Bioinformatics MethodsandApplications
Editedby
DevBukhshSingh DepartmentofBiotechnology,InstituteofBiosciencesandBiotechnology, ChhatrapatiShahuJiMaharajUniversity,Kanpur,India
RajeshKumarPathak SchoolofAgriculturalBiotechnology,PunjabAgriculturalUniversity, Ludhiana,India
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
Copyright©2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher. Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswith organizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www. elsevier.com/permissions .
ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybe notedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation, methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheir ownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
ISBN:978-0-323-89775-4
ForInformationonallAcademicPresspublications visitourwebsiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: StacyMasucci
SeniorAcquisitionsEditor: RafaelE.Teixeira
EditorialProjectManager: SaraPianavilla
ProductionProjectManager: MariaBernard
CoverDesigner: MarkRogers
TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India
1.Introductiontobasicsof bioinformatics1
RajeshKumarPathak,DevBukhshSingh andRahulSingh
1.1Introduction1
1.1.1Conceptbehindbioinformatics, insilicobiology,and computationalbiology3
1.1.2Scientificdisciplineandsupport systemsforbioinformatics5
1.1.3Needsofbioinformatics5
1.2Historicalbackgroundofbioinformatics5
1.3Aimofbioinformatics7
1.4Therecentdevelopmentinthefieldof bioinformatics7
1.5Challengesinbioinformatics8
1.6Applicationofbioinformatics8
1.6.1Sequenceanalysis8
1.6.2Phylogeneticanalysis8
1.6.3Predictionofproteinsecondary structure9
1.6.4Protein3Dstructureprediction9
1.6.5Evaluationandvalidationof predictedproteinmodel10
1.6.6Discoveryanddesigningofsmall moleculesleadingtodrugs/ agrochemicaldevelopment10
1.6.7Next-generationsequencingdata analysis10
1.6.8SNPandSSRidentification10
1.6.9Pharmacogenomics10
1.6.10Metabolomicsandmetabolic fluxanalysis11
1.6.11Systemsbiologyandomics dataintegration11
1.7Futureperspective11
1.8Conclusion11 Conflictofinterest12 References12
2.Biologicaldatabasesandtheir application17
ParvaKumarSharmaandInderjitSinghYadav
2.1Introduction17
2.1.1Relationaldatabases17
2.1.2Object-orienteddatabases17
2.2Sequencedatabases19
2.2.1GenBank19
2.2.2EuropeanNucleotideArchive19
2.2.3DNADatabaseofJapan20
2.2.4GenPept20
2.2.5Proteininformationresources20
2.3Compositedatabase21
2.3.1UniversalProteinResource(UniProt)21
2.3.2Nonredundantdatabase22
2.4Secondarydatabase22
2.4.1PROSITE22
2.4.2PRINTS22
2.4.3Pfam23
2.4.4InterPro23
2.5Structuraldatabases23
2.5.1Researchcollaboratoryforstructural bioinformaticsproteindatabank23
2.5.2SCOP24
2.5.3CATH/Gene3D24
2.6Specializeddatabase24
2.6.1Clusteringdatabases24
2.6.2Bibliographicdatabases26
2.6.3Expressiondatabases26
2.6.4Taxonomydatabases26
2.6.5Interactiondatabases26
2.6.6Pathwaydatabases27
2.6.7Enzymedatabases27
2.6.8microRNAdatabase27
2.6.9Smallmoleculedatabase27
2.6.10Vaccinedesigndatabase28
2.7Databasesearchingandannotation28
2.7.1Entrez28
2.7.2Thesequenceretrievalsystem28
2.7.3Annotation28
2.8Conclusions29 Conflictofinterest29 References29
3.Biologicalsequenceanalysis33
SamvednaShukla,BhawanaMishra, HimanshuAvashthiandMukteshChandra
3.1Introduction33
3.2Sequencealignments:determining similarityanddeducinghomology34
3.2.1Whyconstructsequencealignment?34
3.2.2Similarityofsequences34
3.2.3Homologyofsequences35
3.2.4Globalsequencealignment35
3.2.5Localsequencealignment35
3.2.6Workingofalignmentalgorithm36
3.3Scoringmatrices:constructionand properselection36
3.3.1Scoringmatrices36
3.3.2PAMmatrices37
