Acknowledgments
Acknowledgmentsfrompreviousvolume
Theeditorofthisvolumeexpresseshisgratitudetotheeditorsofthejournal LavalThéologiqueetPhilosophique,BernardColletteandGuyJobin,forgiving theirconsenttotranslateandreprintashortenedversionofAnneDevarieux’s article“Puissance(s)dumoi:LouisLavelleetMainedeBiran,”previouslypublishedinvolume69/1(2013),pp.35–56.
HerausgegebenmitfreundlicherUnterstützungderUniversitätsstiftung LuciaundDr.Otfried-EberzimRahmenderRegensburgerUniversitätsstiftung (Bayern),Deutschland.
PublishedwiththekindsupportoftheLuciaandDr.Otfried-EberzUniversityFoundationwithintheframeworkoftheRegensburgUniversityFoundation(Bavaria),Germany.
Acknowledgmentsfromcurrentvolume
Thecoreofthisvolumeoriginatedwithinandevolvedaroundthefirstextensiveinternationalmultidisciplinaryresearchcolloquiumdevotedtothework andinfluenceoftheFrenchphilosopherMarie-François-PierreMainedeBiran (1766–1824),PosteritiesofMainedeBiran’sPhysio-Spiritualisminthe20thCentury.OrganizedbytheFacultyofLanguages,LiteratureandCulturesatRegensburgUniversity,25–26September2020,itwasfacilitated,duetotheCorona restrictions,inanonlineformat.
TheideaofreconstructingsomeofBiran’scorediscoursesandinitialreceptionaround1800,movingthentotracehisresonancesthroughoutthecourse ofthetwentiethcenturywithaspecialfocusontheperiodfollowingWorld Warii,however,emergedfromaneedforresearchregardingthisspecifictrajectoryidentifiedduringthecourseofaresearchprojectdevotedtoprotophenomenologicalaestheticsthattheeditorofthisvolumeisstillintheprocessofpursuingattheaforementionedinstitutioninthecontextofvisualarts.
Indeed,thisbook,constitutingajointeffortbyscholarsfromBelgium, France,Germany,Greece,Iceland,Italy,Ireland,Japan,Portugal,theUnited Kingdom,andtheUSA,isattendingtoaneedtothoroughlyexaminethe scarcelyinvestigatedinfluenceofBiran’sconspicuousconceptof“physio-spiritualism”uponpostmodernity,existentialism,andphenomenology,respectivelyonexperimentalpsychology,aswellasphysiologyandneurology,during
thesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury—againstthehistoricalbackdropof multidisciplinarymedicalhumanities,philosophy,andmysticism.
Tothisend,theeditorhas,infollowinghisinitialhistoriographicmapping oftheprojectforthepurposeofafundingapplication,assembledateamof researcherscomprised,ontheonehand,ofexplicitBiran-scholarsand,onthe other,ofscholarsspecializinginthosephilosopherswhoseconceptshavebeen explicitlyinfluencedbyMainedeBiran’sphysio-spiritualism.Thishasenabled seniorandjuniorinvestigatorsfromthedisciplinesofculturalhistory,philosophy,psychology,andliteraturetoholdacross-fertilizingdialoguethatis,in fact,ongoingandthatcontinuestoevolveintofurtherprojects.
Oureffervescentconversationsandconstructivedisagreementsduringthe researchsymposiumandinitswakehaveultimatelyinspiredadynamicwriting processwhichenabledustoidentifysynergiesandestablishedafluidcoherencebetweenindividualtopicsandamongstthehistoricalphaseswherein thesearesituated.Theongoingdialogueswithinourheterogeneousresearch circleandwithscholarsfromneighboringdisciplineshavebeenandarelaying thefoundationsofthehistoricaldiscoursethatemergedfromtheconceptof physio-spiritualism—especiallyinitsrelationshiptophenomenology.
Whilemanyofthechaptersunitedandintertwinedinthisvolumearebased ontalkspresentedduringthesymposium,otherswerewrittenlaterforthis projectattheeditor’srequestbyscholarswhowereeitherunabletojoinour discussionsorpreferredtomaketheircontributionexclusivelyinwrittenform. AnexceptionisthechapterbyAnneDevarieux“Power(s)ofSelf:LouisLavelle andMainedeBiran”thatwaspreviouslypublishedinFrench.Ialsowishto thanktheauthor,theeditors,andthepublishinghouseinvolvedforgranting permissiontotranslatethistext.
Theinitialresearchconductedforthisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheinspiringcreativeacademicenvironmentprovided,onadaily basis,byallofmycolleagues.Inthisregard,Iwouldliketoexpressmyheartfelt thankfulness,particularlytoChristianeHeibach(Vice-Chair),BernhardDotzler(Chair),RenateVogl(ourSecretary)attheInstituteofInformationand Media,Language,andCultureoftheUniversityofRegensburg—fortheircontinuedsupportofmyresearchoverthepastyears.Iamequallygratefultoour assistants,especiallytoSonjaKalninandtoTobiasEmmerling.SonjaKalnin hasdevotedmuchtimeandenergytothisprojectbothinhersupportwith thepreliminaryorganizationalstepsofthecolloquiumandduringitsactual execution.Hermuchvalueddedicationwasinstrumentalindevelopingthis projectexpeditiously.TobiasEmmerlingmeticulouslysupportedthepreparationofthebookmanuscriptinitsfinalstage,toskilfullyaddressformatand technicalissues.
Thetranslationsrequiredforthisbookhavebeengenerouslyfundedbythe LuciaandDr.OtfriedEberzFoundationundertheumbrellaoftheBavarian VielberthUniversityFoundation.Theteamofauthorsasawholefeelsindebted totheboardoftrusteesfortheirflexibilityduringthesechallengingtimesof theCoronapandemic,specificallyintheirdecisiontoreallocatethefinancial resourcesusuallyprovidedtofacilitateconferencevenuesfortranslatingessentialtextsfromFrenchandGermanintoEnglish.Inthiscontext,Iwishtoexpress appreciationfortheeffortsofJacobWatson,thetranslatorofthetextswritten byAnneDevarieuxandRolfKühn.Mr.Watsonhasalsodonelanguageediting forthechapterswrittenbynon-nativespeakerstoconformtoproperEnglish styleaswellasadaptingallthechapters,intandemwiththeeditor,toadhere totherequiredconsistency.
Furthermore,theeditorandauthorswishtothankBenMorgan(University ofOxford)andAndrésQueroSanchez(UniversityofRegensburg)fortheirsolid trustexpressedbyinvitingus,ataveryearlystage—sixmonthspriortoour researchcolloquium—topublishtheoutcomeofthisprojectintheirdistinguishednovelseriesStudiesinMysticism,IdealismandPhenomenology.
IalsoextendmyheartfeltgratitudetoJenniferPavelko(theformerSenior AcquisitionsEditorofPhilosophyatBrill)andtohersuccessorErikaMandarino(AcquisitionsEditorofPhilosophyatBrill),aswellastohercolleague HelenaSchöb(AssociateEditorofPhilosophy)fortheircontinuedinterest, support,andadvice.
