Intheliterature, thetermcommonlyusedforouterbeltelectronlossestothemagnetopauseis magnetopauseshadowing. However,ingeneral,thistermisnotaccurateforalltypesof magnetopauseloss.Magnetopauseshadowingimpliesthatallelectronsarelostalong thedawnsidemagnetopauseandatthesubsolarpoint.However,somestudies (e.g., Cohenetal.,2016)haveshownthatelectronmagnetopauselossesalsooccur alongthedusksidemagnetopauseandthattheregiontherewithinthemagnetosphere isalsonotvoidofenergeticelectrons,asmagnetopauseshadowingwouldimply.The term magnetopauseshadowing ismoreaccuratetodescribethevoidremainingonpreviouslypopulatedelectrondriftshellsthathaveintersectedthemagnetopauseowingto magnetopauseincursionand/ordriftshellexpansion.

Magnetopauselossesfromoutwardradialtransportcanresultfromeitheradiabatic ornonadiabaticprocesses(e.g., Kimetal.,2008; UkhorskiyandSitnov,2008). Adiabaticoutwardradialtransportinvolveselectrondriftshellsexpandingoutwardto conservethethirdadiabaticinvariant.WhenEarth’sringcurrentisenhancedduring geomagneticallyactiveperiods,themagneticfieldwithintheringcurrentisdepressed, andsincetheringcurrent’sdevelopmentisslowcomparedtorelativisticelectrondrift periodsintheouterradiationbelt,electrondriftshellsshouldexpandtoconservethe thirdinvariant.Thisprocessisreferredtoasthe “Dsteffect,” afterthedisturbance stormtimegeomagneticindex.TheDsteffectwasconsideredthemechanism responsibleforouterbeltflux “dropout” eventsduringgeomagneticstorms (e.g., DesslerandKarplus,1961; McIlwain,1966),butsincethelate1990s(e.g., Kim andChan,1997; Lietal.,1997),observationshaverevealedthatflux “dropouts” actuallyinvolvetrue(i.e.,nonadiabaticandirreversible)lossesofouterbeltelectrons andcannotbefullyaccountedforbyvariationsinDstalone.Regardless,purely adiabaticdriftshellexpansionfromtheDsteffectoraslowly(Bhours)decompressed magnetospherecanresultinelectronlossestothemagnetopause,particularlyduring geomagneticstorms(e.g., Kimetal.,2010).TheDsteffectcanalsoresultinstrong depletionsoffluxintheheartoftheouterbelteventhoughtheelectronsmightnot bepermanentlylostfromthesystem.Also,theDsteffectmaynotbefullyadiabatic, particularlyduringlargegeomagneticstorms,whenringcurrentgrowthissubstantial overelectrondrifttimescales(Ukhorskiyetal.,2015,2016).Notethatforthischapter, wefollowthedefinitionofafluxdropouteventdefinedby Turneretal.(2012a):a fluxdropoutisadecreaseoftrappedelectronfluxbyafactorof50ormore(unless theinstrumenthitsbackgroundlevels)ataparticular L-shell,equatorialpitchangle, andmagneticlocaltime(MLT)overaperiodof24hoursorless.

Nonadiabaticoutwardradialtransportisitselfatruelossprocessforouterbeltelectrons.Whenthethirdadiabaticinvariantisbrokenandelectronsaretransported

radiallyoutwardtoregionsoflowermagneticfieldstrength,theirenergydropsowing toconservationofthefirstandsecondadiabaticinvariants.Outwardradialtransport itselfcanresultfromradialdiffusion(e.g., Shpritsetal.,2006,2017a),enabledby ultralowfrequency(ULF)waves(e.g., Loto’aniuetal.,2010)ordrift-bounce resonanceontimescaleslessthanthedriftorbit(e.g., Chastonetal.,2018),andrapid cascadesofelectronsacrosssharpnegativegradientsinradialdistributions(e.g., Turner etal.,2013,2014a).Anothermechanismthatcanleadtolossofelectronsbyoutward transportisthelossofadiabaticityinbifurcateddriftorbitsthatforminthecompressed magneticfieldsathigherradialdistanceonthedaysideofEarth’smagnetosphere (e.g., Kimetal.,2008; Ukhorskiyetal.,2011,2014).Providedthatthereissome sourceofelectronphasespacedensitywithintheheartoftheouterradiationbelt (i.e.,phasespacedensitydistributionsthathaveapeaksomewhereintheheartofthe outerbelt),asistypicallythecase(e.g., Turneretal.,2012b; Boydetal.,2014,2016), anynonadiabaticoutwardradialtransportshouldeventuallyleadtolossofelectronsto theouterboundaryofthesystem,whichisultimatelythemagnetopause.

