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ANCIENTSUPERCONTINENTSANDTHE PALEOGEOGRAPHYOFEARTH

ANCIENT SUPERCONTINENTSAND THEPALEOGEOGRAPHY OFEARTH

DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

JOHANNA SALMINEN

DepartmentofGeosciencesandGeography,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland;GeologicalSurveyofFinland, GeophysicalSolutions,Espoo,Finland

STEN-A ˚ KE ELMING

DepartmentofCivil,EnvironmentalandNaturalResourcesEngineering,Lulea ˚ UniversityofTechnology,Lulea ˚ ,Sweden

DAVID A.D.EVANS

DepartmentofEarth&PlanetarySciences,YaleUniversity,NewHaven,CT,UnitedStates

TONI VEIKKOLAINEN

InstituteofSeismology,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

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Listofcontributorsxi Abouttheeditorsxiii Prefacexv

1.Precambriansupercontinentsand supercycles—anoverview1

1.1Thehistoryofthesupercontinentresearch—the fivemilestones1

1.2TheEarthandthesolarsystem2

1.3Sometectonicconcepts5

1.4Precambriansupercontinentsandtheir cyclicity—observationalevidence8

1.5HowtoreconstructPrecambrianterranes?8

1.6ModelsofthePrecambriansupercontinents—someremarks10

1.7Precambrianpaleomagnetismandpaleogeography: aguideline11

1.7.1Targetrocks12

1.7.2Steps1and213

1.7.3Steps3 614

1.7.4Step715

1.7.5Step816

1.8Precambrianpaleomagnetismappliedto paleoreconstructions—anexample17

1.8.1Example1:closestapproachtechniquefor reconstructions17

1.8.2Matchingapparentpolarwanderpaths—another techniqueforreconstructions18

1.9Precambrianpaleomagneticdatabases18

1.9.1Precambrianpoledistributions20

1.9.2SomeaspectsofPrecambrianpaleomagneticdata21

1.10Globalandterranegeologicalmapsforreconstructions21

1.11Precambriansupercontinentcycle23

1.11.1ThePrecambriansupercontinents andsupercycles23

1.11.2Secularevolutiontrendsduring thePrecambrian24

1.11.3Arethesupercontinentsthesame,similar, ordifferent?32

1.11.4Precambrianeventsandsupercontinentcycle34

1.12Conclusionsandsuggestionsforfuturework35

1.13Howweproceedinthisbook36 Acknowledgments36 Appendices37 References39

2.Amantledynamicsperspectiveonthedrift ofcratonsandsupercontinentformationin Earth’shistory51 TOBIASROLFANDLAURIJ.PESONEN

2.1Introduction51

2.2Methodology52

2.2.1Geodynamicmodeling52

2.2.2Specificmodelsetup53

2.2.3Continentaldriftdiagnostics56

2.2.4Computedevolutions57 2.3Results58

2.3.1Averagemantlestructure58

2.3.2Temporalchangesinsurfaceplatemotionsand continentaldrift59

2.3.3Geodynamicsurfaceevolutions61 2.4Long-termcoolingofthemantle(caseD)65 2.5Discussion69

2.5.1Supercontinentformationscenariosand groupingofcontinentalunits69

2.5.2Inclinationfrequencysamplingandinferences ontheGADhypothesis70

2.5.3Challengesinthecomparisonto paleomagneticdata72

2.5.4Modellimitationsandfuturedirections74 2.6Conclusion75 Acknowledgments76 References76

3.Precambriangeomagnetic field—anoverview81 TONIVEIKKOLAINENANDLAURIJ.PESONEN

3.1Introduction81

3.2Precambriangeomagneticfield—characteristic features85 3.3Inclinationfrequencyanalysis90 3.4Fieldreversals92 3.5Paleosecularvariation96 3.6Paleointensity98

3.7Continentaldrift101 3.8Results101 3.9Conclusion104 Acknowledgments104 References104