IamequallygratefultoDeniseVincenti(UniversityofMilan-Bicocca)and MarcMaesschalck(CatholicUniversityofLouvain),contributorstothisvolume,whohavebeensupportiveingrantingremoteaccesstothelibraryholdingsoftheiracademicinstitutionsandprovided,viaemail-communication, datafromresourcesthatcontributedtotheprecisionofthemanuscript.
Ialsowishtoaddressaspecialnoteofgratitudetocolleaguesandfriends:to SigmundBonk(DirectoroftheAcademicForumAlbertusMagnus;Instituteof Philosophy,UniversityofRegensburg),toAnneDevarieux(DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversitéCaenNormandie)andtoRolfKühn(Emeritus,Universityof FreiburgimBreisgau)fortheirvaluablecriticalinputwheneverweexchanged thoughtsregardingtheevolvingstructureandcontentofthisproject.
Mostimportantofall,Iwouldliketothankthewonderfulbeingbymy side,mywifeNeslihanDemirtaş-Milz,who,evenfromadistance,constantly enrichesmyendeavorsandmylife.
1 Stendhal’sdrawingin“Lecaractèreetlagéologie”(1822),Journallittéraire,iii, delLitto(ed.),vol.35158
2 Stendhal’sdrawingin“Lecaractèreetlagéologie”(1822),Journallittéraire,iii, delLitto(ed.),vol.35158
3 EdméQuenedeydesRicets,PortraitofMainedeBiran,1811383
NotesonContributors
AlessandraAloisi
receivedherPhDinAestheticsfromtheUniversityofPisa.CollegeLecturerat theFacultyofMedievalandModernLanguages,OrielCollege,OxfordUniversity:CorefocusonmodernFrenchliteratureandphilosophy,aswellascultural exchangesbetweenFranceandItaly.Specializingonpre-Freudiantheorizationsoftheunconsciousandthecross-fertilizationsbetweenmedicine,literature,andphilosophy.AlessandraAloisi’slatestpublicationsinEnglishinclude: MainedeBiran:OfImmediateApperception,1807,ed.A.Aloisi,M.Piazza,and M.Sinclair,London/NewYork:Bloomsbury,2020; ArcheologyoftheUnconscious,ItalianPerspectives,ed.A.AloisiandF.Camilletti,London/NewYork: Routledge,2019.
BenjaminJ.Bâcle
receivedhisPhDinPhilosophyfromAstonUniversityinBirmingham.Lecturer (Teaching)attheFacultyofArtsandHumanities,UniversityCollegeLondon: PhD-thesis(2011)onMainedeBiran’sandSamuelTaylorColeridge’sconceptionsofwillandtheirrespectiveposterities.Specializationinepistemology, philosophyandpoliticalthoughtinpost-1789FranceandBritain.TracingcriticalresponsestothespreadofJeremyBentham’sutilitarianism,BenjaminBâcle iscurrentlypreparingabook-lengthhistoricalcomparisonbetweenFrench andBritishanti-utilitarianwriters(VictorCousin,AlexisdeTocqueville,JeanMarieGuyau,Jennyd’Héricourt,AnnaWheeler,JohnStuartMill,Matthew ArnoldandJohnRuskin).
MichaelA.Conway
receivedhisPhDinFundamentalTheologyfromtheAlbert-Ludwigs-Universität,Freiburgi.Br.,Germany.Rev.ProfessorinFaithandCultureatSaint Patrick’sCollege,PontificalUniversity,Maynooth,CoKildare:Fundamental theologyindialoguewithphenomenology(EmmanuelLévinasandJean-Luc Marion);pragmatism,philosophyofscience,andphilosophyofreligion,especiallyinitsaccentuationbyMauriceBlondel.KeypublicationsofMichaelConwayinclude:TheScienceofLife:MauriceBlondel’sPhilosophyofActionand theScientificMethod(FrankfurtamMain:PeterLang,2000[EuropeanUniversityStudies;Seriesxx—Philosophy,Vol.616]);Encyclopediaentry:“Blondel, Maurice”intheCambridgeDictionaryofChristianity,ed.DanielPatte,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010.
ScottDavidson
receivedhisPhDfromDuquesneUniversity,Pittsburg(2002).Departmentof Philosophy,WestVirginiaUniversity,Morgantown,WestVirginia:ContemporaryFrenchPhilosophy(MauriceMerleau-Ponty,EmmanuelLévinas,Michel Henry,PaulRicoeur)andTheory(Ethics,PoliticalPhilosophy,Philosophyof Law,PhilosophyofEmbodiment).Inadditiontobeingtheeditorofthe JournalofFrenchandFrancophonePhilosophy,ScottDavidsonhasrecentlyedited fivebooksonRicoeur,whoseearlyphilosophyofthewillisofspecialconcern tohim.KnownforhismeticuloustranslationsofMichelHenry’sbooksand articles,hehasalsoco-edited(withFrédéricSeyler),TheMichelHenryReader in2019.
AnneDevarieux
receivedherPhDinPhilosophy(onMainedeBiran)fromUniversitédeParisiv,Panthéon-Sorbonne (2000).SeniorLecturer,habilitatedtosuperviseresearch.AssistantDirectorofthe ea 2129“IdentityandSubjectivity”atthe DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversitéCaenNormandie:Aspecialistinnineteenth-centuryFrenchphilosophyandtwentieth-centuryphenomenology,she hasnotablypublishedMainedeBiran,L’individualitépersévérante(2004)and L’intérioritéréciproque.L’hérésiebiraniennedeMichelHenry(2018)bothpublishedbyJérômeMillon(Grenoble).AuthorofmanyarticlesonMainedeBiran, HenriBergson,orGabrielTarde.
MikaImono
receivedherPhDinPhilosophyfromtheUniversityofToulouseii(2013)and aPhDinPhilosophyfromDoshishaUniversity,Kyoto(2015).AssociateProfessorattheDepartmentofEducation,MeiseiUniversity,Tokyo:Subjectofboth ofherthesesisacomparisonbetweenthephilosophicalconceptsofMainede BiranandKitarôNishida.Aftercompletingherthesisin2013,MikaImonohas heldvariousresearchandteachingappointmentsinJapaneseStudiesatthe UniversitiesofBordeauxMontaigne(2013–2015)andStrasbourg(2015–2019). From2019to2020,shewasawardedtheHakuhoJapaneseResearchFellowship,andsubsequentlypursuedherstudiesasaVisitingResearchFellowatthe InternationalResearchCenterforJapaneseStudiesinKyoto(2019–2020).