Itisimportanttounderstandthenatureandrelativeimportanceofouterradiation beltlossesbymagnetopauseincursionsandoutwardradialtransportbecauseofthe potentialrolethesemechanismsplayinouterbeltfluxdropoutevents.Asreviewedby Turneretal.(2012a),fluxdropoutsareoneofthemostextremetypesofouterradiation beltvariability.Inadropoutevent,intensitiesofouterbeltelectronscandropbyover threeordersofmagnitudeinonlyafewhoursoverarangeofenergies,pitchangles, and L-shellsthatencompassthemajorityoftheouterradiationbelt.Aclassicexample ofafluxdropouteventisshownin Figs.1.2and1.3,drawnfrom datafromNASA’ s VanAllenProbesmission(Mauketal.,2012),whichwillbediscussedfurtherlaterin thischapter.Lossesfromacombinationofmagnetopauseincursionsandrapidoutward radialtransportmayplayamajorroleinouterbeltdropouts(e.g., Turneretal.,2012c), buttherelativeamountoflossfromthoseascomparedwithotherlossprocesses (e.g.,precipitationlosstoEarth’satmosphere)remainsanoutstandingquestionand pointofongoingdebate(e.g., Shpritsetal.,2013,2017b; Mannetal.,2018).

Manyimportantadvanceshavebeenmadeonthistopicinjustthefewyearssince thelaunchofVanAllenProbesinlate2012.Thisreviewislimitedtotherecent resultsfromonlytheVanAllenProbeseraconcerningthelossofouterradiation beltelectronstothemagnetopauseandoutwardradialtransport.Forreviewsofouter beltlossesanddynamicspriortotheVanAllenProbesera,wereferreadersto Friedeletal.(2002), MillanandThorne(2007), Shpritsetal.(2008a,b), Turneretal. (2012a),and UkhorskiyandSitnov(2012).Thischapterisstructuredwithmajor sectionsfocusingonobservationalresults,modelingeffortsandchallenges,and outstandingquestions;weconcludewithanoverarchingsummaryandsomesuggestions forfutureefforts.

5

Figure1.2 L-sortedelectronfluxesfromVanAllenProbesMagEISandREPTinstrumentsbinnedin time(Δt 5 6h)and L-shell(ΔL 5 0.1).Eachpanelcorrespondstoadifferentenergychannel,with eachchannel’sequivalentenergylistedintheupperrightofeachplot.Averagefluxesineachbin areplottedincoloronalogarithmicscale.TheperiodfromMay June2013includedapronounceddropouteventonJune1,2013,duringthemainphaseofageomagneticstorm. REPT, RelativisticElectronandProtonTelescope.

1.2ObservationalresultsduringtheVanAllenProbesera

SincethelaunchofVanAllenProbesin2012,aseriesofobservationalstudieshave shownevidenceofrapidanddrasticlossesofouterradiationbeltelectronsdueto magnetopauseincursionsandoutwardradialtransport.Thosestudiesuseddatafrom severaldifferentmissions,including,butnotlimitedto,theVanAllenProbes.Inthis section,wereviewthosestudiesandtheirresults,startingfirstwithrecentstatistical resultsbeforefocusingonthelatestresultsfromdetailedcasestudies.

1.2.1Statisticalstudies

Withstatisticalstudies,correlationsbetweenradiationbeltlosseventsandquantities relatedtomagnetopauseincursionsoroutwardradialtransportcanbetested,and

05/2805/2905/3005/3106/0106/0206/0306/04

05/2805/2905/3005/3106/0106/0206/0306/04

05/2805/2905/3005/3106/0106/0206/0306/04 UTin2013[MM/DD]

05/2805/2905/3005/3106/0106/0206/0306/04 UT[MM/DD]

05/2805/2905/3005/3106/0106/0206/0306/04 UT[MM/DD]

Figure1.3 Solarwind,geomagneticindex,andVanAllenProbeselectrondatafromtheexampledropouteventonJune1,2013.Allplots showthesametimerangefromMay28,2004toJune1,2013.Intheleftmostpanels,fromtoptobottomaresolarwinddynamicpressure, IMFBz,andtheSymHindex,respectively.Inthepanelsontheright,thetoppanelshowselectronfluxesfromMagEISandREPTforthree differentenergiesatfivedifferent L-shellsoverthecourseoftheevent.Electronsof346keV,1.5MeV,and4.2MeVareshownwithsquare, x,andstarsymbols,respectively,withthe346keVand4.2MeVcurvesshiftedbyfactorsof100 3 forclarity.Differentcolorsrepresentthe timehistoryofthefluxesatdifferent L-shells,with L 5 3.5,4.0,4.5,5.0,and5.5representedindarkblue,lightblue,green,yellow,andred, respectively.Thebottompanelontherightshowsthehistoryofelectronsatninedifferentenergies(incolorslistedinthelegend) at L 5 4.5. IMF,interplanetarymagneticfield; MagEIS,MagneticElectronandIonSpectrometer; UT, universaltime.

