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THERMOPYLAE

GREATBATTLES THERMOPYLAE

CHRISCAREY

3

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ToPauline,Chrys,Nick,andLaura

withlove,admiration,andgratitudetohaveyouinmylife

FOREWORD

Forthosewhopractisewarinthetwenty-ﬁrstcenturytheideaofa ‘greatbattle’ canseemnomorethantheechoofaremotepast.The namesonregimentalcoloursortheeventscommemoratedatmess dinnersbearlittlerelationshiptopatrollingindustyvillagesorwaging ‘warsamongstthepeople’.Contemporarymilitarydoctrinedownplaystheideaofvictory,arguingthatwarsendbynegotiationnotby thesmashingofanenemyarmyornavy.Indeediterodesthevery divisionbetweenwarandpeace,andwithittheaspirationto ﬁghta culminating ‘greatbattle’ .

Andyettotakebattleoutofwaristoredefinewar,possiblytothe pointwheresomewouldarguethatitceasestobewar.Carlvon Clausewitz,whoexperiencedtwo ‘greatbattles’ at firsthand Jenain  andBorodinoin  wroteinOnWarthatmajorbattleis ‘concentratedwar’,and ‘thecentreofgravityoftheentirecampaign’ . Clausewitz’sremarksrelatedtothetheoryofstrategy.Herecognized thatinpracticearmiesmightavoidbattles,buteventhentheefficacy oftheiractionsreliedonthelatentthreatof fighting.WinstonChurchill sawtheimportanceofbattlesindifferentterms,notfortheirplace withinwarbutfortheirimpactonhistoricalandnationalnarratives.His forebear,theDukeofMarlborough,commandedinfourmajorbattles andnamedhispalaceafterthemostfamousofthem,Blenheim,fought in .Battles,ChurchillwroteinhisbiographyofMarlborough,are ‘theprincipalmilestonesinsecularhistory’.Forhim ‘Greatbattles,won orlost,changetheentirecourseofevents,createnewstandardsof values,newmoods,newatmospheres,inarmiesandnations,towhich allmustconform’ .

Clausewitz’sexperienceofwarwasshapedbyNapoleon.Like Marlborough,theFrenchemperorsoughttobringhisenemiesto battle.However,eachlivedwithinacenturyoftheother,andthey foughttheirwarsinthesamecontinentandevenonoccasionon adjacentground.WinstonChurchill’sownexperienceofwar,which spannedthelatenineteenth-centurycolonialcon flictsoftheBritish Empireaswellastwoworldwars,becameincreasinglydistancedfrom thesortsofbattleheandClausewitzdescribed.In  Churchillrode inacavalrychargeinabattlewhichcrushedtheMadhistforcesofthe Sudaninasingleday.FouryearslatertheBritishcommanderat Omdurman,LordKitchener,broughttheSouthAfricanWartoa conclusionafteratwo-yearguerrillaconflictinwhichnoclimactic battleoccurred.BothChurchillandKitchenerservedasBritishcabinet ministersintheFirstWorldWar,acon flictinwhichbattleslasted weeks,andevenmonths,andwhich,despitetheirscaleandduration, didnotproduceclear-cutoutcomes.The ‘Battle’ ofVerdunranforall butonemonthof  andthatoftheSommefor fivemonths.The potentiallydecisivenavalactionatJutlandspannedamoretraditional twenty-four-hourtimetablebutwasnotconclusiveandwasnot replicatedduringthewar.IntheSecondWorldWar,themajor struggleinwatersadjacenttoEurope,the ‘Battle’ oftheAtlantic,was foughtfrom  toearly .