RolfKühn
receivedhisPhD(onSimoneWeil)fromSorbonneUniversityandHabilitation (onMichelHenry)fromtheUniversityofVienna.AssociateProfessor(Emeritus),DepartmentofPhilosophy,UniversityofFreiburg:Hisbooks,translations (MainedeBiran;MichelHenry),editorshipsandarticlesexplorephenomenol-
xvi notesoncontributors ogy,psychologicalandphilosophicalanthropology,andphilosophyofreligion. Co-editoroftheseries Soul,Existence,andLife (KarlAlberPublishing)and co-founderofpsycho-logik,ayearbookforpsychotherapy,philosophy,andculture.TeachingandresearchappointmentsinVienna,Beirut,Nizza,Lissabon, andFreiburgimBreisgau.Latestpublicationsinclude:PostmodernityandPhilosophyofLife(2019);GuidingCulture:Psychoanalyse,Philosophy,andReligion (2020).
MarcMaesschalck
isProfessorofPhilosophyatucLouvaininBelgium,whereheleadstheCentreforPhilosophyofLaw(cpdr).HehastaughtinHaiti,Quebec,Luxemburg, SwitzerlandandFrance.AspecialistofFichteandSchelling,hehaspublished numerousstudiesinpoliticalandsocialphilosophy,aswellasinethicsand legaltheory.HislatestworksareReflexiveGovernanceforResearchandInnovativeKnowledge,(Wiley-iste,2017),Lacausedusujet(Lang,2015),Democracy, LawandGovernance(Ashgate,2010)andTransformationsdel’éthique(Lang, 2010).Healsoco-editedFichte:laphilosophiedelamaturité(Europhilosophie Editions,2017)withJean-ChristopheGoddard.
LarryS.McGrath
receivedhisPhDinIntellectualHistoryfromJohnsHopkinsUniversity(2014), conductsanthropologicalresearchfortechnologyandlifesciencecompanies. HewasaVisitingAssistantProfessorofHumanitiesat jhu (2014–2015), AndrewW.MellonFellowatWesleyanUniversity(2015–2017),andiscurrently SeniorResearcherat Facebook.Hisspecializationisthehistoryofneuroscienceandtheculturalcontextsofbrainimaging.Larryhaspublishedarticles in JournaloftheHistoryofIdeas,Human-ComputerInteraction,Historyofthe HumanSciences,and ModernIntellectualHistory.Hisbookis MakingSpirit Matter:Neurology,Psychology,andSelfhoodinModernFrance (Universityof ChicagoPress,2020).
ManfredMilz
receivedhisPhDintheHistoryofArtfromGoetheUniversity,Frankfurt/Main (2003)forastudyonprocessualcorrelationsbetweenAlbertoGiacomettiand SamuelBeckett. SeniorResearchAssociate (since2017)attheInstituteof InformationandMedia,LanguageandCultureoftheUniversityofRegensburgandVisitingAssociateProfessor(2023–2026)attheFacultyofArt,Design andArchitecture,UniversityofJohannesburg.Guest-editorof TheEuropean Legacy(2011);editorandco-authorofFacingMentalLandscapes(2011),PaintingthePersianBookofKingsToday(Cambridge2010),thecatalogueforShah-
namehMillenniumexhibitionatthePrince’sGalleryinLondon.Editor-in-chief oftheBrill-seriesTransculturalAesthetics,foundedin2021bytheiaa.Aesthetics.
MarcoPiazza
receivedhisPhDinPhilosophyfromtheUniversityofFlorence.Professorat theDepartmentofPhilosophy,CommunicationandPerformingArts,UniversitàRomaTre,Rome:eighteenth–nineteenth-centuryFrenchLiteratureand Philosophy(Rousseau,MainedeBiran,Proust).Hismostrecentworksare dedicatedtothePhilosophiesofHabit:L’antagonistanecessario(Milan:2015); Creaturedell’abitudine(Bologna:2018);Habit,SecondNature,andDisposition (monographicdossiered.by,«Paradigmi»,1–2020).Piazzahasdedicatedfour bookstoMainedeBiran,amongthesethefirstItalianandEnglisheditionsof theMémoiredeBerlin(thelatterincollaborationwithAlessandraAloisiand MarcSinclair)andpublished(togetherwithDeniseVincenti)onBiran’sKantnotes.
EftichisPirovolakis
receivedhisPhDinPhilosophyfromthe UniversityofSussex,UK (2006). AssistantProfessorattheDepartmentofTheatreStudies,Universityofthe Peloponnese,Greece:Deconstruction(Derrida),Phenomenology(Husserl), Hermeneutics(Ricoeur,Gadamer),Psychoanalysis,Aesthetics.Heistheauthor ofReadingDerridaandRicoeur:ImprobableEncountersbetweenDeconstructionandHermeneutics(sunyPress,2010).Hisresearchconcentratesontwentieth-centurycontinentalphilosophy.HeservedasassistanteditoroftheBulletinoftheHegelSocietyofGreatBritain(2007–2012),hastranslatedDerrida intoEnglishandGreek,andhasco-edited,withDorotheaOlkowski,Deleuze andGuattari’sPhilosophyofFreedom:Freedom’sRefrains(Routledge,2019).
WarrenSchmaus
receivedhisPhDinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencefromPittsburgUniversity(1980);AB,PrincetonUniversity(1974),isProfessorofPhilosophyatthe IllinoisInstituteofTechnologyinChicago:Hismajorresearchinterestisin thephilosophyofscienceinnineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyFrance.A centralfocusofhisextensiveresearchisDurkheim’sphilosophyofscience.In hismostrecentbook,SchmausexploresLibertyandthePursuitofKnowledge: CharlesRenouvier’sPoliticalPhilosophyofScience(Pittsburgh,2018),andhehas alsopublishedseveralarticlesinvestigatingtheearlydevelopmentoftheidea ofconventionalisminFrenchphilosophyofscience.
PietroTerzi
receivedhisPhDinPhilosophyfromUniversitéParis-NanterreandaPhDin PhilosophyfromtheSanCarloFoundation,Modena.CurrentlyaResearchAssociatewiththeInstituteofPhilosophyatParis-NanterreUniversity,hespecializeswithinhistoriographyandtheoriesofFrenchphilosophy(1850–1980) ontheReceptionofKantandHusserl;Rationalism,Idealism,Phenomenology; PhilosophyandtheSciences(PsychologyandSociology);IntellectualHistory oftheThirdRepublicandPost-Structuralism(JacquesDerrida).PietroTerzi hasco-edited(withStefanoMarino)Kant’s“CritiqueofAestheticJudgment”in theTwentiethCentury(2020).Forthcomingin2021aremonographsonKantian philosophyinFranceandonLéonBrunschvicg.
BjörnThorsteinsson
receivedhisPhDinPhilosophyfromthe UniversitéParis8(Vincennes-St. Denis).ProfessorofPhilosophyattheUniversityofIceland:Hespecializes intwentieth-centuryFrenchphilosophy,Germanidealism,phenomenology, poststructuralism,andthecritiqueofideology.Heistheauthorof LaquestiondelajusticechezJacquesDerrida(Paris:L’Harmattan,2007),andhascontributedtoTheRoutledgeCompaniontoPhenomenology(2011)andtheBlackwellCompaniontoDerrida(2014)aswellasnumerousotherpublicationsin severallanguages,includingtranslationsintoIcelandicofworksbyRousseau, Merleau-Ponty,Foucault,Zahavi,Lazzarato,Bourdieu,Deleuze,andothers.