3.3.3BLOSUMmatrices37
3.3.4PAMversusBLOSUM37
3.4BasicLocalAlignmentSearchTool38
3.4.1Seedingstep39
3.4.2Ungappedextensionstep39
3.4.3Gappedextensionstep39
3.4.4TypesofBLAST39
3.4.5BLATversusBLAST39
3.5Multiplesequencealignment(MSA)40
3.5.1NeedforMSA40
3.5.2Multiplesequencealignment algorithm41
3.5.3ClustalW41
3.6Phylogeneticanalysis42
3.6.1Typesoftrees43
3.6.2Algorithmsforphylogeneticanalysis43
3.6.3Terminologyofphylogenetictree43
3.7Applicationofsequencealignment44
3.8Conclusion44 Conflictofinterest45 References45
4.Genomeassemblyandannotation49
PallaviMishra,RanjeetMaurya, HimanshuAvashthi,ShikhaMittal, MukteshChandraand PramodWasudeoRamteke
4.1Introduction49
4.1.1Howdoyoureassemblea genomeaftersequencing?50
4.1.2Assemblertechnology:historical landscape50
4.2Genomeassemblyalgorithms51
4.2.1Theoverlap-layout-consensus/string graphassemblers51
4.2.2DeBruijngraphassemblers51
4.3Datapreprocessing52
4.3.1Qualitycontrolofraw sequencingdata52
4.3.2Trimmingandfilteringofrawreads52
4.4Genomeassemblyapproaches:typesof assembly52
4.4.1Denovoassemblyapproach52
4.4.2Reference-based assemblyapproach54
4.4.3Hybridassemblyapproach54
4.4.4Meta-assemblyapproach54
4.5Toolsandsoftwarefor genomeassembly56
4.5.1Genomefinishing/polishing56
4.5.2Assemblyqualityassessmentand validation58
4.6Pitfallingenomeassemblies58
4.6.1DNAquality58
4.6.2Librarypreparation59
4.6.3Dataquality59
4.6.4RepetitiveDNA59
4.7Amathematicalcalculationfordepth/ coverage60
4.8Genomeannotation60
4.8.1Structuralannotation61
4.8.2Functionalannotation62
4.9Applicationandfutureprospectsof genomeassembly62
4.10Conclusion63 Conflictofinterest63 References63
5.Computationalmolecularphylogeny: conceptsandapplications67
KrishnaKumarOjha,SwapnilMishra andVijayKumarSingh
5.1Introduction67
5.2Convergentanddivergentevolution67
5.3Conceptofcladisticsandsystematics68
5.4Phylogenetictrees’terminology69
5.4.1Phylogenetictree69
5.4.2Taxon69
5.4.3Node69
5.4.4Leaf69
5.4.5Internalnode70
5.4.6Edge70
5.4.7Topology70
5.4.8Root70
5.4.9Rootedtree70
5.4.10Unrootedtree70
5.4.11Binarytree70
5.4.12Clade71
5.4.13Monophyletictaxon71
5.4.14Paraphyletictaxon71
5.4.15Polyphyletictaxon71
5.4.16Split72
5.4.17Subtree72
5.4.18Edgelength72
5.4.19Ultrametrictree72
5.4.20Cladogram73
5.4.21Phylogram73
5.4.22Dendrogram73
5.5Evolutionaryinferenceofphylogenetic trees73
5.5.1Importanceofsharedderived charactersinphylogeny74
5.6Treeconstructionmethods74
5.6.1UPGMA74
5.6.2Neighbor-joiningalgorithm76
5.6.3Maximumparsimony80
5.6.4Maximumlikelihoodphylogeny82
5.6.5Bayesianphylogeny83
5.7Estimatingreliabilityofphylogenetictree84
5.7.1Bootstrapping85
5.8Phylogenetictools85
5.9Applicationofmolecularphylogeny86
5.9.1Classification86
5.9.2Identifyingtheoriginofpathogens87
5.9.3Speciesconservation87
5.10Conclusion87 Conflictofinterest87 References87
6.Applicationsandchallengesof microarrayandRNA-sequencing91
AnkitaNegi,AbhimatiShukla,AkankshaJaiswar, JatinShrinetandRahulSinghJasrotia
6.1Introduction91
6.2Evolutionofmicroarray92
6.2.1AutomatedarraysandcDNA cloningtomicroarraytechnology92
6.2.2Principleofmicroarray92
6.2.3Listofmicroarraytoolsandtheir utility94
6.3DNAsequencing94
6.3.1Firstgeneration94
6.3.2Secondgeneration95
6.3.3Thirdgeneration96
6.4RNA-sequencing96
6.4.1Librarypreparationandsequencing96
6.4.2PipelineandusageofRNAsequencing97
6.5Biologicaldatabasesfor datasubmission99
6.6Applicationsofmicroarray99
6.7ApplicationsofRNA-sequencing100
6.8Advantagesoftranscriptome sequencingovermicroarraytechnology100
6.9Limitationsandfutureperspectiveof RNA-sequencing100
6.10Conclusion100 Conflictofinterest101 References101
7.RNA-seqforrevealingthefunction ofthetranscriptome105