Clausewitzwouldhavecalledthesetwentieth-century ‘battles’ campaigns,orevenseenthemaswarsintheirownright.Thedeterminationtoseekbattleandtovenerateitseffectsmaythereforebe culturallydetermined,theproductoftimeandplace,ratherthanan inherentattributeofwar.TheancienthistorianVictorDavisHanson hasarguedthatseekingbattleisa ‘westernwayofwar’ derivedfrom classicalGreece.SeeminglysupportiveofhisargumentarethewritingsofSunTzu,who flourishedinwarringstatesinChinabetween twoand fivecenturiesbeforethebirthofChrist,andwhopointedout thatthemosteffectivewayofwagingwarwastoavoidtherisksand dangersofactual fighting.Hansonhasprovokedstrongcriticism: thosewhoarguethatwarscanbewonwithoutbattlesarenotonly

tobefoundinAsia.Eighteenth-centuryEuropeancommanders, deployingarmiesinclose-orderformationsinordertodeliverconcentrated ﬁres,realizedthatthedestructiveconsequencesofbattlefor theirowntroopscouldbeself-defeating.AftertheFirstWorldWar, BasilLiddellHartdevelopedatheoryofstrategywhichhecalled ‘theindirectapproach’,andsuggestedthatmanoeuvremightsubstituteforhard ﬁghting,evenifitssuccessstillreliedontheinherent threatofbattle.

Thewinnersofbattleshavebeencelebratedasheroes,andnations haveusedtheirtriumphstoestablishtheirfoundingmyths.Itis preciselyforthesereasonsthattheirlegacieshaveoutlivedtheirdirect politicalconsequences.Commemoratedinpainting,verse,andmusic, markedbymonumentalmemorials,andusedasthewaypointsfor theperiodizationofhistory,theyhaveenjoyedculturalafterlives. Theseareevidentinmanycapitals,inplacenamesandstatues,not leastinParisandLondon.TheFrenchtouristwho ﬁndshimselfina LondontaxitravellingfromTrafalgarSquaretoWaterlooStation shouldreﬂectonhisorherowndomesticperegrinationsfromthe RuedeRivolitotheGared’Austerlitz.Today’sMongoliavenerates thememoryofGenghisKhanwhileGreeceandMacedoniascrapover therightstoAlexandertheGreat.

Thisseriesofbookson ‘greatbattles’ tipsitshattobothClausewitz andChurchill.Eachofitsvolumessituatesthebattlewhichitdiscusses inthecontextofthewarinwhichitoccurred,buteachthengoeson todiscussitslegacy,itshistoricalinterpretationandreinterpretation, itsplaceinnationalmemoryandcommemoration,anditsmanifestationsinartandculture.Thesearenoteasybookstowrite.Thevictors weremoreoftencelebratedthanthedefeated;theeffectoflossonthe battle ﬁeldcouldbeculturaloblivion.However,thatpointisnot universallytrue:theBritishhavedonemoreovertimetomarktheir defeatsatGallipoliin  andDunkirkin  thantheirconquerors onbothoccasions.Forthehistoryofwartothriveandbeproductive itneedstoembracetheviewfrom ‘theothersideofthehill’,tousethe DukeofWellington’swords.ThebattletheBritishcallOmdurmanis

fortheSudanesethebattleofKerreri;theGermanscalledWaterloo ‘laBelleAlliance’ andJutlandSkagerrak.Indeedthenamingofbattles coulditselfbeasignnotonlyofgeographicalprecisionorimprecision (Kerreriismoreaccuratebutasahillratherthanatownisharderto findonasmall-scalemap),butalsoofculturalchoice.In  the GermangeneralstaffoptedtonametheirdefeatoftheRussiansinEast PrussianotAllenstein(asgeographysuggested)butTannenberg,in ordertoclaimrevengeforthedefeatoftheTeutonicKnightsin . Militaryhistory,morethanmanyotherformsofhistory,isbound upwithnationalstories.Alltoofrequentlyitfailstobecomparative, torecognizethatwarisa ‘clashofwills’ (toquoteClausewitzonce more),andsoomitstoaddressbothpartiestothe fight.Cultural differenceand,evenmore,linguisticignorancecanpreventthehistorianconsideringabattleintheround;sotoocantheavailabilityof sources.Levelsofliteracymatterhere,butsodoesculturalsurvival. Oftenthesepressurescanbecongruentbuttheycanalsobedivergent. BritainenjoysmuchhigherlevelsofliteracythanAfghanistan,butin  thememoryofthetwocountries’ threewars flourishedinthe latter,thankstoanoraltradition,muchmorerobustlythaninthe former,forwhomliteracyhadcreateddistance.Andthehistorianwho addressesculturallegacyislikelytofaceamuchmorechallengingtask thefurtherinthepastthebattleoccurred.Theopportunityforinventionandreinventionissimplygreaterthelongerthelapseoftime sincethekeyevent.

