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Digital Compositing for Film and Video: Production Workflows and Techniques 4th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
The revised twelfth edition of Video Production: Disciplines and Techniques introduces readers to the operations underlying video production. It provides thorough coverage of the theory and techniques readers need to know, balancing complexity with practical how-to information about detailed subjects in a concise, conversational style. The book has been updated to incorporate recent changes in the video production pipeline—emphasizing digital video, non-linear video production, streaming platforms, and mobile production—while maintaining the foundational, nuanced, teamwork-based approach that has made the book popular.
Each chapter includes key takeaways, review questions, and on-set exercises, and a comprehensive glossary defines all the key production terms discussed. An accompanying eResource includes downloadable versions of the forms and paperwork used in the book, in addition to links to further online resources.
James C. Foust is a professor and the department chair of the Department of Journalism and Public Relations at Bowling Green State University. He has worked in commercial video production, including experience as a television news videographer and editor. He is also the author of Big Voices of the Air: The Battle over Clear Channel Radio (2000) and Online Journalism: Principles and Practices of News for the Web, Third Edition (2011). He holds Ph.D. and M.S. degrees from Ohio University.
Edward J. Fink is a professor of Cinema and Television Arts and the interim dean of the College of Communications at California State University, Fullerton. He teaches both multiple- and single-camera production, in addition to other media and writing courses. He is the co-author of another production text (Portable Video: News and Field Production [2012]) and the author of Dramatic Story Structure (2014). He holds a Ph.D. in Mass Communications from Indiana University.
Lynne S. Gross has taught television production full-time at a number of U.S. colleges, including California State University, Fullerton; Pepperdine University; UCLA; Loyola Marymount University; and Long Beach City College. She has also taught production internationally in Estonia, Australia, Guyana, Swaziland, and Malaysia. Her professional experience includes serving as director of programming for Valley Cable TV and producing series for commercial, public, and cable television. Gross is past president of the Broadcast Education Association and has served as governor for the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. Her honors include the BEA Distinguished Education Service Award and the IRTS Frank Stanton Fellow Award. She is the author of ten other books and numerous journal articles. Her doctorate is from UCLA.
Video Production
Disciplines and Techniques
Twelfth Edition
James C. Foust
Bowling Green State University
Edward J. Fink
California State University, Fullerton
Lynne S. Gross
Twelfth edition published 2018 by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
The right of Edward J. Fink, James C. Foust, and Lynne S. Gross to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Eleventh edition published by Holcomb Hathaway 2012
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Foust, James C., author. | Fink, Edward J. (Edward John), author. | Gross, Lynne S, author.
Title: Video production : disciplines and techniques / James C. Foust, Bowling Green State University, Edward J. Fink, California State University, Fullerton, Lynne S. Gross.
Description: Twelfth edition. | New York and London : Routledge, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017008025 (print) | LCCN 2017024922 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315168180 (E-book) | ISBN 9781138051805 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138051812 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Television—Production and direction. | Video recordings—Production and direction.
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017008025
ISBN: 978-1-138-05180-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-05181-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-16818-0 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138051812
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1 Introduction to Video
Production 1
Types of Productions 2
Studio Production 3
Field Production 7
Remote Production 8
The Production Path 8
Transducing 8
Channeling 9
Selecting and Altering 9
Monitoring 10