KavitaGoswamiandNeetiSanan-Mishra
7.1Introduction105
7.2Next-generationsequencingplatforms andtheirtechnologies105
7.2.1Illumina106
7.2.2Roche454106
7.2.3IONtorrent107
7.2.4SoLidABI107
7.2.5IlluminaTru-seqSLRtechnology108
7.2.6PacificBiosciences(PacBio) SMRTsequencing108
7.2.7OxfordNanopore108
7.3AnalyzingtheRNA-seqdata109
7.3.1Qualityanddepthofraw sequencingdata109
7.3.2Adapterremoval110
7.3.3Levelofalignment110
7.3.4Redundancyrateofreads111
7.4RNA-seqapplications111
7.4.1Transcriptomeassembly111
7.4.2Identificationofnovel protein-codinggenes112
7.4.3Identificationofotherclassesof RNAs113
7.4.4Profilingexpressionpatterns115
7.4.5Degradomesequencing119
7.4.6Variantsdetectionand allele-specificexpression120
7.4.7Expressionquantitativetraitloci120
7.5Databasesandsoftwareforsmall RNAanalysis121
7.5.1miRBase121
7.5.2PMRD121
7.5.3Armour121
7.5.4UEAsRNAworkbench121
7.5.5sRNAtoolbox122
7.5.6sRNAbench122
7.5.7miRNAconsTarget122
7.5.8Massivelyparallelsignature sequencingdatabase122
7.5.9CLCGenomicsWorkbench122
7.6Conclusion122
Conflictofinterest123 References123
8.AnalysisofSSRandSNPmarkers131
AnkitaMishra,PramodKumarSingh, AbhishekBhandawat,VinaySharma,VikasSharma, PradeepSingh,JoyRoyandHimanshuSharma
8.1Introduction131
8.2AnalysisofSSRmarkers132
8.2.1Benefitsandlimitationsof microsatellitemarkers132
8.2.2SSRminingandprimerdesigning133
8.2.3Classificationandgenomic localization133
8.2.4FunctionalannotationsofSSR containingsequences133
8.2.5SSRamplificationandevaluationof polymorphicpotential133
8.2.6Cross-transferabilityofSSRmarkers134
8.2.7Futureperspective135
8.3AnalysisofSNPmarkers135
8.3.1Approachesforsequencedata generation135
8.3.2Samplepreparation135
8.3.3Sequencingofcomplexgenomes135
8.3.4Assessmentofsequencequality136
8.3.5Readsassemblyandmappingto referencegenome136
8.3.6Postprocessingofmappedreads138
8.3.7Variantcallingandfiltration138
8.3.8Functionalannotationofvariant138
8.4Conclusion140 Acknowledgments140 Conflictofinterest140 References140 Furtherreading144
9.GeneOntology:applicationand importanceinfunctionalannotation ofthegenomicdata145 ReshuSaxena,RitikaBishnoiandDeepakSingla
9.1Background145
9.2GeneOntology basedclassification146
9.2.1Cellularcomponent147
9.2.2Molecularfunction147
9.2.3Biologicalprocess147
9.3Annotationofunknowngene/genome147
9.3.1Blast2GO148
9.3.2IPRscan(InterProScan)148
9.3.3GenomeAssemblyandAnnotation Package149
9.3.4GOnet149
9.3.5DEEPred149
9.3.6SDNGO149
9.3.7AmiGO149
9.3.8OBO-Edit149
9.3.9GeneOntologyFunctional EnrichmentAnnotationTool149
9.4GOenrichmentanalysis149
9.4.1DAVID(DatabaseforAnnotation, Visualization,andIntegrated Discovery)150
9.4.2PANTHER(ProteinANalysis THroughEvolutionary Relationships)150
9.4.3g:Profiler150
9.4.4clusterProfiler151
9.4.5Enrichr151
9.4.6ToppGene151
9.4.7QuickGo152
9.4.8REVIGO(Reduce&Visualize GeneOntology)152
9.4.9WEGO(WebGeneOntology)152
9.4.10ShinyGO152
9.4.11ViSEAGO152
9.4.12PoGo(Predictionof GeneOntology)152
9.4.13GOrilla(GeneOntology enRIchmentanaLysisand visuaLizAtiontool)152
9.4.14EasyGO152
9.4.15GOEAST(GeneOntology EnrichmentAnalysis SoftwareToolkit)153
9.4.16GOAT(GeneOntology AnnotationTool)153
9.4.17GOLEM(GeneOntologyLocal ExplorationMap)153
9.4.18GOssTo(GeneOntology semanticsimilarityTool)153
9.4.19NaviGO153
9.5Applications153
9.6Futureprospects154
9.7Conclusion154 Acknowledgment154 Conflictofinterest155 Authorcontributions155 References155
10.Metagenomics:theboonfor microbialworldknowledge andcurrentchallenges159
J.K.Choudhari,J.Choubey,M.K.Verma, T.ChatterjeeandB.P.Sahariah
10.1Introduction:anoverviewof metagenomics159
10.2Resourcesinmetagenomics161
10.3Challengesinmetagenomics161
