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BIOJETFUELIN AVIATION APPLICATIONS

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BIOJETFUELIN AVIATION

CHENGTUNGCHONG

JO-HANNG

Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates

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Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedunder copyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).

Notices

Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthis ﬁeldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearch andexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.

Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledge inevaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperiments describedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfulof theirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea professionalresponsibility.

Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasa matterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.

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ISBN:978-0-12-822854-8

ForinformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisitour websiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: MatthewDeans

AcquisitionsEditor: CarrieBolger

EditorialProjectManager: AleksandraPackowska

ProductionProjectManager: PrasannaKalyanaraman

CoverDesigner: GregHarris

TypesetbyTNQTechnologies

Preface vii Acknowledgmentsxi

1.GlobalAviationandBiojetFuelPolicies,Legislations, Initiatives,andRoadmaps1

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 Global InternationalCivilAgencyOrganization1

1.3 EuropeanUnion16

1.4 UnitedKingdom34

1.5 Scandinavia40

1.6 UnitedStatesofAmerica41

1.7 Canada57

1.8 Mexico60

1.9 Brazil60 1.10 Argentina66 1.11 China67 1.12 Malaysia70 1.13 Japan71 1.14 Indonesia73 1.15 Australia74

1.16 Summary75 References76

2.Biojetfuelproductionpathways81

2.1 Introduction81

2.2 Oil-to-jet81

2.3 Alcohol-to-jet104

2.4 Gas-to-jet112

2.5 Sugar-to-jet128

2.6 Summary135 References135

3.Propertyspeciﬁcationsofalternativejetfuels143

3.1 Introduction143

3.2 Jetfuelspeciﬁcations144

3.3 Jetfuelfromnonconventionalsources148

3.4 Propertiesofsyntheticjetfuel153

3.5 Performancecharacteristicsofaviationturbinefuels158

3.6 Additivesforalternativejetfuels164

3.7 Jetfuelcertiﬁcationprocess168

3.8 Summary172 References173

4.Combustionperformanceofbiojetfuels175

4.1 Introduction175

4.2 Principlesofaircraftemissions176

4.3 Componentorrigtestforalternativejetfuel180

4.4 Flighttest200

4.5 Fundamentalcombustionproperties202

4.6 Summary222 References223

5.Economicsofbiojetfuels231

5.1 Introduction231

5.2 Biojetfuelprices231

5.3 Potentialfeedstock255

5.4 Globalbiojetfuelproduction270

5.5 Barrierstocommercialization272

5.6 Summary282 References283

6.Sustainabilityofaviationbiofuels287

6.1 Introduction287

6.2 Lifecycleassessmentofaviationjetfuel288

6.3 Alternativejetfuelproductionpathway294

6.4 Lifecyclegreenhousegasemissionsfordifferent productionpathways297

6.5 LifecycleemissionsvaluesforCORSIAeligiblefuel302

6.6 Comparisonofgreenhousegasemissionperformance303

6.7 Energybalanceanalysis308

6.8 Energy water foodnexus310

6.9 Summary331 References332 Index 337

Preface

Biojetfuelisanemergingrenewableenergyforaviationapplicationsthat willsoonbecomeanessentialpartoftheaeronauticalsector.Thisparadigm shiftmeantthatthestudyofbiojetfuelisincreasinglybecomingpartof mainstreamelectivecoursesforundergraduatestudentspursuingdegreesin chemicalengineering,mechanicalengineering,andsustainableenergy engineering.Thisbookisintendedforusebytheaforementioned undergraduate students,withemphasisplacedtogivestudentsaholisticviewin termsofthetechnical,economical,political,andsocialaspectsofbiojetfuel. Thetextisalsointendedasagatewayfor postgraduate degreestudiesoras supplementarytextforintroductorycoursesintoalternativefuels.

Thephilosophybehindthisbookisforittobethedefinitive “first” bookforreaderswantingtoknowaboutthebasicfundamentalandpracticalissuesonbiojetfuels.Thissupportstheauthors’ maingoalsinwriting thebook,whichistoprovideacomprehensivebookforuseinclassrooms andalsoforself-study.Thus,thebookiswritteninanaccessiblemannerto encouragereaderstodevelopdeepunderstandingonthesubjectmatter,by linkingupscientificknowledge,establishedfacts,latestreal-worlddata,and viewpointsonbiojetfuels.

Inadditiontostudentsandresearchers,theauthorsareexpectingthis book, BiojetFuelinAviationApplications:Production,UsageandImpact ofBiofuels,willalsoappealacademicspreparingfornewcoursestousherin theageofsustainablefuels,governmentofﬁcialsinchargeofenergyand environmentalpolicies,industrialplayersdesiringthekeep-upwiththekey knowledgeaboutthefutureofaviationfuels,andgeneralpublicwithan inquisitivemind.