4.ThePrecambrianpaleogeography ofLaurentia109

4.1Introductionandbroadtectonichistory109

4.1.1Laurentia’sinitialformation109

4.1.2ProtractedProterozoicaccretionarygrowth followedbycollisionalorogenesis111

4.1.3Neoproterozoicrifting115

4.1.4SimilaritiesinLaurentia’sProterozoicand Phanerozoictectonichistories117

4.2Paleomagneticpolecompilation117

4.3DifferentialmotionbeforeLaurentiaamalgamation119

4.4PaleogeographyofanassembledLaurentia119

4.5Comparingpaleogeographicmodelstothe paleomagneticcompilation129

4.6Paleoenvironmentalconstraintsonpaleolatitude130

4.7EvaluatingLaurentia’sProterozoicpaleogeographic neighbors131

4.7.1Paleogeographicconnectionspriortoinitial Laurentiaassembly132

4.7.2Amazonia132

4.7.3AustraliaandEastAntarctica132

4.7.4Baltica134

4.7.5Kalahari135

4.7.6NorthChina136

4.7.7Siberia136

4.8Therecordimpliesplatetectonicsthroughoutthe Proterozoic137

4.9Conclusion139 Acknowledgments139 Notes139 Glossary140 References142

5.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyofBaltica155

JOHANNASALMINEN,ELINALEHTONEN,SATUMERTANEN, LAURIJ.PESONEN,STEN-A ˚ KEELMINGANDTONILUOTO

5.1Introduction155

5.2GeologicalevolutionofBaltica158

5.2.1GeneralgeologicaloutlineforBaltica158

5.2.2GeologicalevolutionofFennoscandiaand formationofBaltica160

5.2.3GeologicalevolutionofVolgo-Sarmatiaand formationofBaltica161

5.2.4GeologicalevolutionofBaltica161

5.3Materialandmethods163

5.3.1PaleomagneticpolesofBaltica—latitudinal drifthistoryanddriftrate163

5.3.2PaleoclimaticindicatorsofBaltica—testingthe reconstructedlatitudinaldrifthistory170

5.4PaleomagneticevidenceforthedriftofBaltica171

5.4.1ReviewofthepaleomagneticpolesofBaltica171

5.4.2LatitudinaldriftofBaltica177

5.5Paleoproterozoic Neoproterozoicclimaticindicators forBaltica179

5.6DriftvelocitiesofBalticaanditssubcratonswith implicationtotectonics180

5.6.1Archean Paleoproterozoicdriftvelocitieswith implicationtotectonics180 5.6.2LatePaleoproterozoic Neoproterozoicdrift velocitieswithimplicationtotectonics181 5.7ImplicationsforBalticainSuperiasupercraton andNunaandRodiniasupercontinents182

5.7.1KarelianandKolainSuperia182

5.7.2BalticainNunaandRodiniacycles183 5.8Concludingremarks185 Acknowledgments186 Supplementarytable187 References193

6.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyofAmazonia207 MANOELS.D’AGRELLA-FILHO,PAULY.J.ANTONIO, RICARDOI.F.TRINDADE,WILSONTEIXEIRA ANDFRANKLINBISPO-SANTOS

6.1Introduction207 6.2TheAmazonianCraton208 6.3Qualitycriteriaofpaleomagneticpoles214 6.4Amazonianpaleomagneticdataandapparentpolar wanderpath214

6.4.1Amazonianlatitudedrift219

6.4.2Amazonianapparentpolarwanderpathandthe polaritytimescale220

6.4.3Amazoniapre-Columbia221

6.4.4Amazoniainalong-livedColumbia?222

6.4.5AmazonianCratoninthe Rodiniasupercontinent227

6.4.6AmazonianCratoninGondwana230 6.5Finalremarks231 Acknowledgments232 References232

7.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyofRı´odelaPlatacraton243 AUGUSTOE.RAPALINI,PABLOR.FRANCESCHINIS, LEDASANCHEZBETTUCCI,MARI ´ AJULIAARROUY ANDDANIELG.POIRE

7.1Introduction243

7.2GeologyoftheRıodelaPlatacraton245

7.2.1PiedraAltaTerrane(PA)245

7.2.2Tandiliaterrane(T)246

7.2.3NicoPerezterrane(NP)andDom FelicianoBelt(DFB)248

7.3Material248 7.4Results250 7.5Discussion252

7.5.1RPandPrecambriancontinents253

7.5.2PaleoclimaticrecordofRP256

7.6Conclusions257 Acknowledgements257 References257

8.PrecambrianpaleogeographyofSiberia263 SERGEIA.PISAREVSKY,DMITRYP.GLADKOCHUB ANDTATIANAV.DONSKAYA

8.1Introduction263

8.2GeologyoftheSiberianCraton264

8.3PaleomagneticdataandpaleolatitudesofSiberianCraton267

8.4PossibleneighborsofSiberianCraton269

8.5Conclusion272 Acknowledgments272 References273

9.WhenceAustralia:ItsPrecambriandrifthistory andpaleogeography277

UWEKIRSCHER,ADAMNORDSVANANDPHILLIPSCHMIDT

9.1IntroductiontothePrecambriangeologyofAustralia277 9.2Material279

9.2.1Paleomagneticstudies279

9.2.2Dataselection283

9.3Results:originalandage-binnedapparentpolar wanderpaths286

9.3.1Rawapparentpolarwandercurve286

9.3.2Age-binnedAPWcurve286

9.4Discussion286

9.4.1Implicationsforsupercontinents286

9.4.2Neoproterozoicintracontinentalrotation293

9.4.3Implicationsforassemblyandpotential separationeventsoftheAustraliancratons294

9.4.4Paleoclimateindicators295

9.4.5Australianpaleolatitudesinaglobalperspective295 9.5Summary296 References297

10.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyofIndia305

JOSEPHG.MEERT,ANTHONYF.PIVARUNAS,SCOTTR.MILLER, MANOJK.PANDITANDANUPK.SINHA

10.1Introduction305 10.2Dataselection307

10.2.1SouthernIndianBlock(Dharwar,Bastar,and Singhbhumcratons)308

10.2.2NorthernIndianBlock(Aravalli-Delhi-MarwarBandedGneissComplex/Bundelkhandcraton)315