10.4Theworkflowinmetagenomeanalysis162
10.5Datasetacquireandprocessing162
10.6Qualitycontrolanalysis162
10.6.1Basequalityscore162
10.6.2Sequencequalityscore162
10.6.3Overrepresentedsequences163
10.6.4PerbaseNcontent163
10.6.5Duplicatesequences163
10.6.6Readlengthdistribution163
10.6.7Perbasesequencecontent163
10.6.8Guanine cytosinecontent163
10.6.9Overrepresentedk-mers163
10.6.10Qualityanalysisandimproving softwaretools163
10.7Genomeassemblytoolsin metagenomics164
10.8Binningtoolsinmetagenomics164
10.8.1Statisticalanalysis166
10.9Datastorageandsharing166
10.10Metagenomicsanalysis:acasestudy166
10.11Material,methodology,andoutcome166
10.11.1Metagenomedataset166
10.11.2Sequencingqualityanalysis166
10.11.3Hitsdistributionofmetagenome fromthedatabasesources168
10.11.4Hitsdistributionoffunctional group168
10.11.5Taxonomichitsdistribution170
10.11.6Rarefactioncurve170
10.11.7Alphadiversity170
10.12Advantagesofmetagenomicsstudy172
10.13Limitationsandfutureperspective172
10.14Conclusion172 Conflictofinterest173 References173
11.Proteinstructureprediction177
ShikhaAgnihotry,RajeshKumarPathak, DevBukhshSingh,ApoorvTiwari andImranHussain
11.1Introduction177
11.2Proteinstructureprediction177
11.3Methodofproteinstructureprediction178
11.3.1Homologymodeling (comparativemodeling)178
11.3.2Threadingorfoldrecognition180
11.3.3Abinitioapproach182
11.4Evaluationofpredicted proteinstructure184
11.5Applicationsofstructureprediction185
11.5.1Mutationstudies185 11.5.2Unfoldingstudies185 11.5.3Bindingsiteprediction185 11.5.4Proteindockingandvirtual screening185
11.5.5Understandingthedynamicsof proteinorprotein ligand complex186
11.5.6Structureevolutionanalysis186
11.6Conclusion186
Conflictofinterest186 References186 Furtherreading188
12.Structuralandfunctionalanalysis ofprotein189
NeetuSinghYadav,PawanKumar andIndraSingh
12.1Proteinpreliminaries189 12.2Growthoftheprotein structuraldatabase189 12.3Structuraltopologyandfold classificationscheme190 12.4D-Structurequality assessmentprotocol191
12.5Protein3Dstructureprediction191 12.5.1Energyfunctions192 12.6MachinelearninginPSP197
12.6.1Featureengineeringand representation197
12.6.2Featureselection198 12.6.3MLalgorithms198 12.6.4MLmodels’implementation andevaluation199
12.7Conclusion200 Conflictofinterest201 References201
13.Computationalapproachesin drugdesigning207
AnshulTiwariandSakshiSingh
13.1Introduction207
13.2Computer-aideddrugdesigning207 13.2.1Structure-baseddrugdesign207 13.2.2Ligand-baseddrugdesign209
13.3Computationalapproaches209 13.3.1Molecularmodeling209
13.3.2Bindingsiteandcavity prediction211 13.3.3Computationalligand designingandsearching211
13.3.4Pharmacophoremodeling211
13.3.5Moleculardocking211
13.3.6Moleculardynamicssimulation212
13.3.7Quantitativestructure activity relationship213
13.3.8Leadoptimization214
13.4Limitations214
13.5Recenttrendsindrugdesigning214
13.6Conclusion215
Conflictofinterest215 References215
14.Structure-baseddrugdesigning219
ShubhamPant,ShivaniVerma, RajeshKumarPathakandDevBukhshSingh
14.1Introduction219
14.2Backgroundofstructure-baseddrug design220
14.3ProcessofSBDD221
14.3.1Targetidentification221
14.3.2Targetstructure determination/prediction221
14.3.3Cavity/bindingsiteprediction223
14.3.4Ligandstructurepreparation/ retrieval223
14.3.5Moleculardockingandvirtual screening224
14.3.6ADMETanalysis226
14.3.7Moleculardynamicssimulation226
14.3.8Binding-free-energy calculation-MM-PBSA227
14.4RecentdevelopmentinSBDD227
14.5Challengesandlimitations228
14.6Futureprospective228
14.7Conclusion229
Conflictofinterest229 References229
15.Ligand-baseddrugdesigning233
SuchitraM.Ajjarapu,ApoorvTiwari, PramodWasudeoRamteke,DevBukhshSingh andSundipKumar