multiplerecentstatisticalstudieshavefoundevidenceoftheimportanceoftheseloss processestotheouterradiationbeltelectrons. Hietalaetal.(2014) studiedtheouter radiationbeltresponseto31interplanetarycoronalmassejection(ICME)sheathsthat impactthemagnetosphere.Theytestedthehypothesisthatthehighdynamicpressure andenhancedULFwaveactivityassociatedwithICMEsheathswouldresultin enhancedoutwardradialtransportanddropoutsofradiationbeltelectrons.Usinga superposedepochanalysiswithsolarwinddataandrelativisticelectronfluxesfrom theNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration-GeostationaryOperational EnvironmentalSatellites(NOAA-GOES)satellitesingeosynchronousorbit,they foundthatICMEsheathswereespeciallyeffectiveatdrivingouterbeltlosses,particularlyinstormeventsinwhichtheDsteffectisexpectedtoactinconcertwithmagnetopauseincursionsandoutwardradialtransport. Kilpuaetal.(2015) conducteda similarstudywithmoreeventsandorganizedtheresultsbyparticularsolarwinddrivers.Theyfoundthatthedistinctcharacteristicsassociatedwiththedifferentsolar winddriverscorrespondedtodistinctresponsesbyouterbeltelectrons.Inparticular, theyfoundthatthehighpressureandstrongmagneticfluctuationsassociatedwith streaminterfacesandICMEsheathsandejectacorrespondedwelltosuddenlossesof electronsobservedbyGOES.Thoseresultsareconsistentwiththoseof Nietal. (2016),whouseddatafromtheGOESandPolarOperationalEnvironmentalSatellites (POES)satellitestostudytheouterbeltresponseduring40solarwinddynamicpressurepulseevents.Theyfoundthatelectronlossesarestronglycorrelatedwithsudden solarwinddynamicpressureincreases,butthatthelosseswerefurtherenhancedwhen the Z-componentoftheIMFwasalsoconsidered:southwardBzresultedinenhanced lossescomparedtonorthwardBz.UsingobservationsfromSolar,Anomalous,and MagnetosphericParticleExplorer(SAMPEX)during110ICME-drivenstorms, Yuan andZong(2013) foundconsistentresults:electrondropoutsarestrongestforevents withenhancedsolarwinddynamicpressureandsouthwardIMF.

Using193dropouteventsandsuperposedepochanalysiswithPOES,GOES,and OMNIsolarwinddata, Gaoetal.(2015) foundthesameresult:eitherlargesolar winddynamicpressureorsouthwardIMFBziscapableofdrivingdropouts. However,theyarguedthatthereweretwodifferentlossprocessesinaction:the dynamicpressureresultedinlossbymagnetopauseincursionsandoutwardradialtransportwhilesouthwardIMFBzresultedinlosstoEarth’satmospherefrominteractions withelectromagneticioncyclotron(EMIC)wavesintheduskMLTsector.Others havealsofoundstatisticalevidencesupportingtheroleofEMICwavesindropout events.Forexample, Boyntonetal.(2017) foundthatdropoutsat LB4.2aremore pronouncedandfrequentfor . 1MeVelectronsthanfor , 1MeVelectrons.Despite EMICwavesalsobeinganimportantcauseofouterbeltelectronlosses,thereis additionalevidencesupportingtheimportanceofoutwardradialtransportandmagnetopauselosses.Forexample, BorovskyandDenton(2011) concludedthatenhancementsofenergeticelectronsinthenear-Earthplasmasheetduringhigh-speed stream

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Vonnis:

Om bij den scherprechter op ’t schavot geleid en onthoofd te worden.

Dezelve klager: J. H., Ureterp.

18e van Februari 1797.

Vonnis van Marten Joukes, schoolmeester en dorpsrechter te Driesum: om op het schavot geleid en strengelijk gegeeseld te worden en eene straffe van gevangenis van vijf jaren.

De 18e van Maart 1797.

Cornelis de Brée van Dantumawoude fonnis: strengelijke geeseling en eene straffe van gevangenis van vijf jaren.

De 18e van Maart 1797.