10.3OrogenicbeltsofPeninsularIndia317

10.4Geomagneticfield,paleoclimateandGreaterIndia Assembly318

10.5Indiainaglobalcontext320

10.5.12.367Gaschematic321

10.5.22.253 2.207Gaschematic322

10.5.32.08Gaschematic322

10.5.41.88 1.86Gaschematic324

10.5.51.77Gaschematic324

10.5.61.45Gaschematic326

10.6Conclusion326 Acknowledgments326 References327

11.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyoftheChinesecratons333 SHIHONGZHANG,LINXICHANG,HANQINGZHAO,JIKAIDING, HANBIAOXIAN,HAIYANLI,HUAICHUNWU ANDTIANSHUIYANG

11.1Introduction333 11.2PrecambriangeologyofthenorthChinacraton334 11.2.1Essentialsandboundaries334 11.2.2Themetamorphicbasement335 11.2.3Precambriancoversuccessions337 11.2.4Precambrianunmetamorphoseddykesandsills339 11.3Precambrianpaleomagneticdatabaseandapparentpolar wanderpathofthenorthChinacraton341 11.3.1Overviewofthedatabase341 11.3.2Precambrianapparentpolarwanderpathof theNCC344 11.4PrecambriandrifthistoryoftheNCC346 11.4.1Paleolatitudinalchangesandrotationsofthe NCCinmiddleProterozoic346 11.4.2LocationsoftheNCCinthePrecambrian supercontinents347 11.5PrecambriandrifthistoryofthesouthChinacraton350 11.5.1PrecambriangeologyofthesouthChinacraton350 11.5.2Precambrianpaleomagneticdatabaseofthe SouthChinacraton354 11.5.3PrecambriandrifthistoryoftheSouthChina craton358

11.6PrecambriandrifthistoryoftheTarimcraton358 11.6.1PrecambriangeologyoftheTarimcraton358 11.6.2Precambrianpaleomagneticdataofthe TarimcratonandAPWP361 11.6.3NeoproterozoicdrifthistoryoftheTarim craton:modelsandproblems364 11.7Summary364 Acknowledgments365 References365

12.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyoftheKalahariCraton377 MICHIELO.DEKOCK,CASEYR.LUSKIN,CEDRICDJEUTCHOU ANDHERVE ´ WABO

12.1Introduction377

12.2CrustalarchitectureandgeologyoftheKalahariCraton378 12.2.1Proto-KalahariCraton379 12.2.2KalahariCraton383 12.2.3Neoproterozoicrecord384 12.3Paleomagneticdata384 12.4Results385

12.4.1Archeanpaleomagneticpoles385 12.4.2Proterozoicpaleomagneticpoles395 12.5Discussion402

12.5.1Apparentpolarwanderpath402 12.5.2Latitudinaldriftandcontinental reconstructions406 12.6Summary412 Acknowledgements413 References413

13.ConstraintsonthePrecambrian paleogeographyofWestAfricanCraton423 ZHENGGONGANDDAVIDA.D.EVANS

13.1Introduction423

13.2GeologyofWestAfricanCraton425

13.2.1Man-LeoShield425

13.2.2ReguibatShield426

13.2.3Anti-AtlasBelt427

13.3Reviewofpaleomagneticdata427

13.4LIPrecordsinWestAfricanCraton432

13.5Paleoclimateindicators434

13.6PrecambrianpaleogeographyofWestAfricanCraton435

13.6.1PaleogeographicconnectionbetweenWest AfricanCratonandAmazonia435

13.6.2WestAfricanCratoninPrecambrian supercontinents436

13.7Concludingremarks439 Acknowledgments439 References439

14.ThePrecambriandrifthistoryand paleogeographyofCongo SaoFranciscocraton445 RICARDOI.F.TRINDADE,MANOELS.D’AGRELLA-FILHO, PAULY.J.ANTONIOANDWILSONTEIXEIRA

14.1Introduction445

14.2TheCongo SaoFranciscocraton446

14.3Paleomagneticpoles447

14.3.1Qualitycriteriaappliedtothepoles447

14.3.2Spatialandtemporaldistributionofpoles448

14.3.3Paleoclimaticindicators448

14.3.4Geomagneticpolaritythroughtime450

14.3.5Apparentpolarwandertracks451

14.4TheCongo SaoFranciscocratoninsupercontinents452

14.4.1Congo SaoFranciscocratoninColumbia452

14.4.2Congo SaoFranciscocratoninRodinia454

14.4.3Congo SaoFranciscocratoninGondwana456 14.5Conclusion458 Acknowledgments459 References459

15.Neoarchean Paleoproterozoicsupercycles465 JOHANNASALMINEN,SALLYPEHRSSON,DAVIDA.D.EVANSAND CHONGWANG