LuísA.Umbelino
isholdingaPhDinModernandContemporaryPhilosophyfromtheUniversity ofCoimbra.CoreResearchonFrenchreflexivetradition,especiallyonMaine deBiranandhisinfluences,oncontemporaryphenomenologyofthebody, andonphilosophicalhermeneutics.MemberofthePortugueseI&DResearch Unitcech-fluc/PortugalandoftheSpanishresearchproject“Fenomenologíadelcuerpoyanálisisdeldolorii.”Asidefrombeingtheeditor-in-chiefofthe RevistaFilosóficadeCoimbra,istheauthorrespectivelytheco-author,ofSomatologiaSubjetiva.ApercepçãodeSieCorpoemMainedeBiran(2010);Memorabilia.OLadoEspacialdaMemória(2020);HermeneuticRationality(2012)and Corpsému/Corpoabalado.Essaisdephilosophiebiranienne(2021).
SeanM.Quinlan
isProfessorofHistoryandDeanoftheCollegeofLetters,Arts,andSocialSciencesattheUniversityofIdaho.Quinlanreceivedhisba(1992)fromArizona StateUniversity,andhisma(1994)andPhD(2000),bothfromIndianaUniversity.HewasaFulbrightresearchfellowinFrancein1996–1997andItalyin
2016–2017,andhehasalsoreceivedgrantsfromtheMellonFoundationandthe NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities.HispublicationsincludeTheGreat NationinDecline:Sex,Modernity,andHealthCrisesinRevolutionaryFrance, ca.1750–1850(Ashgate,2007)andMorbidUndercurrents:MedicalSubcultures andLiteraryGenreinPost-RevolutionaryFrance(CornellUniversityPress,2021).
DeniseVincenti
isaPost-doctoralraintheHistoryofPsychologyattheUniversityofMilanBicocca and ra intheHistoryofPhilosophyatthe InstitutCatholiqueof Toulouse:Herinterestsfocusonnineteenth-centuryFrenchPhilosophy (MainedeBiran,FélixRavaisson,JulesLachelier,HenriBergson,etc.)and itsintersectionswithmedicalandpsychologicalscience.Herpublications include:“Espacetactileetespacevisuel.L’originedelanotiond’étenduechez JulesLachelier”,Revuedemétaphysiqueetdemorale(forthcoming),“Sognoe follia.IlproblemadellealterazionidellapersonalitànelCoursdepsychologie diJulesLachelier,”Bollettinosfi (2020),and(withMarcoPiazza),“TheSelfApperceptionandtheKnowerasAgent:AnIntroductiontoMainedeBiran’s NotesaboutKant,”PhilosophicalInquiries(2016).
OurTranslator
JacobWatson
isafreelancetranslator/editorinBerlin,studiedphilosophyandlanguages beforeobtaininghis Diplômeavancéd’etudesfrançaises&traduction atthe UniversitéMarcBloch,Strasbourg(2002).Hisfieldsarephilosophyandlaw, sociologyandhistory,artandfilm,mostnotablyforthelawjournal Ancilla LurisofZurichUniversityofAppliedSciences(zhaw).RecentbooktranslationsareEros,LustandSinbyFranzX.Eder(forthcoming)andWork—theLast 1000Years(2018)byAndreaKomlosy,withwhomheteaches“TranslatingWork” attheUniversityofVienna.Co-editorof“SensingCollectives—Aestheticsand PoliticsIntertwined”(tuBerlin,2023).
Introduction
IntheGermanpost-KantianIdealisttraditionofthereflexivehumanself, commondenominatorsofpsychoanalysisandphenomenologyhavebeenat thecoreofmanyin-depthstudiesontheintersectingprocessesofintrospection,consciousness,andtheunconscious.Thistrajectory—soformativefor twentieth-centurypsychology1and,concomitantly,morerecent,thecognitive sciences—isalsorepresentedinthispresentvolumebyusingMainedeBiran’s conceptofinterioritytocomparetheperspectivesofFriedrichWilhelmJoseph SchellingandArthurSchopenhauer.
TheœuvreofthecontemporaryFrenchspiritualistphilosopher,whose groundbreakingpsycho-physiologicalandpsycho-pathologicalinvestigations
1 Outstandingamongthemostrelevantarethefollowinginvestigations:DanieledeSantis, BurtC.Hopkins,ClaudioMajolino(eds.),TheRoutledgeHandbookofPhenomenologyand PhenomenologicalPhilosophy,NewYork/London:Routledge,2021;GordBarentsen,Romantic MetasubjectivitythroughSchellingandJung:RethinkingtheRomanticSubject,London/New York:Routledge,2020;ErikStänicke,AndersZachrisson&ArneJohanVetlesen,“TheEpistemologicalStanceofPsychoanalysis:RevisitingtheKantianLegacy,” ThePsychoanalytic Quarterly,202089:2,281–304;BrianD.Cox,TheHistoryandEvolutionofPsychology:APhilosophicalandbiologicalPerspective,NewYork/London:Routledge,2019;SlavojŽižek,PsychoanalyseunddiePhilosophiedesDeutschenIdealismus,translatedbyIsoldeCharimandLydia Marinelli,Wien/Berlin:Turia+KantVerlag,2015;NicolasBoyleandLizDisley(eds.),The ImpactofGermanIdealism:TheLegacyofPost-KantianGermanThought:Volume1,PhilosophyandtheNaturalSciences,editedbyKarlAmeriks,CambridgeUniversityPress,2013;James Hopkins,“Psychoanalysis,representation,andneuroscience:theFreudianunconsciousand theBayesianbrain,”inAikateriniFotopoulou,DonaldPfaff,DonaldandMartinA.Conway(eds),FromtheCouchtotheLab:trendsinpsychodynamicneuroscience,Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,2012;ElkeVölmicke,DasUnbewussteimDeutschenIdealismus,Würzburg: Königshausen&Neumann,2005;JonMills,TheUnconsciousAbyss:Hegel’santicipationofpsychoanalysis,Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2002;DavidSnelling,Philosophy, Psychoanalysis,andtheOriginsofMeaning:Pre-reflectiveIntentionalityinthepsychoanalytic ViewoftheMind,Basingstoke:Ashgate,2001;JohnGedo,TheEvolutionofPsychoanalysis: ContemporaryTheoryandPractice,NewYork:OtherPress,1999;ManfredFrank,Unendliche Annäherung.DieAnfängederphilosophischenFrühromantik,FrankfurtamMain:Suhrkamp, 1997;ChristopherYoungandAndrewBrook,“SchopenhauerandFreud,”InternationalJournal ofPsychoanalysis75(1994),101–118;D.E.Pettigre,“Thequestionoftherelationofphilosophyandpsychoanalysis:thecaseofKantandFreud,”Metaphilosophy,199021:67–88;Odo Marquard,TranszendentalerIdealismus,romantischeNaturphilosophie,Psychoanalyse,Köln: Dinter,1987;AdolfGrünbaum,TheFoundationsofPsychoanalysis,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1984;PaulRicoeur,Freud&Philosophy:AnEssayonInterpretation.NewHaven: YaleUniv.Press,1970;HenriEllenberger,TheDiscoveryoftheUnconscious:theHistoryand EvolutionofdynamicPsychiatry,NewYork:BasicBooks,1970.
