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OXFORDSTUDIESINANCIENTCULTURE ANDREPRESENTATION GeneralEditors
KathleenM.ColemanR.R.R.SmithOliverTaplin
PeterThonemannTimWhitmarsh
OXFORDSTUDIESINANCIENTCULTURE ANDREPRESENTATION OxfordStudiesinAncientCultureandRepresentationpublishessignificant interdisciplinaryresearchintothevisual,social,political,andreligiouscultures oftheancientMediterraneanworld.Theseriesincludesworkthatcombines differentkindsofrepresentationsthatareusuallytreatedseparately.Theoverarchingprogrammeistointegrateimages,monuments,texts,performances,and ritualswiththeplaces,participants,andbroaderhistoricalenvironmentthatgave themmeaning.
FashioningtheFuture inRomanGreece Memory,Monuments,Texts ESTELLESTRAZDINS GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thisbookiswelltravelled.ItsrootslieinmyDPhilthesis,completedinlate2012 attheUniversityofOxford.In2014,Ispentoverayeartravellingandresearching inGreeceandTurkeyinordertodeepenmyfamiliaritywiththematerialculture ofimperialGreece.DrawingheavilyonthatresearchandworkinginMelbourne, Athens,Oxford,Singapore,andDurham,NorthCarolina,Idevoted2016and 2017toproducingthemanuscriptthatformstheimmediatebasisofthisbook. TheprocessofrevisingthemanuscriptforpublicationtookplaceinAthensin AprilandMayof2018,inCambridgeinAprilandMay2019,andinBrisbanein JulytoSeptember2020.Alongtheway,Ihaveaccumulateddebtsofgratitudeto manywonderfulpeopleandorganizations,whomIamthrilledtohavethe opportunitytothankhere.
Aboveall,IamgratefultoTimWhitmarsh,whoisaninexhaustibletreasuryof knowledge,advice,encouragement,andpatience,allofwhicharedistributedwith goodhumourandkindness,despitehisaversiontomyuseof ‘likely’ asanadverb; toEwenBowie,whosecounsel,kindness,constructivecriticism,anddinner partiesarebeyondcompare;toJaś ElsnerandJasonKönig,whoseinsightful critiqueofmythesisintheirrolesasitsexaminersgreatlyimprovedthis finished productandwhohavecontinuedtoguideandsupportme;toCathyMorgan, whohasneverceasedtoencourage,assist,andendorseme;toJanetDownieforall thementoring,probingquestions,andfriendship;andtoNikosGkiokasfor initiatingmeintothemysteriesofmaterialcultureatsitesthroughoutGreece andTurkeyandforcountlessotherthings.Ialsogreatlyappreciatethepatience, suggestions,guidance,andadviceofPACandPCC thetwoPauls(Cartledge andChristesen) andoftheeditorsofthisseries,especiallyBertSmith.Thank you,too,totheanonymouspressreviewerswhoseperceptivecommentsand suggestionssharpenedthebook,andtoJamieMortimer,CharlotteLoveridge, andherteamatOxfordUniversityPressfor fieldingmymanyquestionsso helpfully.
TheClarendonFundenabledmetoattendtheUniversityofOxford,andthe AustralianArchaeologicalInstituteatAthens(AAIA),havingelectedmetheir Fellowfortheacademicyears2009‒10and2017‒18,gavemetheopportunityto spendalmosttwoyearsinthatwonderfulcity.BalliolCollegeassistedwithagrant fromtheirFinancialHardshipFundin2012.ThankyoutoototheRaeandEdith BennettTravellingFundandJessieWebbScholarship,bothadministeredbythe UniversityofMelbourne,whichbroughtmetotheUKandGreece,respectively, inthe firstplace.ResearchinGreeceandTurkeyin2014‒15wasfundedbythe AlexanderS.OnassisPublicBenefitFoundation,theAustralianEndeavour
Awards,andthe
.Iamalsogratefultothe A.G.LeventisFoundationforfundingmypositionintheFacultyofClassics, UniversityofCambridge,2018‒20.
Theideasinthisbookhavebeenshapedforthebetterbytheinsightsand/or assistanceofLuciaAthanassaki;EmilyBaragwanath;CaitieBarrett;AlastairBlanshard;AmeliaBrown;NickBrown;GeorgeBruseker;KostasBuraselis;Annelies Cazmeier;SophyDownes;KendraEshleman;AnnabelFlorence;EmilyGreenwood;WillGuast;TomHarrison;PatrickHogan;DawnHollis;LizIrwin;Adrian Kelly;AdamKemezis;AnnaKouremenos;ShushmaMalik;LinniMazurek;JanetteMcWilliam;KitMorrell;PeterMurray;S.DouglasOlson;AyşeOzil;Katerina Panagopoulou;ChrisPelling;AndrejPetrovic;JessicaPiccinini;RobertPitt (‘HerodesAttikos serialkillerorjustveryunlucky?’);DylanRogers;Brent Shaw;TimShea;MatthewSkuse;MichaelSquire;LisThomas;JenniferTobin; YiannisTzifopoulos;CarrieVout;GregWoolf;SonyaWurster;andAlexeiZadorojnyi.Iamgratefultoyouall.Iamparticularlythankfultothepostdoctoral ClassicscommunityatCambridgeforthemanyinspiringconversationsand moralsupport,especiallyAnnaLefteratou,ClaireJackson,DanJolowicz,Livvy Elder,TomNelson,EmmaGreensmith,andLeaNiccolai.Anextrashout-out goestoManuelaDalBorgoandTommasoMariforR0.3camaraderieand counselling.