15.1Introduction465

15.2PreviousmodelsofArchean Paleoproterozoiccrustal assemblies466

15.2.1SingleArchean Paleoproterozoic supercontinent466

15.2.2Archean Paleoproterozoicsupercratons468

15.3Methodsandmaterial471

15.4Testingoftheproposedmodelswithpaleomagneticdata472

15.4.1Superia472

15.4.2Vaalbara480

15.4.3Zimgarn480

15.4.4VaalbaraandZimgarn—partofSuperia?483

15.4.5Sclavia Nunavutia484

15.4.6Driftvelocitiesandtectonicstyle484 15.5Concludingremarks490 Acknowledgments491 References491

16.Paleo-MesoproterozoicNunasupercycle499 STEN-A ˚ KEELMING,JOHANNASALMINENANDLAURIJ.PESONEN

16.1Introduction499

16.2ThepreviousmodelsofPaleo-toMesoproterozoic Nuna500

16.2.1CommonelementsinpreviousNunamodels501 16.2.2AlternativeelementsinpreviousNunamodels501 16.3Methods513

16.4Paleo-toMesoproterozoicgeologicalevolution517 16.4.1ThecoreofNuna:Laurentia Baltica Siberia517 16.4.2OthercontinentsinNuna518 16.5ReconstructingtheNunasupercycle520 16.5.1Reconstructionat1.86Ga520 16.5.2Reconstructionat1.78Ga520 16.5.3Reconstructionat1.71Ga521 16.5.4Reconstructionat1.63Ga,Nunaisformed524 16.5.5Reconstructionat1.49Ga525 16.5.6Reconstructionat1.35Ga,Nunais breakingup525 16.5.7Reconstructionat1.27Ga526 16.5.8Reconstructionat1.21Ga526 16.6AlternativemodelsforNuna526 16.6.1SAMBAinsteadofAtlantica?527 16.6.2CongopartofNuna?527 16.6.3IndiainsouthernornorthernNuna?528 16.7Thelife-cycleofNuna—comparisonof paleomagneticpoles529 16.8Octupolefieldat1.9 1.2Gaaffecting paleoreconstructions?531 16.9Driftvelocitieswiththeimplicationoftectonicstyle531 16.10PaleoclimaticconstraintsonNunacoreonthe reconstructions536 16.11Summaryandremarks536 Acknowledgements537 References537

17.Meso-NeoproterozoicRodiniasupercycle549 DAVIDA.D.EVANS

17.1Introduction549 17.2Laurentia550 17.3Baltica550 17.4Siberia551 17.5Amazonia551 17.6WestAfrica552 17.7Kalahari553 17.8SaoFrancisco/CongoandRioPlata553 17.9Proto-Australia553 17.10India554 17.11“Missing-link”possibilitiesforChinesecratons554 17.12Smallercratonicfragments555

17.13ExistingRodiniamodels556

17.14Paleomagnetictests558

17.152020hindsight:asyntheticRodiniamodel562

17.16Geodynamicimplications566

17.17Rodiniadevelopmentintoitsfourthdecade568 Acknowledgments568 References568

18PhanerozoicpaleogeographyandPangea577

TRONDH.TORSVIK,MATHEWDOMEIERANDL.ROBINM.COCKS

18.1Introduction577

18.2Maintectonicunits581

18.3Apparentpolarwanderpaths582

18.4TruepolarwanderandglobalAPWPs587

18.5Theplatereconstructions589

18.6ThePaleozoic592

18.7Pangeaassemblyandgeometry595

18.8TheMesozoic598

18.9Pangeadispersal599

18.10TheCenozoic599 Acknowledgments601 References601

19.Anexpandinglistofreliablepaleomagnetic polesforPrecambriantectonicreconstructions605 DAVIDA.D.EVANS,LAURIJ.PESONEN,BRUCEM.EGLINGTON, STEN-A ˚ KEELMING,ZHENGGONG,ZHENG-XIANGLI, PHILJ.MCCAUSLAND,JOSEPHG.MEERT,SATUMERTANEN, SERGEIA.PISAREVSKY,ANTHONYF.PIVARUNAS, JOHANNASALMINEN,NICHOLASL.SWANSON-HYSELL, TRONDH.TORSVIK,RICARDOI.F.TRINDADE, TONIVEIKKOLAINENANDSHIHONGZHANG

19.1Introduction606

19.2Methods606

19.3Dataanddiscussion624 Acknowledgments627 References627 Index641

Listofcontributors

PaulY.J.Antonio InstituteofAstronomy,Geophysicsand AtmosphericSciences,UniversityofSaoPaulo,SaoPaulo, Brazil

Marı´aJuliaArrouy ConsejoNacionaldeInvestigaciones Cientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,BuenosAires,Argentina;Centrode InvestigacionesGeolo ´ gicas(CIG),UniversidadNacional deLaPlata,BuenosAires,Argentina

LedaSa ´ nchezBettucci InstitutodeCienciasGeolo ´ gicas, FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidaddelaRepu ´ blica, Montevideo,Uruguay

FranklinBispo-Santos InstituteofAstronomy,Geophysics andAtmosphericSciences,UniversityofSaoPaulo,Sao Paulo,Brazil