©ManfredMilz,2023|doi:10.1163/9789004683778_002
ofthehumanselftooktheformofinteriormonologues,2wouldlaterinspire thefoundingexpoundersofpsychoanalysis,yetthishasreceivedlittlecritical scrutinyuntilnow.
Biranrespondedtotheseventeenth-andeighteenth-centuryempiricistand materialistphilosophiesofsensationandimaginationthathadcementedthe assumptionofapassivehumanself.Accordingtohisseminalconceptof physio-spiritualism,constitutionofconsciousnessisdependentonvoluntary physicaleffort—byvirtueofthe resistance requiredbyinnerapperception. ThusBirancombinesthevoluntarywiththespiritual:Hearguesthattheconscious,activeselfisconstitutedinitssovereignautonomy,asfreeandundivided,bywhathecallsthe“efforthyperphysique”(ahyperphysicalactofwill) andtheresistancefromthe“non-moi”(thenot-I)towardsitsownbodyandthe world.
Despitethegroundbreakingnoveltyofthisreformistconcept,Mainede Biranhasbeenconsideredsecondaryininternationalphenomenologicalresearchduringthepasttwodecades.However,itisarguablethatMainedeBiran shouldbeaddedtotheranksofthepioneersofaradicalphenomenologicalscienceofhumanreality,RenéDescartesandEdmundHusserl.Husserlappears tohaveneglectedcloselyrelatedworksofhisspiritualpredecessorMainede Biran.However,MaineBiranacknowledgedtheCartesiannotionofrescogitans andresextensa,andwishedtoreinterpretitthroughthecrucialcomponentof humanwill.MainedeBirandidnotnecessarilyargueagainstDescartes;rather, hisintentionwastocompletetheprojectofhispredecessorbyrectifyingit.
HenriBergson,whoseprocessphilosophyissituatedatthehistoricalcrossroadsbetweenspiritualismontheonehandandexistentialistphenomenology andpoststructuralismontheother,countedBiranamonghismaîtresveritables,alongwithPlotinus,BaruchdeSpinoza,andGeorgeBerkeley.3In“LaScienceFrançaise”(1915),hegoesevenfurther:“fromthebeginningofthecentury Francehadagreatmetaphysician,thegreatestsheproducedsinceDescartes andMalebranche:MainedeBiran.”4Asearlyas1897,ayearafterpublishing Matièreetmémoire,heacknowledgedthat“thereisaphilosophyfromwhich
2 ManfredMilz,“DiagnosticConceptsoftheUnconsciousasaFoundationofRomanticist Identity:MainedeBiran’sPsycho-PhysiologicalandPsycho-PathologicalSelf-Investigations,” JournalofAestheticsandPhenomenology,Vol.6(2019),Issue2:TheUnconscious,editedby TanehisaOtabe,103–119.
3 FlorisDelattre,RuskinetBergson:del’intuitionesthétiqueàl’intuitionmétaphysique.Oxford: ClarendonPress,1947,12.
4 HenriBergson,Mélanges:l’idéedelieuchezAristote,Duréeetsimultanéité,correspondance, piècesdiverses,documents.Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1972,1172.
absolutelyallofFrenchspiritualismderives;itisthatofMainedeBiran.”5Bythe endofthenineteenthcentury,theappreciationofMainedeBiran’sphilosophy wasbynomeansrestrictedtoFrance.TheGermanphilosopher,theologian, andpedagogueWilhelmDilthey(1833–1911)usedBiran’snotionofthesensationd’effortinordertoanswerhisownepistemicquestionofhowabeliefin therealityoftheexternalworldisestablished.In1890Diltheydeemdhimto bethemostoutstandingpsychologicalanalystinFranceduringthefirsthalfof thenineteenthcentury,6counting“MainedeBiranandthoseFrenchthinkers relatedtohim”(inlinewithImmanuelKant,GottliebFichte,andThomas Carlyle)totheepistemologicalgenealogyof“theidealismoffreedom.”7More recently,inthe1960s,DimitriVoutsinashailedhimasthe“fondateurdelapsychologiefrançaise.”8
HowdidBiranarriveathisphysio-spiritualistconclusionsandatwhichpoint inhisphilosophicaldevelopment?Whatarethehistoricalandpersonalconditionsthatgaverisetothoseinnovativeconceptsthatwouldprovetobeinfluentialforcenturies?
Marie-François-PierreGonthierdeBiranwasbornon29November1766 intheRueSainte-Catherine39ofBergerac,intheSouthwestofFrance.His father,JeanGonthierdeBiran,wasaSieurduMaineanddistinguishedmedical doctor,whoonJune301750marriedaneighborfromthecastleofGrateloup, CamilleDevilledeVermond.9Mostlikelybefore1787,theirsonassumedthe name“MainedeBiran”(afterthehamlet“LeMaine”nearLestignacintheDordogne)10thathehenceforthalsousedasanomduplumeforhisphilosophical work.
Atagefifteen,BiranenrolledwiththedoctrinairesinPérigueux(NouvelleAquitaine),11graduatedfromtheCollègein1784andbegantostudylawatthe
5 HenriBergson,“RevueCritique:Principesdemétaphysiqueetdepsychologie,parPaul Janet.”RevuePhilosophique,vol.44(November1897),550.
6 WilhelmDilthey,“BeiträgezurLösungderFragevomUrsprungunseresGlaubensandie RealitätderAußenweltundseinemRecht(1890),”in:WilhelmDilthey,DiegeistigeWelt; AbhandlungenzurGrundlegungderGeisteswssenschaften:EinleitungindiePhilosophiedes Lebens(GesammelteSchriften,vol.5).Leipzig:Teubner,1957,90–135.
7 Ibid.,402.
8 DimitriVoutsinas,“MainedeBiran(1766–1824):Fondateurdelapsychologiefrançaise,”in: Revueinternationaledephilosophie20(1966),75(69–89).
9 AmabledeLaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824):essaidebiographiehistorique etpsychologique(thèsepourledoctorat,L’UniversitédeParis),Paris:Fontemoing,1914,28.