Aant Jans, huisman te Oostrum, terzake Collumer oproer gevangen gezeten van 8 Februari tot 31 Mei en tegen een borgtocht van honderd zilveren ducatons vrijgelaten. Processe als voren voor den Hove van Friesland III.

Jan Binnes hat him folgens oerleevring noch trije dagen lykme allinne fordédige tsjin in greate binde patriotten mei as ienichste wapen in heafoarke. Do-t hy oermastere wie, is hy oan de stirt fen in

hynsder boun en sa nei Ljouwert brocht. Hy is op in Saterdei stoarn, de wykmarkdei.

Officieele list fen Persoanen, Prinsljue, biboet fenwegen hjar meidwaen oan ’t Collumer oproer.

Optwizel.

Alle Renses 47 16 4

Auke Piers 47 —16 —4

Sjoerd Mients 23 18 2

Jan Sjoerds 6 —13 —14

Jan Gerbens 6 —14 —12

Auke Lubbes 5 —14 —12

Jan Hemkes 19 —18 —2

Pieter Hendriks 4 15 10

Albert Lucas 4 —15 —10

Jan Hendriks 14 6 14

Folkert Douwes 3 —16 —0

Lubbert Willems 10

Gerben Hendriks 9 —11 —4

Boate Johannes 11 9 8

Wolter Jans 47 —16 —4

Bindert Jans 47 16 4

Tjebbe Jans 23 —18 —2

Gerrit Geerts 22 19

Brugt Hendriks 9 —11 —4

Lubbe Reinderts 4 15 10

Reinder Lubbes 12 —8 —10

Gerrit Gaukes 5 14

Roel Lubbes 7 —13 —

Egbert Sijes 19 2 8

Inne Pieters

Rinze Wiebes

Douwe Everts (wenne op de pleats yn eigendom fen

Bindert Japiks Cloosterman)

Sjoerd Roels

Sjoerd Harts

Sjoerd

Teade Wiegers 2 —17 —6

Harke Jans 9 —11 —4

Sijbe Lubbes 11 —9 —8

Jille Jans 9 —11 —4

Willem Willems 9 11 4

Foppe Tjerks 7 —13

Ate Klazes 5 14 12

Engbert Pieters 9 —11 —4

Gerben Lambarts 2 17 6

Marten Romkes 3 —16 —8

Gerrit Bouwes 4 15 10

De Koaten, mei-inoar 70 persoanen. Heechsten:

Johannes Pieters 60—

Sjoerd Pieters 53

De Droege Ham, mei inoar 55. Heechsten:

Gerrit Klazes 35

Marten Klazes35—

Jan Jilles 40

Sipke Jans 30—

Anne Nannes 30

Atze Aukes 35—

Fokke Pieters 30

Harkema Op ’t Ende, mei inoar 31. Heechsten:

Bindert Japiks Cloosterman 3000

Tymen Hendriks 25 —

Eelke Rommerts 50

Surhuizum, mei inoar 83. Heechsten:

Foppe Theunis Rispens 38—

Johannes Hendriks 19

Eabele Hendriks 19—

’t Surhuister Veen, mei inoar 114. Heechsten:

Tjisse Tjidsjers 80—4—

Reinder Klazes 60 3

Augustinusga, mei inoar 53. Heechsten:

Wytse Eabeles 40

Wiggele Eabeles 40 —

L. E. van Scheltinga200

Metske Ates 40 —

Pieter Wiebes 55

Buitenpost, mei inoar 91. Heechsten:

Wiebren Lourens 50—

Eabe Lourens 50

Roelof Lourens 45—

Jacob Wilkes 40

Wytse Jans 50—

Eabe Tjeerds Risspens 50—

Jan Egberts 50—

Jacob Durks Kuipers 50—

Wytse Wybes 45—

Roelof Stuit 50—

(keslein yn de „Roskaem”.)

Kollumer Cluft.

Eelke Meinderts 36 ——36:frijspritsen.

Mefrou Bouricius 120 : frijspritsen.

Sytse Johannes 48 —

Wibe Pieters 30 —

Jan Jans Feitsma 90 — forhege ta 210

Martens Eeuwes 90 — forhege ta 110

Frans Reinders 48 frijspritsen

Louwe Romkes 3 — forhege ta 12

Jan Gerkes Blauw 42 frijspritsen

Else Louwes Siccama42 ——— frijspritsen

Marten Eeuwes 90 forhege ta 110

Kollum dorp, mei inoar 207. Heechsten:

Romke Klazes 90 ———forhege ta 210

Jan Andries 90 forhege ta 260

Dominé Riedel 24

Gosse Jans 48

Ritske Alberts 90 forhege ta 250

Boate Eskes 240———forhege ta 300

M. van Scheltinga 120———frijspritsen (foarhinne de Grytman)

S. Gerroltsma, 72 ———forhege ta 103 (foarhinne de Siktaris, Beide finzen sete yn 1795 troch Keuning.)

Harmen Tol 36 ———

Pieter Ritsma 48 L. Faber 36

Germ Lautenbach 30 forhege ta 70

Oeds Radema 48 ———forlege ta 24

M. Radema 48 forlege ta 24

Eiso de Wendt 120———frijspritsen

Geert Louwes 40

Het Nieuwe Kruijslandt, mei inoar 13. Heechsten:

Pieter Cornelis 37 10

Hendrik Clases37—10—

Remke Clases 37 10

Klaas Rinses 37—10—

Pieter Abeles 37 10

Jan Elses 37—10—

Augsbuurt, mei inoar 28. Heechsten:

Aan Klazings 46—

Meindert Heines weduwe 20

Louwe Romkes 45—

Burum, mei inoar 202. Heechsten:

Nittert Nitterts 31 —10—

Doeke Idskes 79 10

Bindert Andries 17 —10—

Minne Pieters 52 10

Alberts Jelles 99 —10—

Pieter Roelofs 47 10

Inne Eeuwes 59 —10

Metske Louwes 75 10

Hendrik Joukes 52 —10

Joege Innes 270 10

Rense Hessels 40 —10

Aise Siegers 37 10

Hendrik Harkes 37 —10

Meindert Meinderts 35 10

Louwe Cornelis Siccama47 —10

Jan en Fokke Johannes 31 10

Aldert Clases 58 —10

Claes Egberts 52 —10

Reitse Abeles 40 —10

Kollumer Zwaag, mei inoar 75. Heechsten:

Hendrik Sjirks ?

Hemke Harmens —?—

Wester Geest, mei inoar 163. Heechsten:

Gosse Pieters 62—— ——

Sjoerd Pieters 75 10 60

Boate Pieters 55—0 —30

Gerben Pieters sijn weduwe 50

Fokke Wybes 42 — —

Jan Jans Helder 70

Oud Woude, mei inoar 115. Heechsten:

Gerrit Waatses 30———

Ete Boelens 30———

Heine Aukes 26

Eelke Sibes 22———

Jan Binnes: is gestraft met den swaarde.

Morra. 75 persoanen. Heechsten:

Doeke Wybrens12——

Willem Minnes 12

Ee: biboete

Eelke Wiggers1800

Engwierum:

Tjalling Minses 927——

Boate Sytse Tjeerds600——

Hans Blom 75 ——

Lioessens: biboete

G. R. Sinia 50——

Luitjen Johannes 58

Oostrum: biboete

Aant Jans300

Jouswier: biboete 19 persoanen.

Wetzens: biboete 17 persoanen.

Nijawier, mei inoar 66. Heechsten:

Gerben Heins 9 5 2

Jan Jacobs 4————

Eelke Meinderts5 5

Metslawier, mei inoar 66. Heechsten:

Willem Jochums709

Jan Slagmans 30 — —

Harmen Jacobs 20 5

Evert Roelofs 12 —2—

Jan Jans 10

Johannes Jans 10 — —

Hantum, mei inoar 34. Heechsten:

Andries Annes 24— —

Johannes Wijbes 14—5—

Douwe Wijbes 14— —

Foudgum en Raard, mei inoar 10. Heechste:

Sieds Eelkes24— —

Hantumhuizen, mei inoar 32. Heechsten:

D. S. Banga 24—10—

Tjetze Fedzes14

Wierum, mei inoar 102. Heechsten:

Diete Annes 28—10—

Douwe Annes25— —

Jantje Annes 25

Tjepke Jans 25— —

Nes (Westdongeradeel) mei inoar 95. Heechsten:

Tjerk Ages 38 10

Evert Aukes 30— —

Meindert Harms35 5

Marten Tjipkes 30— —

Ee. Mei inoar 153. Heechsten:

Eelke Wiggers 1800— —

Ds. Florison 150

Sibe Jans 160 — —

Rienk Minnes 60

Piter Jans 70 — —

Douwe Sibrens 75

Minne Jans 70 — —

Sieds Sibrens 60

Douwe Frearks 45 — —

Folkert Minnes 40

Evert Gerkes 40 — —

Tjibbe Geerts 45

Mentje Johannes 40 — —

Cornelis Botma 40 — —

Reitse Ypes 40 — —

Jacob Ypes 40 — —

Nijkerk. Mei inoar 101. Heechsten:

Tjeerd Thomas 144

Baukjen Sipkes11 — —

Aalsum, mei inoar 26. Heechsten:

Jan Ybeles 58—10—

Anne Yjes 58

Rein Hannema 35— —

Klaas Hannema 35

Romke Klazes 24— —

Anjum, mei inoar 246. Heechsten:

Teake Piters 47— —

Jacob Thijssens 40 10

Piter Willems 36—5 —

jonkheer S. van Eijsinga 26

Lammert Jacobs 26— —

G. van Kleffens 26

Engbert Lieûwes 26— —

Diderik Hendriks 25

Geert Dirks 25— —

Teade Jans 25

Douwe Jans 25— —

Claas Eerdes 25

Sieds Jacobs 22— —

Hans Jacobs 25

Rinsuma Geest, mei inoar 23. Heechsten:

N. Posthumus 100

Jan Wates frou40 — —

Sybranda Huis, mei inoar 20. Heechsten:

Cornelis Freerks en soon samen 125— —

Simen Klazes Tolman 65

Cornelis Helder 60 — —

Toon S. Helder’s knecht 20

Veenwouden mei inoar 113. Heechsten:

Lieuwe Oebeles100— —

Aen Wijbes 100— —

Albert Jans 100

Klaas Wierts 100— —

Bean Geerts 65

Fokke Lieuwes 65 — —

Zwaag Westeinde mei inoar 57. Heechsten:

Jacob Jurjes 250

Boele Ytes 150— —

Brant Binnes60

Wouterswoude mei inoar 39. Heechsten:

Meindert Willems 800

Meindert Roelofs 150— —

Syger Klazes en soon 125

Eke Jochums 200— —

Piter Gerbens en soon 125

Eeltsje Wibes 65 — —

Damwoude mei inoar 36. Heechsten:

Minne Jacobs en broeder75

Gelt Jochums 65— —

Meindert Douwes 36

Anne Djoerds 50— —

Johannes Jelles 36

Murmerwoude mei inoar 42. Heechsten:

Simen Jans 350

sijn soon 150— —

Minze Lolkes75

Jan Jans 36 — —

Akkerwoude mei inoar 46. Heechsten:

Sytse Reinders en soon 100— —

Bastiaan Tjeerds 75

Tys Tyssens en soon 75 — —

Elle Willems en soon 75

Klaas en Joh. Eelkes 65 — —

Eke Minnes 50

Driesum, mei inoar 43. Heechsten:

Geert Romkes 400— —

Feike Luitjens 200

Geert Heines 200— —

Keimpe Jans sijn drie soons 180— —

Keimpe Jans selvers 100— —

Egbert Falks 100— —

Lieuwe Wierd sijn soon 65

Jacob Thomas 65 — —

Ate Uilkes 65

Geert Aukes 65 — —

sijn soon 65 — —

Uilke Ates weduwe 30 — —

Piter Cornelis frou 12 — —

Hendrik Jans frou 12

Hardegarijp mei inoar 14. Heechsten:

Fokke Fokkens6— —

Joeke Romkes 7

Kuik Horne mei inoar 30. Heechsten:

Geert Theunis 15

Binne Oebeles11— —

Eestrum mei inoar 47. Heechsten:

Douwe Bouts 25— —

Hendrik Halbes22— —

Roel Jans 22— —

Oebele Foakes 20

Piter Ales 20— —

Oostermeer mei inoar 86. Heechsten:

Auke Martens 50

Jacob Andries 40— —

Tjerk Atzes 30

Oeds Aukes 45— —

Lieuwe Douwes40

Geert Roels 40— —

Eabe Roels 35

Tys Lammerts 35— —

Ruurd Durks 35— —

Yn totael bidroegen dizze boeten:

Achtkarspelen 10.000

Kollumerlân 17.597

Oostdongeradiel 14.000

Dantumadiel 12.000

Tietsjerkstradiel 2.866

Westdongeradiel3.000

Penningen: welke door A.H. Keuning zijn ontvangen van personen bij accoord, die onder Politieke borgtochten waren gesteld.

Van:

Tsjebbe Idskesf2000.

Germ Klazes f1000.

Jan Douwes f1000. Bartele Rinses f100. Wytse Egberts f600.

1780. Hierders fen de tsjerkepleats to Optwizel: Bindert en Sjoerd Rinses.

1781. Timmerman oan ’e posterije to Optwizel Wopke Tabes.

1784. Skoalmaster fen Optwizel Sipke Sybes. Hy fortsjinne oan ’e tsjerke as hounegiseler en foarsjonger fl. 70 en as skoalmaster ekstra der noch by ek fl. 70.