LinxiChang StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

L.RobinM.Cocks DepartmentofEarthSciences,The NaturalHistoryMuseum,London,UnitedKingdom

MichielO.deKock DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Johannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

JikaiDing StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

CedricDjeutchou DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Johannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

MathewDomeier CentreforEarthEvolutionand Dynamics(CEED),UniversityofOslo,Oslo,Norway

TatianaV.Donskaya InstituteoftheEarth’sCrust,Siberian BranchoftheRussianAcademyofSciences,Irkutsk,Russia

ManoelS.D’Agrella-Filho InstituteofAstronomy, GeophysicsandAtmosphericSciences,UniversityofSao Paulo,SaoPaulo,Brazil

BruceM.Eglington DepartmentofPhysics,Departmentof GeologicalSciences,UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon,Canada

Sten-A ˚ keElming DepartmentofCivil,Environmentaland NaturalResourcesEngineering,Lulea ˚ Universityof Technology,Lulea ˚ ,Sweden

DavidA.D.Evans DepartmentofEarthandPlanetary Sciences,YaleUniversity,NewHaven,CT,UnitedStates

PabloR.Franceschinis UniversidaddeBuenosAires, IGEBA,FacultaddeCienciasExactasyNaturales,Buenos Aires,Argentina;ConsejoNacionaldeInvestigaciones Cientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,BuenosAires,Argentina

DmitryP.Gladkochub InstituteoftheEarth’sCrust, SiberianBranchoftheRussianAcademyofSciences, Irkutsk,Russia

ZhengGong DepartmentofEarthandPlanetarySciences, YaleUniversity,NewHaven,CT,UnitedStates

UweKirscher DepartmentofGeosciences,Universityof Tu ¨ bingen,Tu ¨ bingen,Germany

ElinaLehtonen DepartmentofGeosciencesand Geography,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

HaiyanLi StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

Zheng-XiangLi SchoolofEarthandPlanetarySciences, CurtinUniversity,Perth,WA,Australia

ToniLuoto DepartmentofGeosciencesandGeography, UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

CaseyR.Luskin DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Johannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

PhilJ.McCausland WesternPaleomagnetic& PetrophysicalLaboratory,DepartmentofEarthSciences, UniversityofWesternOntario,London,ON,Canada

JosephG.Meert DepartmentofGeologicalSciences, UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL,UnitedStates

SatuMertanen GeologicalSurveyofFinland,Geophysical Solutions,Espoo,Finland

ScottR.Miller DepartmentofGeologicalSciences, UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL,UnitedStates

AdamNordsvan DepartmentofEarthSciences,University ofHongKong,Pokfulam,HongKong

ManojK.Pandit DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Rajasthan,Jaipur,India

SallyPehrsson GeologicalSurveyofCanada,Ottawa, Canada

LauriJ.Pesonen DepartmentofPhysics,Universityof Helsinki,Helsinki,Finland

SergeiA.Pisarevsky SchoolofEarthandPlanetary Sciences,CurtinUniversity,Perth,WA,Australia; InstituteoftheEarth’sCrust,SiberianBranchofthe RussianAcademyofSciences,Irkutsk,Russia;Earth DynamicsResearchGroup,TheInstituteforGeoscience Research(TIGeR),SchoolofEarthandPlanetarySciences, CurtinUniversity,Bentley,WA,Australia

AnthonyF.Pivarunas DepartmentofGeologicalSciences, UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL,UnitedStates

DanielG.Poire ´ ConsejoNacionaldeInvestigaciones Cientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,BuenosAires,Argentina;Centrode InvestigacionesGeolo ´ gicas(CIG),UniversidadNacional deLaPlata,BuenosAires,Argentina

AugustoE.Rapalini UniversidaddeBuenosAires,IGEBA, FacultaddeCienciasExactasyNaturales,BuenosAires, Argentina

TobiasRolf CentreforEarthEvolutionandDynamics (CEED),UniversityofOslo,Oslo,Norway

JohannaSalminen GeologicalSurveyofFinland, GeophysicalSolutions,Espoo,Finland;Departmentof GeosciencesandGeography,UniversityofHelsinki, Helsinki,Finland

PhillipSchmidt MagneticEarth,Newrybar,NSW,Australia

AnupK.Sinha Dr.K.S.KrishnanGeomagneticResearch Laboratory,Allahabad,India

NicholasL.Swanson-Hysell DepartmentofEarthand PlanetaryScience,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA, UnitedStates

WilsonTeixeira InstituteofGeosciences,UniversityofSao Paulo,SaoPaulo,Brazil

TrondH.Torsvik SchoolofGeosciences,Universityof Witwatersrand,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica;Centrefor EarthEvolutionandDynamics(CEED),Universityof Oslo,Oslo,Norway

RicardoI.F.Trindade InstituteofAstronomy,Geophysics andAtmosphericSciences,UniversityofSaoPaulo,Sao Paulo,Brazil

ToniVeikkolainen DepartmentofGeosciencesand Geography,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland; InstituteofSeismology,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki, Finland