10 HenriGouhier,MainedeBiranparlui-même,Paris:Éditionsduseuil,1970,15–21.
11 LaVallete-Monbrun,30–32;ErnestNaville,MainedeBiranetsespensées,Paris:Libraire JoelCherbuliez,1857,5.
UniversityofPoitiers.12However,thenextyearhetraveledtoParis,atageeighteen,tojointheRoyalGuardofLouisxviatNoailles.13Hewaswoundedinone ofthedefiningmomentsoftheFrenchRevolution.Onthesixthandseventhof Octoberof1789,14Maillard’sWomen’sMarchonVersaillestookplace,whilehe wasdefendingthecastle,awaitingbackupfromGeneralLafayette’sbattaillon. AfterthearrestoftheKinginVarenneinMay1792andthesubsequentproclamationoftheRepublicon22September1792,theRoyalGuardwasdisbanded andsupplantedbyaconstitutionalguard.
Dismayedbytherecentturnofevents,15Birandecidedbytheendoftheyear towithdrawtothesecludedmanorofGrateloup,aboutninekilometersfrom Bergerac,whereheweatheredtheentirepériodedelaTerreur. 16
There,athisfamilyestate,thetwenty-six-year-oldbegantodevotehimself toextensivephilosophicalstudiesandwriting17—instarkcontrasttohisbrief stayinParis,wherehehadyieldedtotemptations,whichhehimselfcharacterizedasdecadentandfrivolous.18Philanthropicallyinclinedandpatriotically motivated,butalsoneedingtosecureadditionalfinancialresources,Biran, theliberalRoyalist,servedasadministrateur-adjointoftheDordogne,between May1795andApril1797,19afterthedownfallofRobespierre,andfrom1797to 1798amemberoftheConseildesCinq-CentsduDirectoire.20On21September 1795,hemarriedMarie-LouiseFournierduFardeil,thewidowofM.duCluzeau. Eightmonthslater,shegavebirthtoFélix,followedbyElisaandoneadditional daughter.21 Thisperiodofdomestichappiness,however,lastedlessthana decadeandendedwiththedeathofMarie-Louiseon26October1803.22Ittook
12 FrancisCharlesTimothyMoore,“Chapter7.FrenchSpiritualistPhilosophy,”in:Alan D.SchriftandDanielConway(eds.), Nineteenth-CenturyPhilosophy:RevolutionaryResponsestotheexistingOrder(TheHistoryofContinentalPhilosophy,vol.2),London/New York:Routledge,2014[2010],163,footnote11.
13 AgnèsAntoine,MainedeBiran:sujetetpolitique,Paris:PressesuniversitairesdeFrance, 1999,5.LaValette-Monbrun,31;Naville,MainedeBiranetsespensées,9.
14 LaValette-Monbrun,40–43.
15 Naville,MainedeBiranetsespensées,11–12.
16 Antoine,MainedeBiran:sujetetpolitique.6.
17 LaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824),43.
18 LaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824),3132;ErnestNaville,MainedeBiran:sa vieetsespensées,12.
19 LaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824),77–97.
20 LaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824),99–116.
21 LaValette-Monbrun, MainedeBiran(1766–1824),101;Gouhier, MainedeBiranparluimême,21–24.RenéLacroze,MainedeBiran,Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1970,2.
22 LaValette-Monbrun, MainedeBiran(1766–1824),155–158;Gouhier, MainedeBiranpar lui-même,21–24.RenéLacroze, MainedeBiran,2.Therepeatedbiographicalnarration
Biranmuchmorethanoneyeartorecoverfromthisloss;hewouldneverforget hisLouise,“l’épouseceleste,”ashecalledherinapassageofhis Journalintime, evenfifteenyearsafterherdeathandfouryearsintohissecondmarriage,for hehadmarriedLouise-AnneFavareilhesdeLacoustète,on3May1814.23
Aboutayearbeforehisdeath,inJuly1823,Biranlookedbackattheimmense tollofandsufferinganddeathcausedbytheviolenceoftheFrenchRevolution inordertoputidealsintoeffectandthisreaffirmedhiscommitmenttoquiet introspectionasameanstounderstandhumanmotivation:
Thelastestcrisisoftheagewhichhasbroughtasitwereasecondchildhoodoftheaffectivefaculties,isthatwhichhasmostoccupiedme,and makesmeevenmoreintroverted.Iventuretogiveadescriptionofthese thingsasbelongingtoaseriesofpsychologicalexperiences.Theaffectionsbelongingtothehumansoulmakeuptheinnermostpartofthe scienceofourbeing;accountsofthemareordinarilyofinterestonly sofarastheyformpartofabodyofromanticfactsoradventures;itis thisframeworkthattheimagination,thefacultywhichistheliveliestof allinmostmen,isalmostalwaysexclusivelyattached;onereadshistory toknowitsfacts,tospeaktothepointaboutthem;ortofindanalogies betweenthevariousepochsorrevolutionsincivilsocieties,etc.[…]one readsnovelsbecauseoftheextraordinarypicturestheypresenttothe imaginationtoexciteit,tothesensibilitytomoveit,tothemindtomove it;butanaccountoftheaffectionsconsideredinthemselves(orinthe variousmodesofthispowertolove,tosuffer,tosympathize,ortolive withone’sfellows)andasprinciplesdeterminingactions,[whether]in conformitywithoropposedtothelawsofourmoralnature,anaccount ofthiskind,Isay,whichwouldtendtobringtolightthehiddenbasisof humannature,hasscarcelyanyattractionforanyone.Whyisthis?Itis becauseourloveofourselvesalwaystakesusoutsideourselvesasfaras possible,inordertoavoidfeelingourmiseries,andseeingourselvesas weare.Andyetnothingismorenecessaryforourpresentandfuturelife, foreverythingwhichcanreallyserveoneortheother,thanthatinnerlife, thatconfessionwhichalovingandfeeblesoulmakestoitselfandtoother
accordingtowhichBiran’swifeLouisediedofashockwhenherformerhusbanddu Cluzeau,whohadbeenpresumeddead,suddenlyreenteredherlife,isalegend,inspired byBalzac’snovelLeColonelChabert,firstpublished1832inthemagazineL’Artiste(andin 1835underthetitleLaComtesseàdeuxMaris).Mostrecently,thishasbeenpointedout byMonsieurBories,adirectdescendantofMainedeBiran,inaconversationwithAnne DevarieuxinGrateloup,whohasshareditwithme.
23 HenriGouhier,MainedeBiran.Œuvrechoisies,Paris:Aubier,ÉditionsMontaigne,1942,8.
soulsmadetounderstandit,oftheseweaknessesandtheseloves.Inthis way,humannaturecanbebetterknown.24
ThreecrucialaspectsofBiran’spsycho-physiologicalandpsycho-pathological investigationsintohisownselfandthehumanselfingeneralcanbedistilled fromthispassage:first,anextraordinaryconfrontativeexposuretohimselfin thecourseofaninteriormonologuethatis,atthislatestageofhisphilosophy, embeddedinamysticalspiritualism;second,hisaversiontoandrepudiation ofoutwarddistractions(throughmedia,e.g.books)infavorofconsciously concentratedaffections;andthird,therelevanceoftheseforindividualempathyandsocialconsciousnessasdeterminantsofpractical,eventuallymoral, actions.ActionsarepurposefullyaccentuatedbyBiran,inhisdiary,inthescientificsocietiesthathefoundedandinparticularthroughhislong-termpolitical practice,aswellasintheeducationaltheoriesthathedevelopedtowardsthe endofhislife.