SpecialthanksforthementorshipofLisaFeatherstoneandAlastairBlanshard, whohavehelpedmenavigatethelabyrinthofmyearlycareerpositionatthe UniversityofQueensland(UQ),thesupportofmycolleaguesinthedisciplineof ClassicsandAncientHistoryatUQ,andtomyMPhilstudent,JessicaZelli,whose inquisitivenessandenthusiasmforthecultureoftheRomaneastisinfectious. IhavereceivedinvaluableassistancefromtheAthensstaffoftheAAIA,especially StavrosPaspalas,LitaTzortzopoulou-Gregory,AnthoullaVassiliades,LoulaStrolonga,andMyrtoKomninou,andfromthestaffoftheBritishSchoolatAthens (BSA),especiallyPennyWilson,SandraPepelasis,TaniaGerousi,AmaliaKakissis, ChryssanthiPapadopoulou,PhilippaCurrie,VickiTzavara,Jean-SébastienGros, andBouboulina.ManythankstoKaterinaIerodiakonou,whokindlygaveme accesstoamuchneededvolumefromtheMichaelFredecollection;Corpus ChristiCollege,Oxford,anditsCentrefortheStudyofGreekandRoman Antiquity;BalliolCollegeandtheFacultyofClassicsattheUniversityofOxford; theFacultyofClassicsattheUniversityofCambridge,especiallyRobinOsborne, NigelThompson,RebeccaFlemming,andtheCCaucus;MyrtoHatzimichali andHomertonCollege,Cambridge;theDepartmentofArt,ArtHistory,and VisualStudies,SheilaDillon,andtheClassicsFacultyofDukeUniversity,especiallyJillWuenschel,TollyBoatwright,andWilliamJohnson;theSchoolof ClassicsattheUniversityofStAndrews;RhiannonEvans,ChrisMackie,and theResearchCentreforGreekStudiesatLaTrobeUniversity;HyunJinKim,
K.O.ChongGossard,AndrewTurner,LouiseHitchcock,andtheSchoolof HistoricalandPhilosophicalStudiesattheUniversityofMelbourne;Gülgün Girdivan,LutVandeput,andtheBritishInstituteatAnkara;DylanRogers, PantelisPaschos,JeniferNeils,Pandora,andtheAmericanSchoolofClassical StudiesatAthens.SpecialthankstoTylaCascaesandCarlosRobinsonfor assistanceinpreparingthe finalmanuscript,andtheHPISchoolResearchFund atUQ,alongwithDollyMacKinnonandMeganCassidy-Welch,thatmadetheir helppossible.IamalsogratefultothestudentsontheBSAundergraduatecourse 2014‒18,whotoleratedcountlessstoriesaboutHerodesAttikos.
Forhelpwithimages,thanksabovealltoStavrosPaspalas,TaniaGerousi,and BertSmith;thanksalsotoGeorgeSpyropoulos,whokindlyprovidedmewith imagesofunpublishedartefactsfromLoukou,JohnMcK.CampII,David W.Packard,andthePackardHumanitiesInstitute,andtoErinMcGowanfor themapofMarathon.GratitudetoototheGreekOlympicCommittee(
)forpermissiontophotographthePanathenaicStadiumand itssurrounds,andtoFeritBaz,RenateBol,SylvieDumont,HansR.Goette, ChristopherJones,DianaKleiner,CharalamposKritzas,DariaLanzuolo,Tim Mitford,AnnaMoles,DavidPettegrew,JoeRife,GuySanders,SørenLund Sørensen,andDavidStronach.Permissionstoreproducetheimagesfoundin thisbookwerelargelyfundedbygrantsfromtheJowettCopyrightTrust, administeredbyBalliolCollege,Oxford,theFacultyofClassics,Cambridge, andtheSchoolofLiterature,Languages,andLinguisticsattheAustralian NationalUniversity.
Immensegratitudetothefollowingpeoplewhosavedme financially,housed, and/orfedmeatcrucialperiodsduringthewrite-up:NikosGkiokas,Christel Strazdins,AbbyRobinson,LisThomasandPeterMurray,Mark,Katrina,Freya, andBrunoStrazdins,SonyaWursterandPaulDaniels,ErinMcGowanandBill Zahariadis,GeorgeBruseker,AlexCameron,HannahGwyther,AnnaMoles, AnnieHooton,SophyDownes,SethJaffe,DenitsaNenovaandHüseyinÇınar Öztürk,LuciaAthanassaki,LizIrwin,ChryssanthiPapadopoulou,AmaliaKakissis,AnthoullaVassiliades,Calie,Jorrit,Ido,andEllaKelder,DaveandHeather Sharman,NikoletaCharana,MargaritaNazou,CeciliaGasposchkin,Michalis Iliakis,andSimonYoung.
Lastbutinnowayleast,heartfeltgratitudetomyfamilyandfriends,especially Nikos,MuttiandMonty,Mark,Trin,Freya,Bruno,andZiggy,withoutwhose supportnothingthatIhaveachievedwouldhavebeenpossible.Gratitudealsoto Aivars,whosecuriosityaboutantiquitywashappilyhereditary.
1.TheFutureandthe ‘SecondSophistic’ 1
PARTI.GLORIOUSPAST,TENSEPRESENT, PENDINGFUTURE
2.BacktotheFuture29
2.1Postclassicism,theCanon,andtheFuture30
2.1.1Temporality,Sublimity,andCanonicityin OntheSublime 30
2.1.2Temporality,Beauty,andCultureinDioChrysostom’s Oration 2137
2.1.3CompetitiveandPassiveImitationinTheoryandPractice40
2.2RemakingSpace,Time,andMemoryinArrian’s Periplous 48
2.3NoveltyandtheProblemofAudiencewithPhilostratosand Lucian59
2.4CreatingOriginalArtisticSpaceinAeliusAristeides’ SacredTales 67 2.5Conclusion75
3.MonumentsandRhetoricalMateriality77 3.1MaterialMemories79
3.2TextualCurationofArtefactualMemory105
3.3RhetoricalMateriality115 3.4Conclusion119
PARTII.TEXTUALMONUMENTSAND MONUMENTALTEXTS 4.TheEpitaphicHabit123
4.1Speech,Text,Monument124
4.2AuthorityandDominion:BoundariesandLimina136
4.2.1RevisingAlexander’sAltarsinPhilostratos’ InHonour ofApolloniosofTyana 138
4.2.2TransposingthePillarsofHeraklesinLucian’s TrueStories 142
4.2.3ReshapingSpatialMemorywithHerodes’ Herms147
4.3Arrian,Alexander,andtheTextualAppropriationofMemory159
4.3.1TheTombofAchilles161
4.3.2TheTombofKyros166
CONTENTS
4.4HerodesAttikosandthePhysicalAppropriationofMemory174 4.5Conclusion192
5.CommemorationEmbodied194
5.1StatueHonoursandTheirLimitations194
5.2Amplification:StatueProgrammesonMonuments207
5.3ImaginarySpacesofHonour217
5.4Replication221
5.5AnimationandWriting237
5.6Conclusion243
PARTIII.CONTROLLINGTHEFUTURE? 6.TheKingofAthens247
6.1TheIsthmusofCorinth:Hero,King,Tyrant,God?251
6.2SophisticTyranny,ImperialDemocracy256
6.3TheKingofWords265
6.4RomanPhilosopher,GreekTyrant267
6.5HerodesandTheseus277
6.6Conclusion302
7.ThePoliticsofPosterity305
LISTOFFIGURES 1.1AndronikosofKyrrhos’‘ToweroftheWinds’,RomanAgora,Athens.The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EphorateofAntiquitiesofthecityofAthens,HellenicMinistryofCulture andSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image: D-DAI-ATH-2013/79,Kienast.15
1.2Philopapposmonument,Mouseionhill,Athens.Therightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofthe cityofAthens,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:Kleiner1983,pl.IV(DFK 74.20.24).20
1.3DetailoftheseatedPhilopapposinGreekhimation,centralpanel,upper register,Philopapposmonument.Image:StuartandRevett1762‒1830, vol.3,ch.5,pl.11.21
1.4DetailofPhilopapposduringhisRomanconsularprocession,centralpanel, lowerregister,Philopapposmonument.Image:StuartandRevett1762‒1830,vol.3,ch.5,pl.8.22
2.1BaseofastatueofDemosthenesdedicatedbyMarcusAntoniusPolemonof LaodikeiaintheAsklepieionatPergamon(Inv.1932,6;Habicht1969, 75‒6,no.33).Image:Author.45
2.2ProbablestatuebasefromAthenswithaninscriptionhonouringLucius FlaviusArrianosasconsularandphilosopher.EpigraphicMuseum,Athens (ΕΜ 2868+3025+3118+2990+3036; SEG 30.159).Theimageandthe rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EpigraphicMuseum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.49
2.3DoubleportraithermofXenophonandIsokratesorArrian(?)fromAthens. NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Athens(Glypta538).Theimageandthe rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Photographer:E.A. Galanopoulos.52