15.1Introduction233
15.2Pharmacophore234
15.2.1Buildpharmacophore hypothesis234
15.2.2Alignmentofmolecules235
15.2.3Similaritysearchmethods235
15.2.42Dfingerprints235
15.33Dfingerprints235
15.3.13Dsimilaritiesdependonthe alignment236
15.3.2Conformationalflexibility236
15.3.3Scaffoldhopping236
15.3.4Fragment-baseddrugdesign236
15.4Pharmacophoremapping236
15.4.1Diverseconformation generation236
15.4.2Generationof3D pharmacophore237
15.4.3Validationofthe pharmacophoremodel237
15.5Pharmacophoreclassifications238
15.5.1Ligand-basedpharmacophore modeling238
15.5.2Structure-basedpharmacophore modeling239
15.6Applicationofpharmacophorein virtualscreeninganddenovodesign239
15.6.1Virtualscreening239
15.6.2Denovopathway240
15.7Advancementinexploring3D pharmacophoreprinciplesover theabovelimitations240
15.8Quantitativestructure activity relationship240
15.8.1DesignationofQSAR241
15.8.2Backboneofchemical similarity241
15.8.3QSARdata242
15.8.4Classificationof3DQSAR approaches243
15.8.5Molecularinteractionsand energies243
15.8.6QSARmodeling245 15.8.7Conceptofapplicability domainandQSARapproaches246
15.9DevelopmentofnewQSAR:HQSAR248
15.10ApplicationofQSAR/SAR248
15.10.1Syntheticorganicchemistry andQSAR248
15.10.2Predictionofkineticand thermodynamicparameters249 15.10.3Drugdevelopmentandother applications249
15.11Conclusion250 Conflictofinterest250 References250
16.Discoveryandoptimizationoflead moleculesindrugdesigning253 ShivaniVermaandRajeshKumarPathak
16.1Introduction253
16.2PrinciplesofCADD254
16.2.1Casestudy:inhibitionof lipoxygenases255
16.3Discoveryoftheleadmolecule256
16.4Typesofleadmolecules256
16.4.1Naturalleadcompounds256
16.4.2Syntheticleadmolecules257
16.4.3Semisyntheticdrugs259
16.5Leadoptimizationandstrategies259
16.5.1Byusingorganicsynthetic chemistry259
16.5.2Structuresimplification261
16.5.3Structuremodification261
16.5.4Functionalgroupinterconversion261
16.5.5Bondingstrengthandselectivity262
16.5.6Usingthermodynamic, pharmacodynamics,and pharmacokineticparameters262
16.6Computationalleadoptimization263
16.7Advantagesofcomputationallead designing263
16.8Futureperspectives263
16.9Conclusion264 Conflictofinterest265 References265
17.Pharmacophoremodelingandits applications269
RashmiTyagi,AmishaSingh,KamalKumar ChaudharyandManojKumarYadav
17.1Introduction269
17.2Basicsofpharmacophoremodeling271
17.2.1Divisionofinitialdatainto diversedatasets271
17.2.2Conformationalanalysiswith three-dimensionalstructures272
17.3Differentmethodsofpharmacophore generation273
17.3.1Ligand-basedpharmacophore modeling273
17.3.2Structure-basedpharmacophore modeling275
17.4Validationofpharmacophoremodels276
17.4.1Receiveroperatingcharacteristic curve276
17.4.2Structure-basedpharmacophore modelingapproachforthedesign ofazaindolederivativesasDprE1 inhibitorsfortuberculosis: acasestudy277
17.5Recenttrendsinpharmacophore generation278
17.5.1Machine-learningmodels incorporatedwithpharmacophore descriptors278
17.5.2Predictionofpharmacokinetic properties279
17.5.3Targetidentificationanddenovo liganddesignusing pharmacophoreapproaches279
17.5.4Proteinfunctionalitystudies279
17.5.53Dpharmacophoremodeling usingawebplatform279
17.5.6Pharmacophoremethodsin lightofmoleculardynamics simulations280
17.6Applicationsofpharmacophore modeling281
17.6.1Generationofe-pharmacophore forvirtualscreeningofdrug molecules281
17.6.2ADME-Toxanalysis282
17.6.3Generationofamultitarget ligand282
17.6.4Modulationoftheimmune system282
17.6.5Pharmacophore-guideddrug targetidentification282 17.7Futureperspectivesofpharmacophore models283
17.7.1Fragment-baseddrugdesign283
17.7.2Protein proteininteraction inhibition283