Itwasbetween1793and1795,duringtheformativeperiodatGrateloup manorthathestartedtokeepdailynotebookentries,consistingofexistential reflections.Inthispremièrejournalintime,hedocumented,viaintrospective
24 MainedeBiran,“Juillet1823,”in:HenriGouhier(ed.),MainedeBiran–Journalii,1erJanvier1817Mai1824.Neuchâtel:ÉditionsdelaBâconnière,1955,378–379[Mytranslationand Biran’semphasis—ifnotindicatedotherwiseinthefollowingquotationsofthisintroduction].Biran:“Ladernièrecrisedel’âgequiamenécommeune2ièmejeunessedesfacultés affectivesestcellequim’aleplusoccupéetmereticentencoreplusprèsdemoi-même. Jehasarded’endonnerladescriptioncommerentrantdansuncoursd’expériencespsychologiques.Lesaffectionspropresdel’âmehumaineformenttoutcequ’ilyadeplus intimedanslasciencedenotre être;leurhistoiren’intéresseordinairementqu’autant [?]qu’elleentredansuncadredefaitsoud’aventuresromanesques;c’estàcecadreque s’attachepresquetoujoursexclusivementl’imagination,facultélapluséveilléedanslaplupartdeshommes;onlitl’histoirepourconnaîtrelesfaits,enparleràproposoutrouver desanalogiesentrelesdiversesépoquesourevolutionsdessociétéscivilesetc.…onlit lesromansàcausedestableauxextraordinairesqu’ilsprésententàl’imaginationpour l’exciter,àlasensibilitépourl’émouvoir,àl’espritpourl’émouvoir;maisl’histoiredesaffectionsconsidéréesenelles-mêmes(oudanslesdiversmodesdecettepuissanced’aimerde souffrir,desympathizeroud’existerdansdesêtressemblables)etcommeprincipesqui déterminentlesactions[...]conformessoitopposéesauxloisdenotrenaturemorale,cette histoire,dis-je,quitendraitàmettreenlumièrelefondsmêmedel’humanitéquisecache, n’aguèresd’attraitpourpersonne.Pourquoicela?C’estquenotreamour-proprenousporte toujoursaudehorsleplusloindenousqu’ilestpossible,afind’éviterdesentirnosmisères etdenosvoirtellsquenoussommes.Etpourtantriendeplusnecessairepournotrevie présenteetfuture,pourtoutcequipeutserverréellementàl’uneetàl’autrequecette vieintérieure,cetteconfessionqu’uneâmeaimanteetfaiblefaitàelle-mêmeetàd’autres âmesfaitespourl’entendredecesfaiblessesetdecesamours.Ainsilanaturehumaine peutêtremieuxconnue.”
self-investigationstheextenttowhichhewasvulnerable(perhapsduetoa geneticpredisposition)toparalyzingpsychosomaticsymptomsthatseemed dependentonweatherconditions25—ahypersensitivitythat,asexcellently analyzedbyoneofhisfirstbiographers,theAbbéJean-AmabledelaValetteMonbrun(1872–1930),incapacitatedhimandwasattimespainfulandconstantlyinneedoftreatmentoratleastnumb.Accordingly,MainedeBiran wroteasearlyasMay1794abouttheinterdependencebetweenpsychological andphysicalconstitution,thattheactivityofthesoul,itsstatus,was“determinedbyoneoranotherstateofthebody”andthathiswillwasnotcapable ofexercisingpoweroverhismoralstate.26Buttheauthorandhisdiarywere alsotheproductsofahistoricalinterim,atempestuoustransitioncharacterizedbythesimultaneityofcontestingretroactiveandprogressiveperspectives orclashingideologies,ofwhichmostwouldprovetobeinpreliminaryflux.It wasinthisindeterminableatmosphericcontextthatthemind’schangeability becamewidespread,especiallywithrespecttotheeventsandtheimmediate aftermathoftheFrenchRevolution.27
Permanentlydisadvantagedbyhissusceptibilitytoexternalcircumstances thatheself-criticallycharacterizedtwiceafter1800asmolesse(mallebility),but circumscribedbeforethemid-1790s,28Biran’spersonalneedtobecomeliber-
25 LaValette-Monbrun,MainedeBiran(1766–1824),489.LaValette-MonbruninhispsychologicalanalysisofBiran:“L’étatd’âmeduphilosophevarieaveclebaromètreetsuivantles degrésduthermomètre.Untempsbeauetfroidaledondelemettreendesdispositions sereines.Tombe-t-ilunepluiefineplusieursheuresdurant?Illuisemblequel’humiditéle pénètretoutentier,etildeviantmélancolique.Lesbrouillardss’étendent-ilsenunépais rideausurlaterre?Ilsobscurcissentsoespritcommeleciel.L’orages’amasse-t-ilàl’horizon?Illeportedéjàdanssatête.Iln’estaucunesecousseatmosphérique,silégèresoit-elle, quiéchappeàsonimpressionabilité.Toutevariationbrusquedutempsl’agiteetlejette danslemalaise./Baromètrevivant,M.deBiransetrouvemodifiédifférementparchaque saison.”
26 MainedeBiran,PremièreJournalintime,“May27th1794,”in:HenriGouhier(ed.),Mainede Biran–JournaliiiAgendas,CarnetsetNotes.Neuchâtel:ÉditionsdelaBâconnière,1957, 6.Biran:“Dequoidépenddoncl’étatdemonâme?d’oùviennentcessentimentsconfus, tumultueux,autraversdesquelsjenemeconnaisplus?Jefuisl’agitation,etsanscesseelle sereproduitenmoimalgrémesefforts;mavolontén’exerceaucunpouvoirsurmonétat moral;elleapprouveouelleblâme,elleadopteouellerejette;ellesecomplaîtouellese déplaît;elleselivreouellefuitdanstelsoutellsoutelssentimentsdonnés,maisjamais ellenelesprocure,jamaisellenelesécarte:qu’est-cedoncquecetteactivitéprétendue del’âme?Jesenstoujourssonétatdéterminéparteloutelétatducorps;toujoursremuée augrédesimpressionsdudehors,elleestaffaisséeouélevée,tristeoujoyeuse,calmeou agitéeselonlatempératuredel’air,selonunebonneoumauvaisedigestion.”