2.4StatuebaseorbuildingmasonrybearingpartsofaHadrianicinscription. NowbuiltintotheChrysokephalosChurch(FatihCamii)inTrabzon, Turkey,asadoorlintel(Mitford1974,160‒3,pl.V.2).Image:Tim Mitford.54
2.5AltardedicatedbyAeliusAristeidestoAsklepios,mostprobablyfromthe AsklepieiononLesbos.MytileneMuseum,Lesbos(Inv.2253; Charitonidis1968,27‒8,no.33,plate11δ).Theimageandtherightsto theillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheArchaeological MuseumofMytilene,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.74
3.1MarbleportraitbustofHerodesAttikos,foundwithoneofPolydeukion (seeFigure5.17)inKephisia.NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Athens (NM4810).Theimageandtherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelong totheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports,withintheresponsibilityof theNationalArchaeologicalMuseum,HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Photographer: E.A.Galanopoulos.82
3.2MarbleportraitstatueofDemosthenes.NyCarlsbergGlyptothek, Copenhagen(Inv.2782).Image:NyCarlsbergGlyptothek,Copenhagen.83
3.3MarbleportraitstatueofAischines(partiallyrestored)fromHerculaneum. NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Naples(Inv.6018).Image:Neg. D-DAI-ROM-31.751.84
3.4MarbleportraitofLysiasmountedonamodernhermthatbearsthe inscription ‘Lysias’.StanzadeiFilosofi,CapitolineMuseum,Rome(Inv. no.601;Mus.no.73).Image:R.Sansaini,Neg.D-DAI-ROM-54.969; ©Roma,SovrintendenzaCapitolinaaiBeniCulturali.85
3.5MarbleportraitbustofHerodesAttikosfromBrexiza,Attica.TheLouvre (Inv.NIII2536;Ma1164).Image:Photo©MuséeduLouvre,Dist. RMN-GrandPalais/ThierryOllivier.87
3.6MarbleportraitbustofMarcusAureliusfromBrexiza,Attica.TheLouvre (Inv.NIII2535;Ma1161).Image:Photo©RMN-GrandPalais(Musée duLouvre)/HervéLewandowski.87
3.7MarbleportraitbustofLuciusVerusfromBrexiza,Attica.TheAshmolean Museum,Oxford(AN1947.277).Image:©AshmoleanMuseum, UniversityofOxford.88
3.8RestoredelevationofHerodes’ GateofEternalConcord,Oinoe,Attica. Image:Mallwitz1964,taf.3.90
3.9KeystonefromtheGateofEternalConcord,fromOinoe,Attica,with statuesofRegilla(L)andHerodes(R).ArchaeologicalMuseumof Marathon(Inv. Λ159,Inv. Λ158).Therightstotheillustratedmonument belongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlies withintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofEastAttica, HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCultural ResourcesDevelopment.Image:Author.91
3.10MapofMarathonshowingBrexizaandthe MantratisGrias or ‘Regilla’s space’.Image:ErinMcGowan;WorldHillshade Sources:Esri,Airbus DS,USGS,NGA,NASA,CGIAR,NRobinson,NCEAS,NLS,OS, NMA,Geodatastyrelsen,Rijkswaterstaat,GSA,Geoland,FEMA, IntermapandtheGISusercommunity.91
3.11KeystonefromtheGateofEternalConcord,Oinoe,Attica,bearingan inscriptionrelatingtoRegilla’s ‘space’.ArchaeologicalMuseumof Marathon(IG II2 5189a).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelong totheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithin theresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofEastAttica,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development.Image:CourtesyofHansR.Goette.92
3.12KeystonefromtheGateofEternalConcord,Oinoe,Attica,bearingan inscriptionrelatingtoHerodes’‘space’.ArchaeologicalMuseumof Marathon(IG II2 5189).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelong totheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithin theresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofEastAttica,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development.Image:D-DAI-ATH-Attika-479,GöstaHellner.93
3.13ArchofHadrian,Athens.Theimageandtherightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof thecityofAthens,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organization ofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Photographer:E.Bardani.94
3.14SecondaryinscriptionlamentingthedeathofRegillaontherightpilaster oftheArchofEternalConcord,fromOinoe,Attica(SEG 23.121;Geagan 1964).ArchaeologicalMuseumofMarathon.Therightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof EastAttica,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:CourtesyofHansR.Goette.96
3.15ReconstructedfaçadeoftheLibraryofKelsos,Ephesos.Image: H.Sichtermann,Neg.D-DAI-ROM-82.1937.102
3.16InscribedlimestonesarcophagusofDionysiosofMiletos(T.Claudius FlavianusDionysios),locatedoppositetheLibraryofKelsosincentral Ephesos.Image:ÖAW/ÖAI Archive.103
3.17DrawingofDionysiosofMiletos’ sarcophagusshowingthefunerary inscription(I.Ephesos 2.426).Image:ÖAW/ÖAI Archive.104
4.1Hermofanunidentifiedindividualwithcurseinscriptionbelowthe membrum.EpigraphicMuseum,Athens(EM10565; IG II2 13201).The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EpigraphicMuseum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Photographer: Author.148
4.2Curse-inscribedhermofAchilles.EpigraphicMuseum,Athens(EM 12466; IG II2 13195).Theimageandtherightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEpigraphicMuseum, HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCultural ResourcesDevelopment.149
4.3Twofragmentsofacurse-inscribedheroicrelieffromKephisia(IG II2 13191/3).ArchaeologicalCollectionofKephisia.Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofEastAttica,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:D-DAI-ATHAttika408,W.Wrede.150
4.4Curse-inscribedherm(unidentified)or stêlê fromOinoe.Epigraphic Museum,Athens(EM12467; IG II2 13202).Theimageandtherights totheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCulture andSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEpigraphic Museum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.150
4.5Curse-inscribedaltardedicatedtoRegilla, ‘thelightofthehouse’ EpigraphicMuseum,Athens(EM10317; IG II2 13200).Theimageand therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EpigraphicMuseum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.151
4.6PortraitheadofHerodes’ foster-sonMemnonfromHerodes’ Villaat Loukou-EvaKynouria.Antikensammlung,StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin (Inv.Sk1503).Image:Antikensammlung,StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin, PreussischerKulturbesitz.152
4.7Curse-inscribedhermofPolydeukion.AshmoleanMuseum,Oxford(AN. Michaelis.177; IG II2 13194).Image:©AshmoleanMuseum,University ofOxford.154
4.8Curse-inscribedhermofPolydeukion.EpigraphicMuseum,Athens(EM 13177; IG II2 3970+13190).Therightstotheillustratedmonument belongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlies withintheresponsibilityoftheEpigraphicMuseum,HellenicMinistryof CultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Photographer:Author.157
4.9InscribedmarbleportraithermofHerodesAttikos.MuseumofAncient Corinth(S1219; Corinth 8.1,no.85).Therightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof Corinthia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:bw_2002_017_07,Johnson 1931,89, fig.169,courtesyoftheAmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesat Athens,CorinthExcavations.159