Bookorganizationbychapter

Theauthorsarrangedthechaptersinalogicalmannertobringreaders throughajourneyofunderstandingtherationalebehindtheriseofbiojet fuelaroundtheworld,followedbythebulktechnoeconomicalconcerns, andculminatinginitssustainabilityimpactsonplanetEarth.Thefollowing paragraphsprovideinsightsontheensuingchapters:

Chapter1 addressesthebiojetfuelpolicies,legislations,initiatives,and roadmapsforglobalaviation.Inthischapter,readerswilllearnaboutthe

simultaneouseffortsbyindividualgovernmentsaroundtheworldto decarbonisetheirdomesticaviationsectorandhowtheycombinedtheir effortsforinternational ﬂightsthroughtheCarbonOffsetandReduction SchemeforInternationalAviation(CORSIA).Themarket-basedmeasures, mandates,fuelstandards,initiatives,reportingtools,andlegallybinding commitmentsallsynergisticallyhelptosupportthetop-downdevelopment ofthebiojetfuelindustry.

Theprimarygoalof Chapter2 istoprovidereaders ﬁrmgrasponthe productionmethods,primarilycategorizedasoil-to-jet,alcohol-to-jet,gasto-jet,andsugar-to-jetmethods.Eachofthebroadercategoriescontains productionpathways,manyofwhichpertainingtotheASTMD7566 approvedpathways.Thechapteralsodiscusseshowthecurrentbiojet productionprocesseshavedevelopedtoimprovetheiryieldsandwhere theyareinthetechnologymaturitycurve.

Chapter3 highlightsthecharacteristicsofbiojetfuelthatdistinguishit fromconventionaljetaviationfuel.Thiscoversthetypicalchemical composition,physicochemicalproperties,andtheircompatibilitywith present-dayaviationsectorinfrastructureandusageinjetengines.Readers willunderstandthesigniﬁcanceofthe “drop-in” requirementofbiojetfuel inblendswithfossiljetfuel.

Thistiesinwith Chapter4 wheretheneatandblendedbiojetfuel performancesundercombustionarethekeyfocuses.Themechanismsof biojetfuelspray,combustion,andemissionsformationarefundamentally discussedandvalidatedbyresearchdata.Thisiscomplementedbythe myriadof ﬂighttestsconductedaroundtheworldusingthevariousbiojet fuels.

Chapter5 emphasizesontheeconomicsofbiojetfuelandidentiﬁesthe practicalfactorsaffectingthesupply demandscenariosuchascrudeoil prices,biojetfuelproductioncosts,feedstockprices,taxation,andsubsidies. Inadditiontoeconomicconcerns,theavailabilityoffeedstocksandbarriers tocommercializationarealsohighlighted.Thechapteralsoplaced importanceonthepostpandemiccostissuesandtherecentdevelopmentof pricediscoveryforbiojetfuel.

The ﬁnalchapter, Chapter6,providesanoverviewofpertinentissues pertainingsustainabilityandenergybalanceviaalifecycleassessment(LCA) methodology.Thisisaugmentedwithaholisticviewusinganenergy water food(EWF)nexusapproachtoresourcemanagement.Thetrue impactsofbiojetfuelarefullyelucidatedinthischapter.

Consistentchapterorganization

Whilethebookisintendedtobereadinthearrangedorder,theauthors purposefullywroteeachchapterinaself-containedmanner.Thisallows readerstoapproachthechaptersinanyorderandwillstillgainthesame insightsasthosefaithfullyfollowingthechaptersasintended.Withineach chapters,thestructureorderstartswithageneralintroduction,followedby themaincontentswhichcoverthemostsalientinformation,andending withachaptersummarytoprovidereaderswiththetake-homemessages. Eachchapterusesnumeroustablesand ﬁguresinterspersedwithtextto providedataforcomparison,revealtrends,summarizeconcepts,illustrate concepts,andsupportconclusions.

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Acknowledgments

Theauthorswouldliketothankandacknowledgethecontributionsof Elsevieranditsstafffortheprofessionalsupportprovidedinthepreparation ofthisbook.Inparticular,wewouldwantduerecognitiontobegivento CarrieBolger,AcquisitionEditor,whoprovidedguidanceduringthebook proposalstageleadingtotheprojectbeingapproved;AleksandraPackowska,EditorialProjectManager,whoprovidedtop-notchprofessional supportandencouragementthroughoutthewritingprocess;Rajaganapathy EssakiPandyan,PayeeInformationManager,andKavithaBalasundram, CopyrightsCoordinator,forsheddinglightonpublishing-relatedmatters.

Wewouldalsoliketoexpressourappreciationtothebookproposal andmanuscriptreviewers.Theirremarksandcommentshelpustogain focusonthetopicstowriteandalsoimprovethequalityofthebook.

Finally,wewouldalsowanttoconveyheartfeltthankstoourfamily, Stella,HoeJayandChenXi(ChengTungChong)andWongMinhChjiat IsabelleandEinsteinNgGiNeer(Jo-HanNg)fortheircontinuedpatience, abundanceinsupport,andunconditionallovethroughoutthisproject.