17.7.3Apotentialroleinproteindesign283 17.8Conclusion284 Conflictofinterest284 References284
18.Moleculardockingandmolecular dynamicssimulation291
SakshiSingh,QanitaBaniBaker andDevBukhshSingh
18.1Introduction291
18.2Moleculardocking292
18.2.1Algorithms292
18.2.2Scoringfunctions294
18.2.3Knowledge-basedSFs294 18.3Dockingmethodologies295
18.3.1Flexibledocking295
18.3.2Semiflexibledocking295 18.3.3Virtualscreeningof high-throughputdocking295 18.3.4Fragmentdocking296 18.3.5Machinelearningindocking296 18.3.6Dockingtoolsandtheirfeatures297 18.4Moleculardynamicssimulation297 18.4.1Postdockingrefinement298 18.4.2Binding-freeenergycalculations: MM-GBSA/MM-PBSA299
18.5Challengesinmoleculardockingand MDsimulationtechniques300
18.6Conclusion301
Conflictofinterest301 References301
19.Pharmacokineticsand pharmacodynamicsanalysisof drugcandidates305
SatendraSingh,DevBukhshSingh, BudhayashGautam,AnamikaSingh andNamrataYadav
19.1Introduction305
19.2Postgenomiceraanddrugdiscovery306
19.3Pharmacokinetics307
19.3.1Drugabsorption308
19.3.2Drugdistribution(binding/ localization/storage)308
19.3.3Drugmetabolism309
19.4Pharmacodynamics311
19.4.1Drugtoxicity311
19.5Computationalapproachesfor ADMETprediction311
19.6Translationalbioinformatics313
19.7Drugrepurposing313
19.7.1Benefitsofdrugrepurposing313
19.7.2Computationaldrugrepurposing314
19.8Roleofpharmacogenomicsin precisionmedicine314
19.9Chemicaldiversityofnatural products:asourceforcomputer-aided drugdiscovery315
19.10Conclusion315
Conflictofinterest315 References315 Furtherreading316
20.Computationalapproachesfor vaccinedesigning317
AnimeshAwasthi,GauravSharma andPiyushAgrawal
20.1Introduction317
20.2Antigenselectionandimmunological databases318
20.2.1Exogenousantigens318
20.2.2Endogenousantigens319
20.2.3Autoantigens319
20.3 Insilico methodforB-cellepitope prediction319
20.3.1Predictionofconformational B-cellepitopes320
20.3.2PredictionoflinearB-cell epitopes321
20.4 Insilico methodforT-cellepitope prediction322
20.4.1MHCclassIbinderprediction323
20.4.2MHCclassIIbinderprediction324
20.4.3MHCgenediversityandits importanceinT-cellepitope prediction325
20.5Adjuvantandlinkerselection325
20.6Building3Dmodelandvalidationof fusionvaccineconstruct326
20.7Miscellaneousproperties326
20.7.1Peptidetoxicity326
20.7.2Half-lifeorstability327
20.7.3Deliverymethodology327
20.8Roleofnext-generationsequencing technologyinvaccinedesign328
20.9Computer-aidedvaccine developmentexample328
20.10Conclusion329 Acknowledgments329 Conflictofinterest330 References330
21.Metabolomicsandfluxbalance analysis337 PriyankaNarad,G.Naresh andAbhishekSengupta
21.1Introduction337
21.2Definitionofmetabolomics338
21.3MS-andNMR-basedtechniquesin metabolomics338
21.4Dataprocessinginmetabolomics339
21.4.1Nuclearmagneticresonance spectroscopy339
21.4.2WorkflowofMS-based metabolomics339
21.4.3LimitationsofNMRandMS methods340
21.4.4RecentadvancesinMS-and NMR-basedmetabolomics341
21.4.5Challengesandaffectingfactors341
21.5Applicationsofmetabolomics341
21.5.1Microbialscience341
21.5.2Plantscience341
21.5.3Animalscience342
21.5.4Medicalscience342
21.5.5Foodandherbalmedicines343
21.6Fluxbalanceanalysis343
21.7Metabolicnetworksandmodel construction344
21.7.1Metabolicmodel:construction andrefinement345
21.7.2Massbalance348
21.7.3Steadystate349
21.7.4Typesofconstraints349
21.7.5Optimization350
21.7.6StepsinFBA351
21.8Metaboliccontrolanalysisandisotopic steadystate/carbonfluxanalysis352
21.8.1Metaboliccontrolanalysis352
21.8.2Carbonfluxanalysis352
21.8.3Differenttypesoffluxbalance analysisatdifferentconditions353
21.9Someimportanttoolsoffluxbalance analysis355
21.9.1OptKnock355
21.9.2OptGene355