Herve ´ Wabo DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Johannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

ChongWang DepartmentofGeosciencesandGeography, UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

HuaichunWu StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

HanbiaoXian StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

TianshuiYang StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

ShihongZhang StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

HanqingZhao StateKeyLaboratoryofBiogeologyand EnvironmentalGeology,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences, Beijing,P.R.China

Abouttheeditors

LauriJ.Pesonen isanEmeritusProfessorofsolidearthgeophysicsatPhysicsDepartment ofUniversityofHelsinki.HeisagraduateattheHelsinkiUniversityofTechnologyand obtainedPhDin1978attheUniversityofToronto.HeisamemberoftheFinnishAcademy ofScienceandLettersandhasbeenthepresidentoftheGeophysicalSocietyofFinland, andtheChairofDivisonIII(Paleomagnetism)ofIUGG/IAGAduring1993 97.TheIUA nominatedtheasteroid19690Y(11263)as“Pesonen”accordingtohisactivitiesinstudiesof supercontinentsandterrestrialimpactcraters.HereceivedtheKnightMedaloftheFirst ClassFinnishLionin1995.Lauriisauthororcoauthorofover150peer-reviewedarticles. HeinitiatedtheNordicPaleomagnetismWorkshopsandwasakey-personinthedevelopmentsofthePrecambrian(PALEOMAGIA)andHolocene(GEOMAGIA)paleomagnetic databases.LauriorganizedtheInternationalSupercontinentSymposiumin2012inHelsinki.Hehashadacademic(teachingandresearch)positionsinCanada,Estonia,Norway,Germany,India,andColombia.His researchtopicsspreadfromsupercontinentstotheEarth’sancientmagneticfield,impactstructures,meteorite petrophysics,archeomagnetism,environmentalmagnetism,andbiomagnetism.Hehasbuiltthreepaleomagnetismlaboratories,thefirstoneattheGeologicalSurveyofFinland,thesecondattheUniversityofHelsinki,and thethirdinTartoUniversity,Estonia.Hislatestinterestsincludeconstructionsofexhibitionsofmeteoritesand impactitesatseveralFinnishmuseums.

JohannaSalminen isaDocentattheUniversityofHelsinkiandhasbeenleadingthe researchofitsSolidEarthGeophysicsLaboratoryduring2014 21.SinceAugust2021,she hasbeentheDirectoroftheGeophysicalLaboratoryoftheGeologicalSurveyofFinland. SheearnedanMScinGeophysics(2004)andaPhDinSolidEarthGeophysics(2009) fromtheUniversityofHelsinki.Herresearchinterestslieincontinentalreconstructions, Precambriansupercontinents,deep-timeevolutionoftheEarth,Cenozoicmagnetostratigraphy,environmentalmagnetism,andbiomagnetism.Herprofessionalrecognitions includeAcademyofFinlandResearchFellowship(2015 20)andEarlyCareerScientist AwardbytheInternationalUnionofGeodesyandGeophysics(IAGA)(2015).Sheisa coleaderoftheDeepTimeDigitalEarthpaleomagnetismworkinggroup.

Sten-A ˚ keElming istheProfessorEmeritusinGeophysics,DepartmentofCivil, EnvironmentalandNaturalResourcesEngineering,Lulea ˚ UniversityofTechnology.Heisa graduateofUppsalaUniversityandobtainedaPhDinGeophysicsatLulea ˚ Universityof Technology(1982).Sten-A ˚ keisanelectedmemberoftheRoyalSwedishAcademyof Sciences(2006)andwasamemberoftheAcademyjuryfortheCrafoordprizeingeosciences,2014.Hehasbeenapartofthecommitteeandsteeringgroupforgeosciencesofthe SwedishNaturalScienceResearchCouncil.Hehasbeenbuildingresearchcapacityand departmentsingeophysics/geosciencesatuniversitiesindevelopingcountries,including Nicaragua,Thailand,andMozambique.Sten-A ˚ keistheauthorandcoauthorofmorethan 100peer-reviewedarticlesontopicsthatincludebasicaswellasappliedresearch,witha focusonpaleomagnetismandplatetectonics,rockmagnetism,regionalgeophysics,explorationofwater,andmineralresources.Heestablishedandsupportedthebuildingoftwopaleomagneticlaboratories,oneatLulea ˚ UniversityofTechnologyandanotheratPrinceofSongklaUniversity,Thailand.

DavidA.D.Evans isaprofessorofEarthandPlanetarySciencesatYaleUniversityandthe DirectorofitsPaleomagnetismLaboratory.HeearnedaBachelor’sDegreeinGeology& GeophysicsfromYaleUniversity(1992)andaPhDinGeologyfromtheCaliforniaInstitute ofTechnology(1998).Heisauthorofmorethan100peer-reviewedpublicationsonpaleomagnetismandevolutionofEarth’sgeodynamo,Precambriansupercontinentreconstructions,anddeep-timepaleoclimatologyandevolution.Hisprofessionalaccoladesincludea PackardFellowshipinScienceandEngineering,BlavatnikAwardFinalist,andtheGeorge P.WoollardAwardoftheGeologicalSocietyofAmerica“foroutstandingcontributionsto geologythroughtheapplicationoftheprinciplesandtechniquesofgeophysics.”Hehas ledtwoUNESCOInternationalGeoscienceProgram(IGCP)projectsonPrecambriansupercontinents.Since2016,hehasservedasHeadofBerkeleyCollege,aresidentialcollegeat YaleUniversity.