4.10TombofKyrosfromthenorth-west,Pasargadae.Image:Stronach 1978,pl.24.171
4.11GroundplanofHerodesAttikos’ VillaatLoukou-EvaKynouria.Image: CourtesyofGiorgiosSpyropoulos.176
4.12 Stêlê inscribedwithanepigramandlistofthefallenoftheErechtheistribe intheBattleofMarathonfromtheVillaofHerodesAttikosatLoukouEvaKynouria.ArchaeologicalMuseumofAstros(Inv.535;Steinhauer 2004‒2009).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofArkadia,HellenicMinistry ofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:CourtesyofGiorgiosSpyropoulos.178
4.13FragmentofaninscribedcasualtylistfromtheVillaofHerodesAttikosat Loukou-EvaKynouria.ArchaeologicalMuseumofAstros(Inv.586).The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EphorateofAntiquitiesofArkadia,HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image: Author,CourtesyofGiorgiosSpyropoulos.179
4.14FragmentofaninscribedcasualtylistfromtheVillaofHerodesAttikosat Loukou-EvaKynouria.ArchaeologicalMuseumofAstros(Inv.587).The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EphorateofAntiquitiesofArkadia,HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image: Author,CourtesyofGiorgiosSpyropoulos.179
4.15OnehalfofapairofinscriptionsfoundatPetri,nearNemea,thatnames HerodesAttikos(SEG 41.273).ArchaeologicalMuseumofNemea.The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EphorateofAntiquitiesofCorinthia,HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image: CourtesyofCharalamposKritzas.183
4.16Marbleportraitbustofapriest,possiblyamemberoftheVediiAntonini familyfromEphesos,foundattheVillaofHerodesAttikosatLoukouEvaKynouria.ArchaeologicalMuseumofAstros.Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofArkadia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:Courtesyof GiorgiosSpyropoulos.186
4.17MarbleportraitofapriestandmemberoftheVediiAntoninifamilyfrom Ephesos.IzmirArchaeologicalMuseum(Inv.570).Image:ÖAW/ÖAI (A-W-OAI-DIA-128369).186
4.18MarbleportraitofapriestandmemberoftheVediiAntoninifamily,from Ephesos.IzmirArchaeologicalMuseum(Inv.648).Image:ÖAW/ÖAI (A-W-OAI-DIA-128384).187
4.19MarbleportraitofapriestwithcrownandmemberoftheVediiAntonini family.Louvre(MND1012).Image:©MuséeduLouvre,Dist.RMNGrandPalais/PhilippeFuzeau.187
4.20MarbleportraitbustofHadrianfoundattheVillaofHerodesAttikosat Loukou-EvaKynouria.ArchaeologicalMuseumofAstros.Therightsto theillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofArkadia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:Courtesyof GiorgiosSpyropoulos.189
5.1InscribedstatuebaseofArrianfromHierapolis(Komana,Kappadokia). Nowbuiltintoamodernbridgein Şar,Adanaprovince,Turkey(SEG 58.1665).Image:FeritBaz.198
5.2Marbleportraitbustofa ‘philosopher’ or ‘rhetor’ fromtheOlympieion, Athens.NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Athens(NM427).Theimage andtherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseum,HellenicMinistry ofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Photographer:E.A.Galanopoulos.202
5.3MarblestatueofaseatedphilosopherfromRome.VaticanMuseum Library(MV/P050).Image:©GovernatoratoSCV-DirezionedeiMusei, allrightsreserved.203
5.4RemainsofaNymphaiondedicatedtoZeusbyRegillaatthesiteof AncientOlympia.Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryof CultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:D-DAI-ATH-1979/471,GöstaHellner.208
5.5ReconstructionoftheNymphaionatOlympiabyRenateBol.Image:Bol 1984,pl.5.208
5.6ReconstructionofthestatueprogrammeoftheNymphaionatOlympia, upperlevel.Image:Bol1984, fig.29.209
5.7ReconstructionofthestatueprogrammeoftheNymphaionatOlympia, lowerlevel.Image:Bol1984, fig.30.209
5.8MarblestatueofabullwithaninscriptionidentifyingRegillaasthe dedicatoronits flank,fromtheNymphaionatOlympia.Archaeological MuseumofOlympia(Inv.373; I.Olympia no.610).Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organization ofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:D-DAI-ATH-1979/467, GöstaHellner.210
5.9MarblecuirassstatueoftheemperorHadrian,fromtheNymphaionat Olympia.ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia(Inv.VI,1712;Mus.no. Λ 148).TherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryof CultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:D-DAI-ATH-1979/376,GöstaHellner.212
5.10Marblecuirassstatueofanemperor,probablyMarcusAurelius,fromthe NymphaionatOlympia.ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia(Inv.II, 524;Mus.no. Λ 150).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongto theHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithin theresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistry ofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:D-DAI-ATH-1979/372,GöstaHellner.213
5.11Marblecuirassstatueofanemperor,probablyMarcusAureliusfromthe monopteros,fromtheNymphaionatOlympia.ArchaeologicalMuseum ofOlympia(Inv.V,1423;Musno. Λ 149).Therightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof Elis,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCultural ResourcesDevelopment.Image:D-DAI-ATH-1979/367,Gösta Hellner.214
5.12Marblestatueofamaleinatoga,fromtheNymphaionatOlympia. ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia(Inv.II,526;Musno. Λ 153).The rightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryof CultureandSports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofthe EphorateofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:D-DAI-ATH1979/384,GöstaHellner.215
5.13Marblestatueofamaleinhimation,fromtheNymphaionatOlympia. ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia(Inv.II,524,S34,S37;Musno. Λ 152).TherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports,withintheresponsibilityoftheEphorate ofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:D-DAI-ATH1979/444,GöstaHellner.216
5.14MarbleportraitbustofAntinoos.NationalArchaeologicalMuseum, Athens(NM417).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseum,HellenicMinistry ofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Photographer:Author.222
5.15MarbleEgyptianizingportraitstatueofAntinoos(possiblyasOsiris), fromHadrian’svillaatTivoli.Vatican,MuseoGregorianoEgizio(Inv. 22795IFC;Mus.no.99).Image:©GovernatoratoSCV-Direzionedei Musei,allrightsreserved.222
5.16MarbleportraitstatueofAntinoosfromDelphi.ArchaeologicalMuseum ofDelphi(Inv.1718).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongto theHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithin theresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofPhokia,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development.Image:EFA/Ph.Collet.223