Allhistoriansofwarmust,nonetheless,neverforgetthat,however richandsplendidtheculturallegacyofagreatbattle,itwaswonand lostby fighting,bykillingandbeingkilled.ThebattleofWaterloohas leftasabundantafootprintasany,butthegeneralwhoharvested mostofitsgloryreflectedonitintermswhichhavegeneralapplicability,andcarryacrosstimeintheircapacitytocaptureauniversal truth.WellingtonwrotetoLadyShelleyinitsimmediateaftermath: ‘IhopetoGodIhavefoughtmylastbattle.Itisabadthingtobe always fighting.WhileinthethickofitIammuchtoooccupiedtofeel anything;butitiswretchedjustafter.Itisquiteimpossibletothinkof

glory.Bothmindandfeelingsareexhausted.Iamwretchedevenatthe momentofvictory,andIalwayssaythat,nexttoabattlelost,the greatestmiseryisabattlegained.’ Readersofthisseriesshouldnever forgettheimmediatesufferingcausedbybattle,aswellasthecourage requiredtoengageinit:thephysicalcourageofthesoldier,sailor,or warrior,andthemoralcourageofthecommander,readytohazardall onitsuncertainoutcomes.

HEWSTRACHAN

PREFACE

IhadforsometimebeencontemplatingabookonThermopylaein tandemwithaprojectonbook  ofHerodotus,ourearliestsurvivingsourceforthebattle.SoIwasdelightedwhenHewStrachan invitedmetocontributetotheOxfordUniversityPress GreatBattles series.Iamverygratefultohimforhiscarefulreadingandannotation ofsuccessivedrafts;Ihaveinalmosteveryinstanceacceptedhis suggestions.ThanksareduetothePressreadersfortheircomments ontheinitialproposalandespeciallytotheanonymousreaderwho subjectedthe ﬁrstdrafttoaclosecriticalscrutinyandofferedrobust, detailed,andthoughtfulcomments.Ihaveinallcasessoughtto addressthereader’scriticisms,evenwhereIhaveallowedthethrust oftheargumenttostand.Iamhappy ﬁnallytobeabletoexpressmy thankstoanumberoffriendsandcolleagueswhohelpedmealong theway.RobertGarlandkindlyinvitedmetolectureonThermopylae atColgateCollege,NY,severalyearsagowhentheprojectwasstillits infancy,withsupportfromtheCenterforFreedomandWestern CivilizationunderitsDirector,ProfessorRobertP.Kraynak.This allowedmetobegintheprocessofturningvaguethoughtsinto hardquestions.Ihavefondmemoriesofwarmhospitalityandof livelydebateaboutancientGreeceandmodernAmerica(thesewere theheadydaysoftheriseoftheTeaParty)overalongandleisurely dinnerwithfacultyatColgate.IoweadeepdebtofthankstoGiorgos TeliosandhiswifeAlicefortheirgeneroushospitalityinAthensand AgiosKonstantinos.GiorgosandIwalkedtheAnopaeatogetherona beautifulJunemorning,guidedbyStylianosGkekasandKostasApostolopoulos,veteransoftheAnopaearace,andaccompaniedbymy verygoodfriendProfessorAthanasios(Thanasis)Efstathiouofthe