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CHAPTER1 GlobalAviationandBiojetFuel Policies,Legislations,Initiatives,

andRoadmaps

1.1Introduction

Emissionsfromaviationcontributeto2.0%ofthetotalglobalCO2 emissions.Whiletheproportionisrelativelysmallcomparedwithother formsoftransport,airtravelpercapitaemissionsisamongthehighestwith aviationcontributingto12%ofCO2 fromalltransportsources.Also worryingisthereleaseofemissionsathigheraltitudesascomparedwith otherpollutionmethods,leadingtogreaterglobalwarmingeffects.

Policiesandlegislationsregardingbiojetfuelwillplaykeyrolesin shapingtheindustryandsteerthemarketadoptionofthealternative aviationfueltosupplantitsfossilcounterparts.Favorablepoliciescouldbe introducedtoprovide ﬁnancialincentivestoattractinvestmentintothe nascentmarket,whilelegislationswillprovidemandatesforlegallybinding commitments.Theyarefrequentlycombinedwhengovernmentsneedto encourageandregulateanewsectorofnationalimportance.

Comprehensiveregulatoryframeworkforbiojetfuelsatinternational andnationallevelsiscrucialtoimproveenergysecurity,improveenvironmentalsustainability,growthesectorforeconomicwell-being,linking upstakeholdersandresolvetechnicaldifﬁculties.Itwillimprovethe chancesofbreakingstatusquoandprovideasmoothpathtowardthemass adoptionofbiojetfuelfortheaviationindustry.

1.2Global InternationalCivilAgencyOrganization

1.2.1CarbonOffsetandReductionSchemeforInternational Aviation

Fromthe2%oftotalglobalCO2 emissions,internationalaviationemissions accountfor1.3%oftheglobalCO2 emissions,whiledomesticaviation contributestotheother0.7%(DeaneandPye,2018).Theformerfalls

BiojetFuelinAviationApplications ISBN978-0-12-822854-8

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822854-8.00004-4

undertheresponsibilityoftheInternationalCivilAgencyOrganization (ICAO)as ﬂightscrossinternationalboundaries,whilethelatterisreported undertheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (UNFCCC)withtheresponsibilitiesheldbythecountriescoveredunder theframework.Assuch,emissionsproducedfromtheinternationalaviation categoryarenotincludedundertheParisAgreement’sNationallyDeterminedContributions(NDCs).

ICAOisinﬂuentialontheglobalstagesinceitsinceptionin1944under theChicagoConvention,ithasgrowntohave193contractingstates agreeingtomultilateralconventions.Inthe1970s,ICAOtackledaviationrelatedenvironmentalissuesthroughtheCommitteeonAircraftNoise (CAN)andCommitteeonAircraftEngineEmissions(CAEE),whichwere formedin1970and1977,respectively(ICAO,2019f).Thesetechnical committeesoftheICAOcouncilthendevelopedStandardsandRecommendedPractices(SARPs)todealwithaircraftnoiseandcontrolofaircraft engineemissions,whichwereparkedunderSARPsAnnex16.In1983, theCommitteeonAviationEnvironmentalProtection(CAEP)wasformed tomergeandsupersedebothCANandCAEE.TheCAEPfocuseson boththeoriginalaimsofCAN(foraircraftnoise)andCAEE(foraircraft emissions),whicharethencombinedforamoregeneralcoverageofaviation environmentalimpacts.

FuelrequirementsarespecifiedintheSARPsAnnex6,ofwhichthe varioussovereignnationalaviationauthoritiesorregulatingauthoritiescould adjusttobettermatchtheneedsandcharacteristicsoftheirairspace.Statesare expectedtoundertakemeasurestocomplytothestandardportionofthe SARPsorimmediately fileadifferenceiftheyimplementanydeviation, whilebeingrecommendedonthebestpracticesfortheRecommended PracticeoftheSARPs.ThefocusoftheSARPswithrespecttofuelcovers primarilyonmatterssuchassufficiencytocomplete flights,fuelcontingency requirements,in-flightfuelchecks,andfuelemergencysituation.The SARPsdonotspecifybiojetfuelsperse.Ultimately,theSARPsonly concernthemselveswith flightoperating-relatedStateSafetyProgrammes (SSP)andSafetyManagementSystems(SMS)byserviceproviders.

However,toaddresstheannualincreaseintotalglobalCO2 emissions, ICAOadoptedaglobalcarbon-offsetschemeinOctober2016for nondomesticaviationundertheCarbonOffsetandReductionSchemefor InternationalAviation(CORSIA).CORSIAisformedunderWorking Group4(WG4)ofCAEP.Underthescheme,aircraftoperatorsoperating withinsigneecountriesareencouragedtooffsettheiremissionsagainstthe

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