21.9.3OptStrain356
21.9.4COBRAToolbox356
21.9.5MetaboAnalyst4.0356
21.9.6OptFlux356
21.9.7OpenFlux357
21.9.8CellNetAnalyzer357
21.9.9SBRT357
21.9.10Escher-FBA357
21.9.11MetaFluxNet357
21.10Applications,challenges,andfuture perspectivesofFBA358
21.10.1Applications358
21.10.2Challengesandfuture perspectives360
21.11Casestudy:applicationsof metabolomicsandfluxbalance analysisinindustriallyimportant microorganisms361
21.11.1Lactococcuslactis361
21.11.2Saccharomycescerevisiae361
21.11.3Escherichiacoli362
21.12Conclusion363 References363
22.Topologicalparameters,patterns, andmotifsinbiologicalnetworks367 ArvindKumarYadav,RohitShukla andTirathaRajSingh
22.1Introduction367
22.2Biologicalnetworks368
22.2.1Constructionofbiological networks368
22.3Networkmotifsandpatterns369
22.3.1Motifdiscoveryandcounting369
22.4Analysisofbiologicalnetwork370
22.4.1Graphtheory371 22.4.2Adjacencymatrices373 22.5Topologicalparameters373 22.5.1Nodedegree374 22.5.2Theaverageofshortest pathlength374
22.5.3Clusteringcoefficient375 22.5.4Betweennesscentrality375 22.5.5Statisticalcomparison375 22.6Biologicalsignificanceof networkmotifs375 22.7Applicationsofnetworkbiology376 22.8Limitationsandchallenges376 22.9Conclusion376 Conflictofinterest377 References377
23.Networkbiologyandapplications381 NeeruRedhuandZoozealThakur
23.1Introductiontobiologicalnetworks381 23.2Biologicalnetworksproperties381 23.2.1Path,averagepathlength, anddiameter381 23.2.2Degreeakaconnectivity382 23.2.3Scalefree382 23.2.4Smallworldnetwork382 23.2.5Dateandpartyhub382 23.2.6Networkmotifs382 23.3Typesofbiologicalnetworks382 23.3.1Ecologicalnetworks383 23.3.2Gene(genetic)regulatory network383
23.3.3Protein proteininteraction network384 23.3.4Metabolicnetworks385 23.3.5Cellularsignalingnetwork385 23.3.6Genecoexpressionnetwork387 23.4Experimentalmethodsinnetwork biology387
23.4.1Microarray387 23.4.2DeepmRNAsequencing388 23.4.3Exomesequencing388 23.4.4ChIP-seq389 23.4.5Genome-widebisulfite sequencing389 23.4.6Yeasttwo-hybrid390 23.4.7Massspectrometry-based proteomics391 23.4.8Flowandmasscytometry392 23.4.9Livecellimaging392 23.5Resourcesforbiological network-basedstudies393
23.5.1KyotoEncyclopediaofGenes andGenomes393
23.5.2BioCycDatabaseCollection393
23.5.3ENZYME393
23.5.4ExplorEnz:theenzymedatabase394
23.5.5BiochemicalGeneticand Genomic/BiochemicalGenetic andGenomicmodels394
23.5.6STRING394
23.5.7metaTIGER394
23.6Toolsfornetworkpathwayanalysis394
23.6.1Pathwaytools395
23.6.2ERGO395
23.6.3KEGGtranslator395
23.6.4ModelSEED395
23.6.5NetworkAnalysisTools396
23.6.6BioNetStat396
23.6.7OmicsNet396
23.7Applicationsofnetworkbiology396
23.7.1Applicationsinrarediseases396
23.7.2Determinationof proteinfunction398
23.7.3Pathwaydetermination398
23.7.4Essentialproteinidentification398
23.7.5Functionalmodules’ identification399
23.8Challengesandfutureperspective399
23.8.1Pseudotemporalordering399
23.8.2Multipledatasources400
23.8.3Combinationofalgorithms400
23.9Conclusion400 Conflictofinterest401 References401
24.Pathwaymodelingandsimulation analysis409 GitanjaliTandon,SunitaYadav andSukhdeepKaur
24.1Introduction409
24.2Computationalmodelingof apathway409
24.2.1Typeofmodeling410
24.2.2Approachesofmodeling410
24.3Generaldiagramandlanguageusedin pathwaymodeling411
24.3.1SystemsBiologyGraphical Notation411
24.3.2SystemsBiologyMarkup Language412
24.4Pathwaysimulationsanalysis413
24.4.1Ordinarydifferentialequations413
24.4.2Stochasticsimulation414
24.5Platformsusedformodelingand simulations415
24.5.1Pathwaydesigningtools415
24.5.2PathwayTools415 24.5.3Simulationtools416
24.6Applicationsofpathwaymodelingand simulations418
24.6.1Metabolicengineering418
24.6.2Drugdesigning418