ToniVeikkolainen isageophysicistattheInstituteofSeismology,UniversityofHelsinki. HecompletedhisPhDdegreein2014.Histhesishandledthegeocentricaxialdipolemodel ofthePrecambriangeomagneticfield.Hehasbeenthefirstauthororcoauthorin16peerreviewedpublicationsonvariousaspectsofgeophysics,fromsupercontinentreconstructionstotheoreticalaspectsofpaleomagneticdata,andseismicandthermalstructureofthe Fennoscandianlithosphere.HehasbeentheadministratoroftheglobalpaleomagneticdatabasePALEOMAGIAsince2014.HehasservedasthesecretaryoftheGeophysicalSociety ofFinlandsince2013.HeisanactivememberoftheFinnishamateurastronomycommunityandhassignificantlycontributedtothedisseminationofscientificknowledgetothe public.Currently,heworkswiththedevelopmentofseismologicalanalysissystemsand databasesandmonitoringofseismicriskassociatedwithcommercialprojects.

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The Fairy’s Party

Neighbors passing the house of the little Fairy Health, one lovely summer day, noticed a most unusual stir and bustle. Large and small packages were continually arriving and the neat little housemaid was kept quite busy opening and closing the door to receive them.

The Fairy, flitting here and there among the flower beds, was accosted by one curious neighbor and asked what it all meant.

With her hands full of flowers the Fairy paused to answer him:

“I am giving a party this afternoon,” she said, “to friends from a distance, and we are all very busy.”

Cho-Cho, arriving about this time, was told to leave his bag in the house and hurry back to help gather roses.

The curious neighbor departed, and Cho-Cho and the Fairy worked for an hour, gathering flowers and vines, to make the beautiful house more beautiful.

At last it was all finished, and the Fairy hurried upstairs to don her party gown before the guests should arrive.

When she came down the stairs a half hour later, Cho-Cho, waiting in the hallway, held his breath in admiration, for the little Fairy was so lovely that words can scarce describe her. Her gown fell in graceful lines about her slender figure—neck and arms were bare, and her flower-like face crowned with its shining hair was radiant with joy. Forget-me-nots were twined among her curls, and she carried a bunch of them in her shapely hands. No jewels adorned the Fairy, but in every way she expressed simplicity and grace.

Cho-Cho, coming forward, dropped lightly on one knee, and taking the Fairy’s hand, raised it to his lips.

“You are wonderful,” he said.

“You like my gown, Cho-Cho?” she questioned, and smiled upon him, for these two were old and tried friends.

A noise from without told of the advent of a guest, and Health went forward to greet the visitor.

It proved to be the Persian Cat, looking quite handsome in a softgray hat, which he gracefully doffed to the Fairy, and he carried a gold-headed cane.

One could well imagine him a great favorite with the ladies, for he was indeed a finished dandy.

“You rival your flowers in beauty, Fairy,” he said, as he took her hand.

At the noise of the garden gate closing, they looked up to behold the Wonderful Dog and his wife coming toward them.

The Wonderful Dog had on a smart new collar, and came forward with dignity to present his wife to the Fairy, for they had never met.

Mrs. Dog was a fluffy little thing, who seemed really to care more about her new dress and the latest style than any other subject.

The next arrival was the little Boy from the Farm. He came timidly toward the group, looking rather frightened, but when he spied his old friend, Cho-Cho, all his fears vanished and he smiled with pleasure.

They were busily chatting in the Rose Arbor, when the little Vegetable Men came softly in and stood beside the Fairy.

She welcomed them with kindness, for these were modest little people and felt rather strange among the handsome company.

With a whirr of wings and a flash of color, the Lovely Bird and his brother Rumor were among them and congratulated the Fairy on the perfect weather she was having for her Fête.

The company were all assembled now except the Red Brown Squirrel, and the Fairy asked if anyone had seen him on the highroad as they came hither. But no one had heard of him, although the Persian Cat had come from that direction.

An hour slipped by. The Fairy was growing anxious and Cho-Cho repeatedly looked at his watch.

At last he said:

“With your permission, Fairy, I will go look for the Red Brown Squirrel. He was my friend and I greatly fear some evil has befallen him.”

“I, too, will go,” said the Cat, “there are many dangers upon the high-road, and a comrade may be needed.”

“I am with you,” said the Dog. “Lead on, Cho-Cho.”

“Friends,” said the Persian Cat, “I believe I can find the Red Brown Squirrel. Between his home and the Fairy’s garden there lives an evil imp, called Jealousy. I passed him today as I journeyed hither and he scowled upon me with a look of rage. He was afraid to attack me, but the Squirrel is small and not a match for this cruel imp, and has doubtless fallen a victim to his malice.”