27 DenisBertholet,LesFrançaispareux-mêmes,1815–1885.Paris:OlivierOrban,1991,17–109.
28 MainedeBiran,“PremièreJournalintime,”May27th1794,in:HenriGouhier(ed.),Maine deBiran–JournaliiiAgendas,CarnetsetNotes.Neuchâtel:ÉditionsdelaBâconnière,
atedfromthesepassivestages,motivatedhimtoforgetheconceptofasturdy proactiveselfthatcouldeventuallywithstandtheuncertaintiesoftheimmediatepost-revolutionaryperiod:
Iwouldlike,ifeverIcouldundertakesomethingsustained,toinvestigatethedegreetowhichthemindisactive,thedegreetowhichitcan modifyexternalimpressions,increaseordecreasetheirintensitybythe attentionitgivesthem;Iwouldliketoexaminetheextenttowhichitis masterofthatattention.Thisexaminationshould,itseemstome,precedeagoodtreatiseonmorality.Beforeseekingtodirectouraffections, weshouldundoubtedlyknowwhatwecandoaboutthem.Ihavenotseen thistreatedanywhere.Themoralistssupposethatmancanalwaysgive himselfaffections,changehisinclinations,destroyhispassions;tohear themtellit,thesoulissovereign,itcommandsthesensesasmistress.Is thisreallytrue,ortowhatextentisittrue?Howcanthisbedone?Thisis preciselywhatshouldbeestablished.29
1957,3.Biran:“Sijepouvaisrendrecetétatpermanent,quemanquerait-ilàmonbonheur?J’auraistrouvésurcetteterrelesjoiesduciel.Maisuneheuredecedouxcalmeva êtresuiviedel’agitationordinairedemavie;jesensdéjàquecetétatderavissementest loindemoi,iln’estpasfaitpourunmortel;ainsicettemalheureuseexistencen’estqu’une suitedemomentshétérogènesquin’ontaucunestabilité;ilsvontflottants,fuyantsrapidement,sansqu’ilsoitjamaisennotrepouvoirdelesfixer.Toutinfluesurnous,etnous changeonssanscesseaveccequinousenvironne.Jem’amusesouventàvoircoulerles diversessituationsdemonâme;ellessontcommelesflotsd’unerivière,tantôtcalmes, tantôtagités,maistoujourssesuccédantsansaucunepermanence.”
MainedeBiran,PremièreJournalintime,“25December1794,”in:Gouhier(ed.),Maine deBiran–Journal iii,17.Biran:“Jamais,malgrétousmeseffortsetmesresolutions antérieurs,jenepuismeposséderetgardermonsensfroid;touteslesfibresdemon cerveausontsimobilesqu’ellescédentàl’impressiondesobjetssansquejepuissearrêter leurmovement;entraînéendiverssenscontraires,jenesuisquepassiv,maraisondevient nulle,jediscequejenevoudraispasdire,jefaiscequejenevoudraispasfaire…”.
29 MainedeBiran,PremièreJournalintime,“May27th1794,”in:HenriGouhier(ed.),Mainede Biran–JournaliiiAgendas,CarnetsetNotes.Neuchâtel:ÉditionsdelaBâconnière,1957,6 [Translationmine].Biran:“Jevoudrais,sijamaisjepouvaisentreprendrequelquechosede suivi,rechercherjusqu’àquelpointl’âmeestactive,jusqu’àquelpointellepeutmodifier lesimpressionsextérieurs,augmenteroudiminuerleurintensitéparlaattentionqu’elle leurdonne,examinerjusqu’oùelleestmaîtressedecetteattention.Cetexamendevrait,ce mesemble,précéderunbontraitédemorale.Avantdechercheràdirigernosaffections,il faudraitsansdouteconnaîtrecequenouspouvonssurelles.Jen’aivucelatraiténullepart. Lesmoralistessupposentquel’hommepeuttoujourssedonnerdesaffections,changerses penchants,détruiresespassions;àlesentendre,l’âmeestsouveraine,ellecommandeaux sensenmaîtresse:celaest-ilbienvrai?oujusqu’àquelpointcelal’est-il?commentcela peut-ilsefaire?C’estjustementcequ’ilfaudraitbienétablir.”
Adairyentryfromaboutsixmonthslater,on25December1794,showshow occupiedBiran’smindwaswithadetailedexecutionofthisproject.Inan extensivepassage,similarinitsrhetoricdictiontotheaforementioned,Biran recommendedtoSwiss,French,andItalianpioneersofexperimentalphysiology(mostlyphysicians,anatomists,orsurgeons)tofollowtheexampleof theItalianJesuit,philosopher,andphysicistLazzaroSpalanzani(1729–1799), whohadcourageouslyswallowedvarioussubstancesathisownriskinorderto studythefunctionsofhisdigestion.Conductingaseriesofself-experiments withunorthodoxdiets,accordingtoBiran,wouldadvancetheprogressof physiology.30Biran’sownreflectionsofintrospectivepsycho-physiologicaland psycho-pathologicalself-investigationsincorporated,indeed,justsuchanapproachandwentwellbeyondit.Tointerrogatewhatheaddressed(inthe mechanicaltraditionofFrenchmaterialism)as“thehumanmachine,”heis veryexplicitinpointingout,requiredapsychologythatwastobesynthetically modeled,initsmethodologyanddifferentiatedterminology,as“experimentalphysics.”31MainedeBiran’selaborateideaspointedhereindeedtowards anearlyhistoricalstageofsensorypsychologythatwastobefoundationalfor experimentalpsychology:thatof psychophysics,firstdevelopedandputinto practicebyGustavTheodorFechner(1801–1887),JohannesMüller(1801–1858) andHermannvonHelmholtz(1821–1894).
Biranclearlysawthepotentialforasolidifiedproactivepostrevolutionaryself,emergingfromtheintrospectiveself-examinationsreflectedindiary entries,asathoroughlytheorizedanddifferentiatedentity,toofferacertain advantagetofutureFrenchgenerations,apreventivemeasure,sotosay.For Biran’sundertakingwasnottopursuecriticalquestionsaboutthedarksideof humannature,butrathertosavesocietyfromfallingvictimtoitonceagain. Heputapositive,holisticpsychologyforthepracticalgoodofmankindonhis agendaandnotjustmethodologiestoinvestigateillnesses.Inthat,hediffered
30 MainedeBiran,PremièreJournalintime,“December25th1794,”in:HenriGouhier(ed.), MainedeBiran–Journaliii,17.
31 MainedeBiran,PremièreJournalintime,“December25th1794,”in:HenriGouhier(ed.), MainedeBiran–Journaliii,18.Biran:“Lorsqu’onestpsychologue,onsesentquelquefois existerparlatête,etalorslesidéesviennentenfoule:d’autrefois,c’estdanslaregionprécordiale,et,danscescas,onsentsanspenser.Aquoicelatient-il?L’âmechangerait-ellede place?Qu’est-cequelaplaced’unêtrequin’apasdeparties?Envérité,jesuissurprisede l’ignoranceoùl’onestsurcettemachinehumaine,dupeudeprogrèsquel’onfaitjusqu’ici pourendémêlerlesresorts,del’indifférencequel’onymet,enfindelamanièregauche dontons’yestpris!Lesmétaphysiciensnousontdonnéleursrêves,leursmotsvagueset videsdesens:onapriscelapourdelascience.Pourquoinetraite-t-onpaslapsychologie commelaphysiqueexpérimentale?Est-ceautrechose?”