Recording and Playback 10
Convergence and the Digital Age 10
Differences between Analog and Digital 10
High-Definition Television 11
Convergence 11
A Short History of Video Production 12
Early Television 12
Uses of Film and Live Camera 13
The Impact of Recorded and Edited
Video 14
Portable Video Equipment 14
Computer-Based Technologies 14
Aspects of Employment in the Video
Industry 16
Work Patterns 16
Types of Jobs 16
Employment Preparation 17
Disciplines and Techniques 17
Focus Points 18
Review 18
On Set 18
Notes 18
2 Cast and Crew 19
Producers 20
Before Production Begins 20
During Rehearsal and Recording 21
After the Production 21
Directors 21
Before Production Begins 21
During Rehearsal and Recording 22
After the Production 23
Associate Directors 23
Before Production Begins 23
During Rehearsal and Recording 23
After the Production 24
Stage Managers 24
Before Production Begins 25
During Rehearsal and Recording 25
After the Production 25
Camera Operators 27
Before Production Begins 27
During Rehearsal and Recording 27
After the Production 28
Prompter Operators 28
Before Production Begins 28
During Rehearsal and Recording 28
After the Production 28
Lighting Directors 29
Before Production Begins 29
During Rehearsal and Recording 29
After the Production 29
Audio Engineers 29
Before Production Begins 29
During Rehearsal and Recording 30
After the Production 31
Graphics Operators 31
Before Production Begins 31
During Rehearsal and Recording 31
After the Production 31
Technical Directors 32
Before Production Begins 32
During Rehearsal and Recording 32
After the Production 32
Recordists 33
Before Production Begins 33
During Rehearsal and Recording 33
After the Production 33
Editors 34
Before Production Begins 34
During Rehearsal and Recording 34
After the Production 34
Other Positions 34
Cast 36
Performers 36
Actors 39
Focus Points 40
Review 40
On Set 41
Notes 41
3 Producing and Scriptwriting
43
Types of Producers 43
Executive Producers 43
Producers 44
Associate and Assistant Producers 44
Line Producers 44
Hyphenates 44
Budgets 45
Costs of Productions 45
Pay Rates 45
Facilities and Equipment 46
Constructing and Adhering to the Budget 46
Budget Overruns 49
Personnel 49
Casting 51
Crew Selection 51
Schedules 51
Legal Considerations 55
Copyright Clearance 55
Other Legal Issues 57
Record Keeping 57
Promotion and Evaluation 58
Scriptwriting 58
Treatments and Proposals 58
Script Forms 61
Focus Points 71
Review 71
On Set 73
Notes 73
4 Directing 75
The “Manager” Role 76
Blocking 76
Marking the Script 76
Other Preparation 77
Conducting Rehearsals 78
Using Communication Devices 80
Timing 81
Calling Commands 83
The “Artist” Role 87
Shot Juxtaposition 87
Camera Selection 88
Shot Relationships 90
Transitions 92
The “Psychologist” Role 94
Familiarity 94
New Relationships 94
Directorial Style 95
Working with Talent 95
Working with Crew 95
Focus Points 96
Review 96
On Set 96
Notes 97
5 Cameras 99
Television Formats 100
The Video Scanning Process 100
Video Formats 101
Principles of Video Color 102
Hue 103
Saturation 103
Luminance 103
Lens Characteristics 104
Focal Length 104
Focus 105
F-Stop Aperture 106
Depth of Field 107
3D and Virtual Reality 109
Production Use of the Zoom 110
Lens Ratio 110
Movement Control 111
Macro Lens 111
Camera Controls 111
Viewfinder Visual Indicators and Controls 111
Shutter Control 111
Filters 112
White Balance 113
Camera Control Unit 113
Prompter 113
DSLR and Smartphone Cameras 114
DSLR Cameras 114
Smartphone Cameras 115
Camera Mounting and Movement 115
Camera Head Movement 115
Camera Mounts 116
Camera Mount Movements 118
Handheld Cameras 119
Robotic Camera Control 119
Drones 119
Field of View 120
The Long Shot (LS) 120
The Medium Shot (MS) 120
The Close-Up (CU) 120
Picture Composition 121
Framing 121
Headroom 122
Lead Room 122
Depth Composition 122
Angle of Elevation 123
Balance 123
Other Composition Problems 126
Production Techniques 126
Focus Points 127
Review 127
On Set 127
Notes 128
6 Lighting 129
Types of Light: Incident and Reflected 129
Technical Lighting Objectives 130
Intensity and Consistency 130
Contrast Ratio 131
Color Temperature 132
Creative Lighting Objectives 132
Shape, Texture, and Perspective 133
Reality and Non-reality 133
Mood 133
Focus of Attention 134
Lamps 135
LED 135
Fluorescent 135
Quartz 136
HMI 137
Other Lamps 137
Housings 137
Spotlights 137
Floodlights 139
Lighting Styles 140
Three-Point Lighting 140
Multiple-Camera Lighting and Movement 144
Flat Lighting 145
Specialized Lighting 146
Mounting Lights 147
Hanging Mounts 147
Floor Stands 147
Lighting Control Factors 147
Intensity 148
Diffusion 149
Shape 150
Color 151
Setting up Lights 152