“Hasten, hasten,” said Cho-Cho, and passing through the gate he started briskly toward the Squirrel’s home.

The Cat and the Dog followed and all three were soon lost to the view of the anxious company in the Fairy’s garden.

The friends covered the ground rapidly and were nearing the home of the Red Brown Squirrel, when Cho-Cho’s sharp eyes spied a halfeaten nut lying in the roadway.

There were no trees near, and they knew that it must have been dropped by their friend.

Looking eagerly upon the ground, they discovered the tiny footprints of the Squirrel and the larger ones of the flat-footed imp, leading into a field of tall grass.

Here the Cat went forward, for his sharp eyes could distinguish the footprints with great ease. Following these signs they crossed the field and came out upon an unused road that sloped downward, until they found themselves beside a deep river which seemed impossible to pass.

“Get upon my back,” said the Wonderful Dog, “the River is my comrade, it will not harm you.”

With ease and confidence he swam forward, and carried them to safety on the further bank.

Cho-Cho and the Persian Cat stepped from the Dog’s back and turned to thank him, when from behind a large rock, the ugly imp darted out and sprang toward Cho-Cho, trying to push him into the

river. But the Cat, catching the imp by the neck, held him firmly, and he was powerless to do aught but scream.

Binding him fast they went behind the great rock and found the Red Brown Squirrel in chains.

The Cat set him free and the friendly Squirrel stood up before them brave and unhurt.

Then they hurried back to the Fairy and were received with relief and pleasure.

And now, the Fairy with the Wonderful Dog leads the way to the dining-room. The Persian Cat gracefully offers his arm to little Mrs. Dog. Cho-Cho and the Boy come hand in hand, followed by the Lovely Bird and Mr. Beet. The Red Brown Squirrel is telling the story of his adventure to Mr. Onion, and Rumor and Mr. Carrot bring up the rear.

The dining-room is a mass of roses and smilax, and in the center, a table full of all the delicious things that children like.

Mrs. Dog remarks that the decorations are lovely, and the Persian Cat replies that the ladies are more beautiful than the flowers.

The little Fairy flits here and there among her guests, seeing, with charming courtesy, that all their wants are well supplied, and when at last they can eat no more, Cho-Cho rises, and with a glass of sparkling lemonade proposes a toast:

“To our charming hostess, the Fairy Health.”

With a right good will the company drink the toast, then led by the Persian Cat they leave the house and with laughter and jest pass by lovely garden paths out to the fountain—and so the fun goes on, ending at last with a dance in the dell, and joy and happiness in every heart.

The Macmillan Company has arranged to publish a series of health books for the CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION of America

Health in Education Education in Health

T C H O has undertaken a nationwide campaign to raise the health standard of the school child.

The following books are now ready:

Rosy Cheeks and Strong Heart

Rhymes of Cho-Cho’s Grandma

Cho-Cho and the Health Fairy

Child Health Alphabet

Price list furnished upon application

Order from any of the following addresses of THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

New York

64 Fifth Avenue

Chicago 25th St. & Prairie Ave.

San Francisco

609 Mission

Street

Boston

Huntington

Chambers

Dallas

330 S. Harwood

Street

Literature published separately by the CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION of America

Weight Card—Tags—Posters

Health in Play—My Health Book

Standards of Nutrition and Growth

The Demonstration and Its Application

The Nutrition Class

Alphabet Cards. A to Z

Health Plays for School Children

Four Plays Dramatizing “Cho-Cho and Health Fairy”

Stories

Happy’s Calendar

Milk, the Master Carpenter

Cho-Cho’s Health Game

Price list furnished upon application

Order from the CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION of America

Penn Terminal Building, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City

THE U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION has arranged for the sale of the following Reprints:

Class Room Weight Record

Right Height and Weight for Boys

Right Height and Weight for Girls

Wanted! Teachers to Enlist for Health Service

Diet for the School Child

Summer Health and Play School

Teaching Health

Child Health Program for Parent-Teacher Associations and Women’s Clubs

Further Steps in Teaching Health

The Lunch Hour at School

Suggestions for a Program for Health Teaching in the Elementary Schools

Your Opportunity in the Schools

Health Training for Teachers

Orders for these should be sent to: The Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C. (Remittance must accompany all orders.)

CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION of America

Board of Trustees

Dr. L. E H, President

Dr. T D. W, Vice-President

Dr. F P, Secretary

J G. B, Treasurer

Mrs. J C

C H. C

Dr. S MC. H

Dr. R S. H

Dr. V G. H

O R. L

Mrs. F P

Dr. B S

Mrs. F A. V

Dr. P V I

A W

Miss F W

Dr. H B. W

Dr. C.-E. A. W

STAFF

S L J, Director

Associate Directors: M L. R A L. W A

R, Field Representative

Assistants: G T. H M C. C A F. L

Advisory Directors: J. M A L O M

B

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHO-CHO AND THE HEALTH FAIRY ***

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