1784. Tsjerkfâlden en floreenplichtingen fen Optwizel: Claes Sytzes, Romke Piters, Wytse Klazes en Hindrik Ljibbes.

1797. Reiskosten fen Optwizel nei Ljouwert hinne en werom mei de postwein fl. 1.10.

1798. De nije skoalle en ’t skoallehûs klear to Optwizel de 3e fen July 1798.

1801. Tsjerkfâlden fen Optwizel: Sjoerd Rinses, Oebele Wytses en Romke Piters. Skoalmaster: Rienk Reinders.

Bitelle oan R. Steringa fenwegen it lieden fen ’e klok op ’e jierdei fen de Kening fen Hollân 16 stûren.

Nammelist fen de Gardes d’honneur, troch twang oproppen om yn ’t leger fen Napoleon to tsjinjen en foarttein de 12e fen Juni, de 20e fen Juni en de 29e fen Juni 1813 oer Swol, Nimwegen, Grave, Tilburg, Antwerpen, Brussel, Mons, Valenciennes, St. Denis, Versailles, Bonneval oan de Loire, Vendôme, nei Tours.

Bihalve Henricus fen Rhé noch 37

Cornelis Franciscus Frisius f. Hylckama, Ljouwert.

Jan Pieters Fontein, Ljouwert.

Jan Albarda, Bolswert.

Mintje Wouters Bleeker, Snits.

Gerlachus Buma, Ljouwert.

Jacob Cornelis Driessen, Ljouwert.

P. A. Engelberts fen Bevervoorde, Hearrenfean.

Dirk Arend Everts, de Jouwer.

Godschalk Horatius Hiddema f. Knijff, Dokkum.

Samuël Hendrik Manger, Feanwâlden.

Mr. Bavius Gijsbertus Rinia f. Nauta, Ljouwert

Wilco Holdinga baron thoe Schwarzenberg en Hohenlandsberg, Beetgum

Junius f. Straten, Harns.

Vincentius f. Glinstra de Swart, Frentsjer.

Jhr. Epo Sjuck Burmania Vegelin fen Claerbergen, Ljouwert.

Jan Wentholt, Harns.

Leonardus Ypeij, Ljouwert.

Georg Hendrik fen Boelens, Hearrenfean.

Boelardus Augustinus fen Boelens, Hearrenfean.

Seerp Brouwer, Ljouwert.

Frederik Deketh, Frentsjer.

Jan Gorter, Ljouwert.

Edo Bouricius fen Idema, Hearrenfean.

Herman Hendrik Ladenius, Ljouwert.

Johannes Meiners?

Sipke Johannes Rienks, Hallum.

Gerbrand de Rook, Snits.

Douwe Ruitinga, Ljouwert.

Rinse van Slooten, Ljouwert.

Klaas Oenes van der Veen, Ljouwert.

Jacob Visser, Snits.

Folkert Johannes Witteveen, Dokkum.

Petrus Adrianus Bergsma, Ljouwert.

Jan Idzes Eizinga, Anjum.

Jacob Palsma, Wirdum.

Johannes Stinstra, Frentsjer.

Hermanus Harmens, Harns.

Lijst der Manschappen van de 5de Compagnie zeevende Bataillon Landstorm te Optwijzel, opgemaakt door zijnen Commandant, capitain Wytse Binderts Cloosterman in 1813. (Folgens de freeslike nije wet fen Napoleon fen ’e 5e April 1813—nei syn tobekset yn Ruslân—útroppen oer it hiele lân, waerden nou alle oerbleauwne manljue fen 20 oan 60 jier tsjinstplichtich en koene dos oproppen wirde. De jongsten waerden fensels earst oproppen).

* is sneuvele.

Fen de Koaten ôf, Sânsleats kant:

1. Oosterhof—Harke Hindriks—40 jier.

2. Bij, van der—Rinze Johannnes—46 jier.

3. Zijlstra—Jannes Popes—37 jier.

4. Feenstra—Wiebe Jeans—19 jier. *

5. Sytsma—Tabe Wopkes — —

6. Boer, de—Lourens Luitzens—19 jier, corporaal.

7. Boer, de—Jilles Oebeles— — —

8. Steringa—Jacob Jaspers—27 jier *.

11. Kooij, v. d.—Gauke Gerks—26 jier *.

12. Boersma—Hart Sjoerds—34 jier.

14. Veen, v. d.—Mark Aukes—18 jier, zijn knecht, tamboer.

15. Boersma—Sjoerd Sjoerds—31 jier.

16. Boersma—Andries Sjoerds—25 jier, corporaal.

17. Ferwerda—Steven Johannes—21 jier. *

17. Sipkema—Rinse Sipkes—19 jier.

17. Gorter—Klaas Louwes—1e Luitenant.

21. Cloosterman—Wytse Binderts—37 jier. Capitain.

21. Boer, de Arend Sytses—22 jier, zijn knecht.

22. Hinnema—Jentje Tjeerds—29 jier, zijn knecht.

23. Veen, v. d. Jarich Egberts.—24 jier, zijn knecht.

24. Jong, de—Sjoerd Jelkes—36 jier.

27. Merkes—Atze Jelles—38 jier.

28. Nicolaij—Johannes Gooitsens—36 jier.

28. Nicolaij—Roel Gooitsens—.

30. Kuipers—Jan Roelofs—33 jier.

33. Feenstra—Lieûwe Harmens—39 jier.

34. Bok—Christoffel Harmens—corporaal.

34. Boer, de—Lubbert Willems—37 jier.

36. Sipkema—Pieter Sipkes—44 jier—sergeant majoor.

36. Sipkema—Jacob Pieters—19 jier, corporaal.

38. Meer, de—Egbert Sijes—50 jier.

38. Meer, de—Meinse Egberts—, corporaal.

40. Tjipkema—Ale Jelles—27 jier.

42. Broersma—Auke Berents—, sergeant.

42. Broersma—Sake Berents—27 jier.

43. Vis, de—Caspar Willems—35 jier *.

43. Goede, de—Doowe Jans—31 jier.

44. Bruin, de—Lammert Freerks—20 jier.

45. Meulen, v. d.—Douwe Tjeerds—34 jier.

46. Radema—Alle Oedzes—31 jier, sergeant.

46. Kijlstra—Harmen Durks—22 jier, zijn knecht.

47. Cloosterman—Nanne Binderts—31 jier, sergeant.

48. Groenhof—Geert Arents—49 jier, corporaal.

49. Driessen—Wytse Sakes—

49. Loonstra—Andries Sjoerds—19 jier *, zijn knecht.

51. Binnema—Hindrik Jans—33 jier, sergeant.

51. Haagsma—Geert Harmens—20 jier, zijn knecht.

52. Leeksma—Willem Willems—48 jier.

54. Kleinstra—Pieter Hindriks—31 jier.

55. Veen, v. d.—Sibe Lubbes—

56. Cloosterman—Rienk Martens—42 jier.

57. Sytsma—Sytse Wopkes—37 jier.

59. Binnema—Sjoerd Meints—, corporaal.

59. Jong de—Jan Jans—28 jier.

59. Nicolaij—Pieter Gooitsens—

61. Vries de—Cornelis Driûwers—, corporaal.

62. Haan de—Durk Jinnes—26 jier.

63. Veen, v. d.—Hindrik Jans—

65. Haan, de—Age Ates, 25 jier.

66. Boer, de—Sytse Arends—, corporaal fourier.

66. Boer, de—Geert Sytzes—20 jier. *

67. Kramer—Jean Piers—

70. Haan, de—Arent Jinnes—19 jier.

71. Dijkstra—Lieûke Jans—36 jier.

71. Faber—Pieter Innes—21 jier, zijn knecht.

71. Tilstra—Jacob Pieters—46 jier.

72. Goede, de—Jan Jans—27 jier.

80. Meulen, v. d.—Klaas Andries—34 jier *.

100. Kylstra—Durk Harmens—49 jier.

103. Fokkema—Folkert Douwes—48 jier.

104. Folkertsma—Johannes Aukes—36 jier.

106. Tadema—Hylke Wiebes—17 jier. *

107. Dykstra—Oeds Gerkes—

108. Scheepstra—Melle Elzes—

109. Roos, de—Gerrit Douwes—*

110. Stel—Tjeerd Sytses—24 jier.

Zijlstra—Engbert Martens—46 jier.

West fen Bûtenpost.

Bij, v. d.—Jan Johannes—48 jier.

Eskens—Meinse Lodewijks—* 2e luitenant.

Swart—Albert Jacobs—

Eskens—Louw Lodewijks—

Rispens—Foppe Eabes—24 jier.

Rispens—Tjeerd Eabes—18 jier.

Dalman—Thomas Pieters *.

Wagenaar Johannes Hindriks—18 jier *.

Boonstra—Sjoerd Luitsens—18 jier.

Boer, de—Binne Oebeles.

Kuipers—Hindrik Jacobs.

Bij, v. d.—Gerrit Mients.

Linting—Tjerk Tjallings.

Reidsma—Wobbe Berents—17 jier *.

Loonstra—Jochum Karstens—17 jier.

Haan, de—Alle Jinnes—17 jier.

Tilstra—Gosse Wytses—17 jier *.

Hoekstra—Jan Pieters.

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