5.17MarbleportraitbustofPolydeukion,foundinKephisiawithoneof Herodes(seeFigure3.1).NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Athens (NM4811).Theimageandtherightstotheillustratedmonument belongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlies withintheresponsibilityoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseum, HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCultural ResourcesDevelopment.Image:Photographer:E.A.Galanopoulos.224
5.18The ‘AntinoosofOlympia’.ArchaeologicalMuseumofOlympia(Mus no. Λ 204,208).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofElis,HellenicMinistryof CultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:D-DAI-ATH-Olympia-1440,HermannWagner.224
5.19Male ‘Egyptianizing’ statuefromtheCanopusshrineatBrexiza,near Marathon,possiblyAntinoosorPolydeukion.NationalArchaeological Museum,Athens(Aeg.1).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelong totheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithin theresponsibilityoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development.Photographer:AnnaMoles.225
5.20HeroicrelieffromHerodesAttikos’ estateatLoukou-EvaKynouria, possiblyPolydeukionorAchilles.NationalArchaeologicalMuseum, Athens(NM1450).Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseum,HellenicMinistry ofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Image:D-DAI-ATH-1972/441,GöstaHellner.227
5.21HeroicreliefofPolydeukionfoundattheSanctuaryofArtemisat Brauron.ArchaeologicalMuseumofBrauron(Inv.1181).Therightsof theillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof EastAttica,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.Photographer:Author.227
5.22Mid-second-century,marbleportraitstatueofaRomanyouthfromItaly, onceassignedasan ‘export’ typeofPolydeukion,nowunidentified.Said tohavebeenfoundatHadrian’svillaatTivoli.Nelson-AtkinsMuseum ofArt,KansasCity,Missouri.Purchase:WilliamRockhillNelsonTrust, 34‒91/1.Image:Nelson-AtkinsMuseumofArt.229
5.23SchematicportraithermofPolydeukionfromafourth-centuryRoman villaatWelschbillig,Germany.RheinischesLandesmuseum,Trier(Inv. 18876).Image:RD.1966.98,©GDKE/RheinischesLandesmuseum Trier.Photographer:H.Thörnig.230
5.24StatuebaseofPolydeukiondedicatedbytheDelphianstothe ‘heroof Herodes’,foundreusedintheRomanagora.Archaeologicalsiteof Delphi,Romanagora(Inv.3251; FD III.3.1,no.74).Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityofEphorateof AntiquitiesofPhokia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:EFA/J.-Y. Empereur.232
5.25ThetriconchforecourtofthePeireneFountain,AncientCorinth.Therights totheillustratedmonumentbelongto theHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofCorinthia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment,andAmericanSchoolof ClassicalStudiesatAthens,CorinthExcavations.Photographer:Author.234
5.26MarblestatuebaseofRegillafromthePeireneFountain,Ancient Corinth.ArchaeologicalMuseumofCorinth(Inv.62; Corinth 8.1,no. 86).TherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofCorinthia,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development,andAmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthens, CorinthExcavations.Photographer:Author.234
5.27LeftsideofthestatuebaseofRegillafromthePeireneFountain(upside down).ArchaeologicalMuseumofCorinth(Inv.62).Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofCorinthia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment,andAmericanSchool ofClassicalStudiesatAthens,CorinthExcavations.Photographer: Author.235
6.1ReliefofHeraklesorNeroasHeraklescarvedintothewallofanancient canaltrenchoftheCorinthCanal,Isthmia.Therightstotheillustrated monumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof Corinthia,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:DavidPettegrew.255
6.2InscribedletterfromMarcusAureliustotheAtheniansregarding HerodesAttikosandthesocialadvancementoffreedmen.Epigraphic Museum,Athens(EM13366; SEG 29.127).Theimageandtherightsto theillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEpigraphic Museum,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopment.258
6.3OdeionofHerodesAttikosandRegilla,AthenianAkropolis.Therightsto theillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofthecityofAthens,HellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment. Photographer:Author.273
6.4Marbleinscribed stêlê fromthevillageofBey,nearMarathon. ArchaeologicalMuseumofMarathon(Inv.22; IG II2 3606).Theimage andtherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofEastAttica,HellenicMinistryofCulture andSports/OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.278
6.5ThePanathenaicStadium,Athens.Therightstotheillustrated MonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;the monumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesof thecityofAthens,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organization ofCulturalResourcesDevelopmentand
(GreekOlympicCommittee).Photographer:Author.283
6.6StatuebaseofPolydeukiondedicatedbyHerodesAttikosattheSanctuary ofNemesisatRhamnous.ArchaeologicalsiteofRhamnous(Λ505; SEG 49.209).TherightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenic MinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofEastAttica,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Development.Photographer:Author.287
6.7FrontpaneloftheLedaSarcophagusfoundinKephisia.Therightstothe illustratedmonumentbelongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureand Sports;themonumentlieswithintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateof AntiquitiesofEastAttica,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/ OrganizationofCulturalResourcesDevelopment.Image:Courtesyof HansR.Goette.288
6.8GroundplanofthePanathenaicStadiumandsurrounds.Image:Travlos 1971,pl.630.290
6.9Sarcophaguswithassociatedaltarabovetheeasternsideofthe PanathenaicStadium,Athens.Therightstotheillustratedmonument belongtotheHellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlies withintheresponsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofthecityof Athens,HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports/Organizationof CulturalResourcesDevelopmentand
(GreekOlympicCommittee).Photographer:Author.291
6.10Altardedicatedto ‘theheroofMarathon’ (IG II2 6791).Panathenaic Stadium,Athens.Therightstotheillustratedmonumentbelongtothe HellenicMinistryofCultureandSports;themonumentlieswithinthe responsibilityoftheEphorateofAntiquitiesofthecityofAthens,Hellenic MinistryofCultureandSports/OrganizationofCulturalResources Developmentand
(GreekOlympic Committee).Photographer:Author.292
ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviationsfollowthoseinthe OxfordClassicalDictionary (thirdedition),withthe followingadditions:
MODERNWORKS: BNJ
Worthington,I.ed. Brill’sNewJacoby (online).LeidenandBoston
Corinth 8.1Meritt,B.D.ed.1931. Corinth:ResultsofExcavationsConductedbythe AmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthens VIII.1:GreekInscriptions 1896–1927. Cambridge,MA.