Safety Precautions and Disciplines 153
Focus Points 154
Review 155
On Set 155
Notes 155
7 Audio 157
Microphones 157
Frequency 158
Amplitude 158
Pickup Patterns 159
Construction 161
Positioning Possibilities 163
Outboard Equipment 166
Digital Equipment 166
Analog Equipment 168
Cables and Connectors 169
Types of Cables 170
Types of Connectors 170
Patch Bays and Routers 171
Care of Cables and Connectors 172
Audio Consoles 172
Types of Consoles 172
The Basic Console 173
Board Functions 174
Speakers 179
Recording Quality Sound 179
Choose the Right Mic 179
Position It Properly: Know and Use the Inverse
Square Law 180
Check and Recheck 180
Provide Presence and Perspective 180
Be Ready to Troubleshoot 181
Adjust to Achieve the Right Balance 182
Pay Close Attention 182
Focus Points 182
Review 182
On Set 183
Notes 183
8 Graphics and Sets 185
Functions of Graphics and Sets 186
Graphics Equipment 186
Creating Graphics with Computers 186
Working with Text 187
Working with Graphics 187
Storing and Recalling Graphics 188
Graphics Aesthetics 189
Graphic Design 189
Aspect Ratios 192
Other Graphics 193
Using Out-of-Aspect Graphics 193
Keystoning and Essential Area 193
Basics of Sets 194
Virtual Sets 194
Physical Sets 195
Furniture, Set Dressings, and Props 199
Production Considerations When
Creating Sets 200
Camera Movement 200
Microphone Placement 200
Lighting Instruments 200
Depth and the Z-Axis 200
Talent Movement 202
Focus Points 202
Review 202
On Set 202
Notes 203
9
Video Switchers 205
Switcher Basics 205
Monitoring Multiple Signals 206
Portable and Computer-Based Switchers 207
Master Control and Routing Switchers 207
Fundamentals of Switcher Design 207
Buses 208
Using the Preset Bus 208
Wipes 209
Keys 210
Mix and Preview Buses 211
Downstream Key and Fade Functions 212
Operational Techniques for Video Switchers 214
Switcher Overview 214
Performing Dissolves 215
Fader Movement 215
Automatic Transitions 215
Execution of the Wipe Transition 216
Keyed Special Effects with Two and Three
Sources 216
Advanced Switcher Functions 217
Digital Effects 217
Advanced Controls 219
The Director and the Technical Director 219
Focus Points 223
Review 223
On Set 223
Notes 223
10 Video Recording and Playback 225
Video Basics 226
Time Code 226
Control and Diagnostic Components 227
Composite and Component Signals 228
Video Encoding and Compression 228
Encoding Digital Video 229
Compression Methods 229
Containers 231
Storage Technologies 231
Hard Drives 231
Optical Discs 232
Solid State Media 232
Video Servers 233
Putting Video on Servers 233
Using Servers 234
Preparing Video for Multiple Devices 235
Viewing Video Files 235
Encoding Parameters 235
Encoding Techniques 237
Focus Points 238
Review 238
On Set 238
Notes 238
11 Editing 239
Editing Basics 240
Off-line and On-line Editing 241
Project Interchange Files 241
Compression 241
Editing Preparation 242
Reviewing 242
Decision Making 243
Nonlinear Editing Techniques 243
File Management 243
Capturing and Importing Raw Material 244
The Editing Workspace 244
Output 250
Editing Aesthetics 251
When to Edit: Information and Action 253
Pacing Cuts 254
Jump Cuts 254
Axis of Conversation/Axis of Action 255
Special Transitions 255
Ethics of Editing 257
Focus Points 257
Review 257
On Set 257
12 Field Production 259
Introduction 259
Cast and Crew 260
Crew Size 260
Cleanup 260
Nonsequential Shooting 260
Producing 261
Scripting 261
Location Logistics 261
Budgeting 262
Conceptualization and Preproduction
Planning 264
Directing 268
Rehearsals 268
Production Processes 269
Editing Aesthetics 270
Cameras 271
White Balancing 271
Filters 271
Power 271
Camera Mounts and Movement 271
Camera Care 272
Lighting 272
Indoor Location Lighting 272
Outdoor Location Lighting 275
Audio 275
Microphones 275
Control Equipment 276
Wildtrack 277
Extraneous Noise 277
Graphics and Sets 277
Graphics 277
Sets 278
Video Recording 278
Setup and Connections 278
Recording Procedures 279
Editing 279
The Editing Process 279
Audio Editing 279
Remote Truck Productions 280
Focus Points 282
Review 282
On Set 283
Glossary 285
Index 305
Preface
This edition of the text has been revised and reorganized to reflect the many changes occurring in the dynamic field of video production. When the first edition of this book was published in 1978, television was dominated by three TV networks and some local stations. As the years have passed, the field has expanded to include cable and satellite TV, corporate video, Internet streaming, podcasting, and various other distribution technologies. Equipment, too, has changed, from analog-based to digital-based, while also getting smaller, cheaper, and, in most cases, more user-friendly.