24.6.3Studyofphenomics419 24.6.4Fluxbalanceanalysis419
24.7Challenges420
24.7.1Knowledgegapsbetween computationalistsand experimentalists420
24.7.2Theorydevelopment420
24.7.3Miscellaneouscomputational challenges420
24.8Conclusion420 Conflictofinterest421 References421
25.Systemsbiologyandbigdata analytics425
RohitShukla,ArvindKumarYadav, WilliamO.Sote,MoacyrComarJunior andTirathaRajSingh
25.1Introduction425
25.2Bigdataingeneralandinthecontext ofbiology425
25.3Typesofdatainsystemsbiology426
25.3.1Biologicalsequences428
25.3.2Molecularstructure428
25.3.3Geneexpression428
25.3.4Bindingsitesanddomains429
25.3.5Protein proteininteraction429
25.3.6Massspectroscopy429
25.3.7Metabolicpathways429
25.4Biologicalbigdataresources429
25.4.1Genomicsandtranscriptomics resources430
25.4.2Proteomicsresources430
25.4.3Cellularmetabolome430
25.4.4Protein proteininteraction databases430
25.4.5Drugandchemicalcompound databases432
25.4.6Differentotherdatabases432
25.5Networkgenerationanditsanalysis fromvarioussourcesofdata432
25.6Bigdataindrugrepurposingand systemspharmacology434
25.6.1Network-basedapproachesfor systemspharmacology435
25.7Casestudyrelatedtotranscriptome dataanalysis435
25.8Limitationsinbigdataanalysis437
25.9Conclusion438
Acknowledgment438
Conflictofinterest438 References438
26.Machinelearninginbioinformatics443 IndrajeetKumar,SuryaPratapSingh andShivam
26.1Introduction443
26.2Supervisedlearning443
26.2.1Classification444
26.2.2Supervisedmachinelearningin bioinformatics444
26.3Unsupervisedmachinelearning445
26.4Problemstounderstandsupervised learningandunsupervisedlearning446
26.5Regression446
26.5.1Hypothesis447
26.6Clustering450
26.6.1K-meansclustering450
26.6.2Density-basedclustering450
26.6.3Distribution-basedclustering451
26.6.4Fuzzyclustering451
26.7Unsupervisedlearningin bioinformatics452
26.8Applicationofmachinelearning452
26.8.1Genomeannotation452
26.8.2Proteinstructureprediction452
26.8.3Researchareainbioinformatics withdeeplearning453
26.9Discussion453
26.10Conclusion454 Conflictofinterest454 References454
27.Bioinformaticsandbiological datamining457
AdityaHarbola,DeeptiNegi, MaheshManchandaand RajeshKumarKesharwani
27.1Biologicaldatamining457
27.2Dataminingapplications457
27.3Dataminingprocess458
27.3.1Classification458
27.3.2Estimation458
27.3.3Prediction459
27.3.4Association459
27.3.5Clustering459
27.3.6Descriptionandvisualization460
27.3.7CasestudiesusingWaikato environmentforknowledge analysis461
27.4Featureselectiontechniqueindata mining461
27.4.1Objectiveoffeatureselection462
27.5Majordataminingalgorithms applicabletobiologicaldata462
27.5.1C4.5algorithm462
27.5.2K-meansalgorithm462
27.5.3Supportvectormachine463
27.6Biologicaldataevolutionandrelated issues463
27.6.1Biologicaldataavailability463
27.6.2Biologicaldataavailabilityin computer-readableform464
27.6.3Biologicaldatacleaning464
27.6.4Biologicaldataquality464
27.6.5Biologicaldatadimensionality464
27.6.6Biologicaldataknowledge discovery466
27.7Bioinformaticsresearchareasandtools466
27.7.1Sequencesearching,comparison, andevolutionaryanalysis467
27.7.2Annotationofgene/protein structureandfunction467
27.7.3Geneandproteinexpression analysis468
27.7.4Mutationanddiseaseassociation study468
27.7.5Proteinstructureprediction, docking,andprotein protein interactionanalysis468
27.7.6Biologicalsystemsmodeling andnetworkanalysis468
27.7.7Expressedsequencetaganalysis469
27.7.8MicroRNAandtargetprediction469
27.7.9Medicalandhealthdataanalysis andclinicaldecisionsupport system469
27.8Limitations469 27.9Conclusion470 Conflictofinterest470 References470 Index473
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.