Corinth 8.3Kent,J.H.ed.1966. Corinth:ResultsofExcavationsConductedbythe AmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthensVIII.3:TheInscriptions 1926–1950. Princeton,NJ.
FD IIIDaux,G.andA.Salać eds.1932. FouillesdeDelphes,III.Épigraphie.
Fasc.3:InscriptionsdepuisletrésordesAthéniensjusqu’auxbasesde
Gélon,Vol.1.Paris
IG II2 Kirchner,J.ed.1913–1940. InscriptionesAtticaeEuclidisanno posteriores. 4vols.Berlin.
IG XII,5HillervonGaertringen,F.F.ed.1903‒1909. InscriptionesCycladum. 2vols.Berlin.I: InscriptionesCycladumpraeterTenum (1903);II: InscriptionesTeniinsulae (1909)
I.Ephesos 2Börker,C.andR.MerkelbachwithhelpfromH.Engelmannand D.Knibbeeds.1979. DieInschriftenvonEphesos,PartII:Nr.100‒599 (Repertorium).Bonn.
I.Ephesos 3Engelmann,H.,D.Knibbe,andR.Merkelbacheds.1980. Die InschriftenvonEphesos,PartIII:Nr.600‒1000(Repertorium).Bonn
I.Olympia Dittenberger,W.andK.Purgoldeds.1896. DieInschriftenvon Olympia. Berlin.
I.Smyrna Petzl,G.ed.1982–1990.DieInschriftenvonSmyrna.2vols. Bonn.
ANCIENTWORKS: HL AeliusAristeides, SacredTales
VH Lucian, TrueStories Romance/Rom.TheAlexanderRomance
ANOTEONNAMES IhaveusedGreekspellingsforGreeknames,exceptincaseswherethenameisso familiarinitsAnglicized/Latinizedform(e.g.Achilles,Lucian,Thucydides,Dio Chrysostom,Strabo)astobejarringforthereaderinaGreekform.
TheFutureandthe ‘SecondSophistic’ Thefuturehasanancientheart.
–CarloLevi, Ilfuturohauncuoreantico. 1
In AD 131,ArrianofNikomedeia,amemberoftheGreekeliteofwesternAsia MinorandaRomancitizen,makesadecisiontoremodelanexistingmonument totheemperorHadrianatTrapezousontheBlackSea,whilstcarryingout aninspectiontouroftheregion.2 ‘Thisspotisjustmadeforaneternalmemorial’ (
, Peripl. 1.4),hewritestoHadrian injustificationfortheinitiative.InArrian’smind,Trapezousisperfectfora physicalmemorialbecauseitisherethatthefamousXenophonandtheretreating ‘TenThousand’ firstcametothesafetyoftheGreek-heldBlackSeacoast,an exploitimmortalizedinXenophon’sfourth-century BC Anabasis.Arrian’sphysical memorialwillthus ‘piggy-back’ onthereputationofXenophonandhistext,and theculturalandhistoricalsignificanceofplace.Moreover,byundertakingtherenovations,textualizinghisintentions,andrevisingXenophon’sliteraryportraitof Trapezous,Arrianwriteshimselfintothisfamousspotanditslayersofhistory,shaping themtoservehisowncommemorativepurposes.Hereconfigurestime,space,and artefacttocreatememoryanew.3 Indoingso,however,healsodemonstratesthe fragilityandmutabilityoffame,evenwhenitisattachedtolandscapeorartefacts.
Arrian’ssentimenthereencapsulateswhatthisbookisabout:theimperial Greekobsessionwithpersonalcommemorationbymeansofthepervasive,consciouscreationoftextualandmaterialculturethatpositionsitselfwithintradition butiscraftedtospeaktothefuture.InexploringhowandwhyeliteRoman-era Greekswerecompelledtofashionaplaceinfutureconsciousnessviathesetwo deeplyconnectedcommemorativestrategies theliteraryandthematerial I arguethatimperialGreektemporalitywasfarmorecomplexthanscholarship haspreviouslyallowed.Indeed,theculturaloutputofeliteGreeksduringthe Romanempirewasshapedbyaperspectivetrainednotonlyonthedistantpast
1 TranslationofthemaintitleofLevi1961.
2 ArrianwasgovernorofKappadokiaatthistime;hemayalsohavebeendescendedfromItaliansettlers inNikomedeia,addingfurthercomplexitytohisculturalidentity.
3 ThisprocessinthistextisexploredindetailinSection2.2.
2 FASHIONINGTHEFUTUREINROMANGREECE
butalsosimultaneouslyonthefuture.Thismadethemparticularlyalivetoboth thepossibilityofcreatingandtheapparentimpossibilityofcontrolling ‘immortal fame’.Thisbookdrawsoutthetensions,anxieties,andopportunitiesthatattend theconstructionoffameandthecontemplationofposterityagainstthebackgroundoftheso-called ‘SecondSophistic’,anditexaminestheconsequencesof thisembroilmentwithfuturityonourunderstandingoftheculturalandpolitical concernsofeliteimperialGreeksociety.