IonianUniversityofCorfuandhiscolleagueSokratisPoulis.Nike PolychroniadisandherhusbandApolloniosGogossharedtheir detailedknowledgeoftheareaaroundThermopylaeaswescoped possibleentrypointstotheAnopaeaandreportedtomeonApollonios’ laterexpeditions.IamgratefultoIanBeckettforsharingsources relatingtoRorke’sDriftandIsandlwana,thesubjectofhis  volumeinthe GreatBattles series.Thanksarealsoduetothestaffat OxfordUniversityPress,fromwhomIhavereceivedexcellentsupport from firsttolast,andespeciallytoRowenaAnketell,whosavedme fromerrorsatthecopy-editingstage.Butmyprincipaldebtistomy wifePauline,whofollowedXerxes’ routewithmeacrosswestern Turkey,overtheHellespontandthroughGreeceasfarastheGates, andasifthatweren’tenoughdiscussedanddebatedissueslargeand smallwithinfinitepatienceasthebookdeveloped,then finallyread andcommentedonsuccessivedraftswithacuteandsensitivejudgementbothonstyleandoncontent.

Writingthisbookhasbeenapleasurefrom ﬁrsttolast,aboutas muchfunasyoucanhavewithyourclotheson.Whetherthesame canbesaidofreadingitIleavethereadertojudge.

CHRISCAREY March

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Wherenototherwisespeci ﬁedtheillustrationsarefromphotographstakenbymeduringresearchvisitstoGreeceand Turkey.Thefollowingarethankedfortheirkindpermissiontoreproducedrawings,images,andtext:

Map ,thePersianEmpirefrom CambridgeAncientHistory,voliv (ndedn., ) CambridgeUniversityPress; ExtractfromMargaretAtwood, ‘TheLonelinessoftheMilitary Historian’—HoughtonMifﬂinHarcourt; ExtractfromJohnE.Brookes ‘Thermopylae ’—MrsE.M.Brookes, MrJeremyBrookesandTheVisitorLtd,formerlyBadgerPublications; ExtractfromSylviaPlath, ‘LetterinNovember’—FaberandFaber; EmilyDickinson, ‘“Gotellit”—Whatamessage’—ThePoemsofEmily Dickinson,editedbyThomasH.Johnson,Cambridge,MA:TheBelknap PressofHarvardUniversityPress,Copyright© ,  bythe PresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Copyright©renewed ,  bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Copyright ©  ,  ,  ,

,  ,byMary L.Hampson;

Figure ,Hoplites ﬁghtinginformation;detailfromtheChigi vase WorldHistoryArchive/AnnRonanCollection/agefotostock; Figure , LeonidasatThermopylae byDavid AnnRonanPictures/ HeritageImage/agefotostock;

Figure , RuinsofMonteCassino ARNOLDOMONDADORI EDITORES.P./MondadoriPortfolio/agefotostock; Figure ,PhotographofDimitriHadzi, Thermopylae RobinLevine.

ThefollowingimagesarereproducedunderCreativeCommons licenceoraspublicdomainimages:

Figure ,Persiancoin(‘Daric’)showingthekingasarcher.Digital imagecourtesyoftheGetty’sOpenContentProgram;

Figure ,Persianarchers,possiblymembersoftheeliteImmortals, Wikimediacommons/CaroleRaddato/CC-BY-SA- .;

Figure ,PersianandMediantroopsfromPersepoliswiththe smallerPersianshield,Wikimediacommons/Arad/CC-BY-SA- .;

Figure .DariusIIIwearingthe tiara ,Wikimediacommons/Carole Raddato/CC-BY-SA-.

Figure ,StatueofCambronneatNantes,Wikimediacommons/ AdamBishop/CC-BY-SA-.

Figure ,Alamomission,Wikimediacommons/DanielSchwen/ CC-BY-SA-.;

Figure ,LaststandhillLittleBighorn,Wikimediacommons/ wil/CC-BY-SA- .;

Figure ,RuinsofStalingrad,RIANovostiarchive,image#/ Zelma/CC-BY-SA .;

Figure ,KohimaMemorial,Wikimediacommons/Isaxar/CC-BYSA-.;

Figure ,AchaemenidkingkillingaGreekhoplite,MarcoPrins;

Figure ,AerialViewoftheMiddleGate,waseditedfromanimage downloadedfromGoogleMaps.