Thisisnottheusualapproachtothe ‘SecondSophistic’.Thisphrasemakesits firstappearanceinFlaviusPhilostratos’ third-century AD collectionofanecdotal biographies,the LivesoftheSophists.Thereheusesittodescribeatypeof oratoricalperformancethathecastsascentraltocontemporaryeliteGreek culture.Inmodernscholarship,however,ithastakenonalifeofitsown.4 It regularlydesignatestheperiodofthe firstthreecenturies AD intheGreek-speaking easternempireandeliteGreekcultureinitsrelationshiptoRomanpoweratthat time.Iwillbeusingitspecificallytosignifyclassicizingpatternsofliteraryand monumentalself-representationbyeliteRomancitizensofGreekoriginduring thisperiodwithaparticularfocusonthesecondcentury AD.Importantly,the temporaldisplacementinherentinthetermgelswiththetime-bendingand (virtual)time-travellingactivitiesoftheindividualswhoappearinthesepages, andmyfocusadherestothespiritandcomplexityofPhilostratos’ overall construction.
Philostratosattachesthephrasenottoaspecificperiodbuttoadistinct theatricaltypeof epideixis,inwhichtherhetordelivershisspeechintheguiseof ahistoricaloroccasionallymythological figure. 5 Hejuxtaposesthis ‘latersophistic (μετ ’ ἐκείνην)’,whichhespecifies ‘mustnotbecalled “new” (οὐχὶ νέαν),foritisold (ἀρχαίαγάρ),butrather “second” (δευτέρανδὲ μᾶλλον)’ toan ‘ancientsophistic’ (ἀρχαίασοφιστική)thatexploredmorephilosophicalthemes(VS 1.0.481).6 These speechesweremostlyimprovised,withtheaudienceproposingthethemetothe performingrhetor.7 Philostratostracestherootsofhistopictothefourth-century BC AthenianoratorAischines(VS 1.0.481):hegroundsitinclassicalAthens,just asthemenhedescribeschooseclassicalthemesfortheirspeeches,pepperthem
4 Philostratoswaswritinginthelate230sorearly240s.OnPhilostratosandhiscorpus,see(with bibliography)Bowie2009,19–32;Elsner2009,3–18.Onthevarioususagesofthe ‘SecondSophistic’ in scholarship,seeWhitmarsh2005,3–22;Miles2018,12–15.
5 SeeWhitmarsh2005,4–22.ForconciseandcleardiscussionofthebranchesofGreekrhetoricand epideicticinparticular,seeWebb2006,27–46;2009,15–20,26;Pernot2015.Fortheextentofsophistic performanceculture,seeWhitmarsh2005,23–40.
6 ForPhilostratos’ τὰς ἐς ὄνομα ὑποθέσεις meaning ‘performances inpersona’,seeWhitmarsh2001,42. Contra Wright(1968,7)for ‘definiteandspecialthemes’.Alltranslationsaremyownunlessotherwise indicated.ThistranslationfollowsWright1968withsignificantalterations.
7 Whitmarsh2005,66,withbibliography;also,Kennedy1974,17–22;Russell1983,106–28;Swain 1996,92–6.
withclassicalquotations,andforthemostpartemploythearchaizingAttic dialect.8 Thesecharacteristics,moreover,spilloverintootherliterarygenres.
Asaresult,thepastthatfascinatedRoman-eraGreekshastraditionallybeen conceivedofaslimitinganddwarfingtheirculturaloutput,sothat,foralongtime, scholarsregularlydismissedimperialGreekliteratureasderivativeandmimeticof theclassicalcanon.9 Thatviewwasreinforcedbyalong-establishedtendencytosee thecultureofarchaicandclassicalGreeceasbothpurerandsimplybetterthanthat oftheimperialperiod,andbytheprivilegingoforiginalitystemmingfromromanticism.10 ThisscholarlyaversionwasthusdeeplylinkedtonegativemodernaestheticjudgementsoftheSecondSophistic.11 Aestheticappraisal,however,islargely determinedbysocialandculturalcontext,sothatapieceofartcanbeappreciatedto vastlydifferentdegreesatdifferenttimesandindifferentplaces.12 Moreover,athing ofextraordinaryandenduringbeautycomestobelabelledassuchonlyonce enoughindividualsrespondtoitwithpositiveemotionsoverlargespansof time.13 Thisshouldbeaverypersonalandindividualreactionthatisrepeatedon avasttemporalandquantitativescale,butinrealitypersonalresponsetoartisalways shapedbytheauthorityoftraditionandthedictatesoffashion.Thisisparticularly relevanttomodernscholarshipandwhatitdeemsworthyofstudy.14
Morerecent,theoreticallyinformedscholarshiphasavoidedaestheticestimationofeliteimperialGreekcultureinanefforttocreatedistancebetweenmodern pluralistattitudesandoldercanonizingapproachesthatarenowrightlyjudged elitist,anachronistic,andconservative.15 Thusonlyinthelastcenturyandparticularlythepast fiftyyearsorsowiththetheoreticalturninclassicshaveimperial Greektextsbeenseenasworthyofexploration.Evenso,theyhaveprimarilybeen approachedasmaterialforprobingsocial,cultural,political,andhistoricalquestionsratherthanaestheticones.Indeed,thetextshaveprovedsogoodtothink withthat,ifonetracestherelevantscholarship,wegainasnapshotofcontemporaryculturalandintellectualhistoryasmuchasaninsightintothepast.16 One thereforewondersifthehistoryofSecondSophisticscholarshipmighthavebeen
8 SeeSwain1996,17–64;Whitmarsh2005,4–8,41–56,bothwithextensivebibliography.
9 See,e.g.,Bompaire1958.
10 Onthepreferenceforthe ‘purity’ ofearlyGreece,seeWhitmarsh2013a,1–7,especially2.
11 ThemostextremeexpressionofthisdistasteistobefoundinvanGroningen1965,41–56.
12 Cf.NelsonandOlin2003,7. 13 SeeHall2017.
14 Cf.NelsonandOlin2003,2: ‘amonumentiswhatarthistorychoosestocelebrateandproclaima monument’.AlsoseeDickenson’s(2017,3–31)discussionofascholarlyassumptionthatincreased monumentalityinpublicspaceintheRomanperiodisindicativeofsocial,political,andculturaldecline.
15 Fortheissueofscholarshipandaestheticworth,seeHall2017.Ontheapplicationof ‘aesthetics’ to theancientworld,seeDestréeandMurray2015,1–12.Ontheformationofnewtheoreticallyfounded canons,seeGorak1991,221–60.
16 Whitmarsh2005,10.See6–10forasurveyofthatculturalhistory.
different,giventhemodernworld’spreoccupationwithoriginality,had Philostratosnotredefineditfrom ‘new’ to ‘second’
TheresistancetoassigningaestheticvaluetoRoman-periodGreektextsandto grantingthemastatusequivalenttoclassicalliteraturecanbeseenmostclearlyin scholarlydissatisfactionwiththedefininggenreofPhilostratos’ SecondSophistic: epideixis.Thesurvivingspeecheshaveregularlybeenjudgedaspoorart: ‘[a]s speakers,mostsophistsleftnothingbutafewquotesinPhilostratos’ Lives thatdo notmakeusregretthelossoftherestoftheirproduction.Thetextsthathave reacheduscompleteandintheiroriginalformdonotinspiremuchenthusiasm either’ 17 Anenormouspartofthisnegativeappraisalmustderivefromthe incongruityofaperformativegenrelikeoratorybeingpreservedassilentand immobiletext,wheninpracticeit ‘wouldhavebeendynamizedbyclothing, props,gesture,intonation,vocaltexture,complementedbythesurroundings, andframedbyanongoingdialoguewiththeaudience’ 18
Thediscrepancybetweenmodernexperienceofthewrittenwordandancient performedspeechhasledMartinKorenjaktointimatethatRoman-periodGreeks engagedinsophisticactivitieshadnointerestinposterityandwerefocusedsolely ontheriseandfurtherriseoftheirpresentstar.19 IfwearetobelievePhilostratos’ depictionofsophisticculture,contemporaryfamediddependlargelyonone’s epideicticabilityandtheone-off,improvised,oralnatureofthisgenreposedan obstacletothepersistenceoffamebeyondtheperformativemoment.Iwillcall thisthe ‘sophisticdilemma’ 20 Forfametoaccrue,one’sperformancemustbe rememberedandreplayedeitherthroughtherecollectionspassedonbytheinitial audienceorthroughthedisseminationandconsumptionofatextualrecord.21 Althoughincongruouswiththegenreofimprovised epideixis andthustreated ambivalentlyinmanyimperialGreektexts,22 themonumentalizingcapacityof textwasembracedasonewayofextendingfame.Consequently,manyliterary worksproducedatthistimearecastasthoughtheyare ‘recordings’ ofaprevious epideicticmoment,evenifthatperformanceneveroccurredinreality.23
Korenjak’spositionthusoverlooksthefactthatauthorscommitto ‘conversing withposterity’ themomenttheyconsigntheirspeechesandworksofothergenres towriting.24 Atthesametime,itappliesamodernaestheticassessmenttoancient
17 Korenjak2012,253. 18 Whitmarsh2005,24;cf.Webb2006,32–4.
19 Korenjak2012,254–6. 20 SeeStrazdins2008.
21 Thomas(2003,162–88)describesthetensionbetween epideixis andwrittenpublicationinclassical times.
22 Aswellasthespectreof epideixis andartisticachievement,thisambivalenceisbasedtosomeextenton respondingtoPlato’s Phaidros anditsattitudetorhetoricandwriting.SeeTrapp1990,141–73.
23 ExamplesincludethespeechesofDioChrysostom,Lucian,andAeliusAristeides,Apuleius’ Florida and Apologia
24 Thephrase ‘conversingwithposterity’ formspartofthetitleofKorenjak’schapter.
materialandfailstograspimperialGreeksensitivitytotheperformativityand materialityofwriting.JamesPorter,forone,hasconvincinglyarguedthat,inthe mindsofancientGreeks,writtentextswereunderstoodtoretainanaspectoftheir author’svoiceandwerethusconsideredtobeakindofauditoryrecordingor ‘voiceprint’ 25 Whenonereadatext,Portersuggests,onehearditscomposer’s voiceandtopossessthetextwasinsomesensetoexperiencetheperformance.26 Accesstothisexperience,however,dependedonreadingthetextintherightkind ofway.Thatmethodmayhavebeenatthe fingertipsofimperialGreeks,sinceit waspartandparceloftheirculturalcomprehensionoftextuality,butittendsto eludethemoderncritic,whocanapproximatebutnotreconstructsensory authenticity.AngelosChaniotishasmademuchthesamepointwithrespectto theperformativityofinscriptions,atopicexploredinchapter4,andourtendency toaccesstheancientworldonlyinavisualcapacity.27 Thusreadinginthemodern worldisnotasoundbasisonwhichtojudgethequalityofancientperformative textsandourculturalpreconceptionsofwhatconstitutesgreatliteratureinterfere withourabilitytointerpretit.
Philostratos’ specificityabouttheoratoricalnatureoftheSecondSophistic (VS 1.0.481)isdisingenuous,however,sincethecontentsofthe LivesoftheSophists donotsitentirelycomfortablywithhisdefinition.Hissophistsare pepaideumenoi, whovieforrecognitioninthepublicdomain,andarecharacterized firstand foremostasteachersandperformersofrhetoric.28 Theyare,however,alsomore thanthis.Philostratos’ sophistsrepresenttheirnativeoradoptedcitiesonimperial embassies,takeonpriesthoodsandadministrativepositionsintheirlocalgovernment,performliturgies,andmakeliberalbenefactionstothosecitieswithwhich theyareassociated.29 Theyarecompetitiveandstatusdriven,oftenbi-oreventricultural,andtheirsuccessisregularlymeasuredinpoliticalinfluence,afollowing ofstudents,andrivalrywithothersophists.30 Moreover,despitePhilostratos’ broadtemporalscope,thevastmajorityofhisexamplesdocomefromthe first threecenturies AD andhepassesovertheinterveningperiodfromAischinesby mentioningthreeoratorswhomhebringsuponlytorejectasunworthyof comment(VS 1.18.510‒11).
25 Porter2006,314.Seealsotherich,extendeddiscussionofShaneButler(2015,esp.11–58)ontexts asrecordingsofvoice.
26 ForanexcellentanalysisofaestheticmaterialityandthedifferencesbetweenancientGreeksand ourselves,seePorter2010.Ontheanimationofwrittentextandits(in)abilitiestocapturespeech,see especially308–64.
27 Chaniotis2012,303.
28 On paideia,seethediscussionofWhitmarsh1998and2001,90–132,withbibliography.
29 SeeBowersock1969.Cf.thequalificationsofBowie1982.SeealsoSchmitz1997.
30 Theprimeexamplefrom VS isPolemonandFavorinus(1.8.490–1,1.25.536,1.25.541).SeeGleason 1995,xxvii‒xxviii,27–8,46–8.Again,onthesocialandpoliticalstatusofsophists,seeBowersock1969.