Inaddition,anumberofmapsweredigitallyredactedbymyselfand redrawnbystaffatOUPfrompreviouslypublishedmaps.Map  , GreeceandtheAegean,wasbasedonMap  inRobinWaterﬁeld’s translationof Demosthenes fortheOxfordWorldClassics(Oxford, ),p.xxxii.Map ,Thermopylae  BC,isbasedontheonline illustrationontheLiviuswebsitecreatedbyJonaLendering.Map ,the MiddleGateatThermopylae,wasultimatelybasedonthemapin D.Müller, TopographischesBildkommentarzuHerodot, Griechenland ( ),  andheavilyrevisedundertheinﬂuenceofS.Marinatos,F.Stählin, E.Meyer,andW.K.Pritchett.Map ,PossibleroutesfortheAnopaea, isbasedonthemapofP.W.Wallace, ‘TheAnopiaiaPathat

Thermopylai’ , AmericanJournalofArchaeology  ().Map  of SalamiswasreproducedfromHignett, Xerxes’ InvasionofGreece (OUP,  ).

Translationsaremyown,thoughforstyleandaccuracyIhavealso consultedpublishedtranslations.InthecaseofOldPersiandocuments IdrewonthetranslationsofMariaBrosiusandAmelieKuhrt(listedin theFurtherReading,p. ),whichIrevisedusingtheonlineresources oftheUniversityofTexasatAustinLinguisticsResearchCenter (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/).

ListofFigures

Introduction

ReadingThermopylae TheProblems

ThePass

ThePersians:TheLongRoadtothePass

TheGreeks

TheBattle

ThermopylaeRefought

 ThermopylaeintheAncientWorld

TheMythintheModernEra

AndFinally...

FurtherReading

LISTOFFIGURES

.ThermopylaeseenfromtheplainofMalis

.Thermopylaefromthehillsabove

.ThehotspringsatThermopylae

.ArrowheadsfoundatThermopylae

.The ‘Phocian ’ Wall

.AerialViewoftheMiddleGate

.TheHellespont(Dardanelles)atitsnarrowest,site ofXerxes’ doublebridge

.ThesouthernendofXerxes’ canalthroughMountAthos

.ThevalleyofTempe

.Artemisium/Pefki,thesiteoftheGreekanchorage in  BC

.Aphetae/Platania,thesiteofthePersiananchorage in  BC

.Persiancoin(‘Daric’)showingthekingasarcher

.Persianarchers,possiblymembersoftheeliteImmortals

.Hopliteshield

.Hoplites ﬁghtinginformation;detailfromtheChigivase

. ‘Corinthian’ helmetfromtheMuseumatOlympia

.PersianandMediantroopsfromPersepoliswiththe smallerPersianshield

.DariusIIIwearingthe tiara

.AsoposGorge

.Thehillofthe ﬁnalstand(Kolonos)

.StatueofLeonidasatThermopylae

. LeonidasatThermopylae byDavid

.StatueofCambronneatNantes

.RemainsoftheAlamomission

.LaststandhillLittleBighorn

.RuinsofStalingrad

.KohimaMemorial

.RuinsofMonteCassino

.DimitriHadzi: Thermopylae

.Achaemenidcylinderseal

LISTOFMAPS

.GreeceandtheAegeanxxvi

.Thermopylae  BC

.ThePersianEmpire

.MiddleGate(Greekposition)atThermopylae

.PossibleroutesfortheAnopaea

.Salamis

ABBREVIATIONS

Diod.Sic.DiodorusofSicily

Hdt.Herodotus

IsocIsocrates

Lycurg.Lycurgus

Lys.Lysias

Paus.Pausanias

PMGD.L.Page, PoetaeMeliciGraeci

Stob.JohnofStobi

Thuc.Thucydides

Tyrtaeus

Fr.West

TyrtaeusfragmentscitedfromM.L.West, IambietElegi Graeci

1 Introduction

AsyoupassLamiaontheroadsouththroughThessalyavast mountainchain,withKallidromonstraightaheadandMount Oetatotheright,loomsuplikeanimpassablewall(Figure ).Eventhe moderntravellercangetasenseofthemassivenessoftheobstacle. ButthisisapaleshadowofthesightwhichopeneditselftoXerxesin  BC.Wherenowtherestretchesawidealluvialplaintherewasa narrowpass(Figure ).AndthepasswasoccupiedbyaGreekforcein awell-preparedforti fiedposition.Thearmyopposinghimwascontemptiblysmall,sixorseventhousand,whileXerxeshadbroughtthe biggestarmyeverseenintheGreekpeninsula.ButtheGreekshad chosentheirpositionwell.FortwolongdaysXerxesthrewindivision afterdivisiononlytohavethemthrownbackwithheavylosses.He wastheninformedofanarrowroutethroughthemountainwhich wouldallowhimtoout flanktheGreeksandtaketheminapincer movement.HesentaPersianforcewithalocalguidebythispathto descendintherearoftheGreekarmy.AfterheateddebatetheGreek commanderLeonidassentawaymostofhistroopsbeforethenet closed.Thecontingentwhichstayed,withasmallbandofSpartansat itscore,helditsownin fierce fightingagainstvastlysuperiorodds untilitwaswipedoutbyarrowvolleysfromthePersians.

Thestoryiswellknownandeasilytold.Thebattlewasoverinthree days.TheGreekslostandthePersianarmy,mauledbutvictorious, rolledontooverrunmuchofcentralGreece.Theirvictorywasshortlived.AmonthlatertheGreeksinﬂictedamassivedefeatonthe PersiannavyinthenarrowstraitbetweentheislandofSalamisand

. ThermopylaeseenfromtheplainofMalis

. Thermopylaefromthehillsabove

Figure

thecoastlineofAttica.ThePersian ﬂeet andtheking withdrew afterthedefeat,leavingthearmytowinterinGreece.Ayearlaterina hard-foughtandshiftingbattletheGreeksfacedanddefeatedthe PersianarmyattheBattleofPlataeainBoeotia.TheGreekvictory wassealedinafurtherbattleatMycaleonthesoutherncoastofIonia inwhatisnowTurkey,whentheGreeksbothdefeatedaPersianarmy anddestroyedthe ﬂeet.

SalamisandPlataeachangedthecourseofhistory.Theimmediate triggerfortheinvasionwasthedefeatofaPersianexpeditionagainst AthensattheBattleofMarathontenyearsbefore.Butthescaleofthe invasionmadethismorethanareprisal.Persiawasthedominant regionalpower.Ithadbeensteadilyexpandingitsempiresincethe middleofthesixthcentury BC.Bytheendofthecenturyithadgaineda footholdinthenorthernpartoftheGreekpeninsula,inThrace,an arealargelyinhabitedbynon-Greektribes,thoughwithsettlements fromdifferentGreekcitiesstrungalongthecoast,andinMacedonia, wheretherulingfamilywerePersianvassals.Somovementsouthward intoGreecewasanaturalnextstep.Ourearliestsource,theGreek historianHerodotus,claimsthatthisinvasionwasitselfa ﬁrststep towardtheultimateconquestofEurope(Hdt.

). Persianexpansionhadbeenincrementalanditisveryunlikelythat dominanceofEuropewaspartofanygrandstrategicplanatthisstage. ButXerxesandhisadvisersmusthavebeenawarethatoncetheyhad gainedasolidfootholdineasternEuropeexpansionwestwardwasa possibility.Onecouldplayoutthe ‘what-ifs’ endlessly.ButGreecewas abouttoembarkonaculturalerawhichwouldseethedramaticforms oftragedyandcomedygraduallymoveoutwardfromAthensto becomeapan-Greekandultimatelyaworldpossession.Oratoryhad yetto ﬂourishasaliteraryformandwithitrhetoric,thesystematic studyofpersuasion.Historiographyhadnotemerged(thatinfactwas inpartadirectresultofthePersianWars,whichinspiredthequantum leapofHerodotus’ history).Thestudyofthephysicalworldwhich hademergedinwesternAnatoliahadnotyetgivenrisetothestudy ofmoral(andthenpolitical)philosophywhichwouldoccurin