UNDERLYING DISCIPLINES
Although the techniques and equipment of video may be changing, the disciplines that serve as the underlying strength of any operation remain much the same. The basic concepts of advance preparation, constant attention to detail, and teamwork assume a position of even more importance as technology progresses. Disciplines involve attitudes and behaviors such as teamwork, responsibility, self-control, initiative, and respect for the work of others. These disciplines are, in many ways, the most important part of any university-level production course. We believe that these disciplines are best learned within the structure of production exercises that involve full class participation and the rotation of students within the various crew positions.
CHAPTER ORGANIZATION
Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to the material that follows in subsequent chapters. The chapter emphasizes the importance of disciplines and techniques, the role convergence plays in production, and the differences among studio, field, and remote truck production. It also acknowledges the changes in
viewing patterns and devices brought about by digitization and fast data connections.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the duties and responsibilities of cast and crew and will be useful as students begin production exercises.
Chapters 3 and 4 enable students to understand the crucial producing and directing functions early in the course. These chapters have been updated to reflect current practices and terminology. Already with the previous edition, we assumed that most readers are shooting in a high-definition, wide-screen (16:9) format, and tapeless, recording directly to solid state media, such as internal or external hard drives, SD cards, and the like. For this edition, Chapter 3, formerly “Producing,” has been reworked with a new title, “Producing and Scriptwriting,” and it has been reorganized with an expanded second half that covers the concepts and craft of scriptwriting in greater detail.
The specific equipment chapters—Chapters 5 through 11—cover cameras, lighting, audio, graphics and sets, the switcher, recording equipment, and editing equipment. The camera chapter now concentrates on high-definition ATSC formats, mentioning NTSC only tangentially. It acknowledges a wider range of camera types, including DSLRs and phone-based cameras, and it has expanded coverage of using them. It also discusses using drones for video production, as well as the rise of virtual reality technology. The discussion of lamps in the lighting chapter leads with a discussion of LEDs, as in the previous edition, because they are preferred for their energy efficiency and long life. While LED lamps outsell others, many practitioners continue to use quartz, fluorescent, and other instruments because they are part of a lighting director’s arsenal, so we continue to include a discussion of other lamps, as well. The audio chapter has been revised to emphasize current digital equipment.
In Chapter 8, more space is now devoted to how graphics are constructed, reflecting the growing importance of graphics in television; in addition, more emphasis is placed on types of sets for the 16:9
aspect ratio. The recording chapter has expanded and updated coverage of encoding and compression formats and techniques. The editing chapter features an expanded and updated discussion of editing preparation and of compression frames. It also no longer addresses capturing analog video, as we assume most schools are now shooting digital.
Chapter 12, on field production, features several updates throughout.
The book includes a glossary as a helpful reference for readers; it defines all of the book’s important terms, which are boldfaced on first use in each chapter within the text.
STATE-OF-THE-ART AND REAL-WORLD EQUIPMENT
As in previous editions, we have covered equipment that in our view represents the technologies students work with in their institutions and will work
with as they enter the job market. Some equipment used for illustration will be close to state of the art, but, in other cases, we have deliberately shown some older, proven units because they are typical of the technology in general use.
WEB MATERIAL
Video Production is supplemented by an eResource www.routledge.com/9781138051812 . There readers will find materials to supplement their studying and their work in the studio. Readers can view videos demonstrating production techniques. Forms provided throughout the book can be downloaded from the website. Focus-point and key-term reviews allow readers to go over the industry terminology and concepts they’ve learned, while web links give instant access to online material.
Acknowledgments
We would first like to acknowledge the contributions of authors who are no longer involved in this project. Lynne Gross, who guided this book since the retirement of original author Tom Burrows, has retired from formal involvement with the text, although many of her words and ideas remain in this edition. We thank Lynne, Tom, and former co-author Don Wood for their many years of dedicated service and for their contributions to previous editions of this book.
We have also had the advice and assistance of many colleagues, professionals, and students in putting this text together. We would like to especially thank Jim Barnes, Jose Cardenas, Jim Driscoll, Jason Schmitt, and Ken Garland.
We also wish to thank those who reviewed the book for us in its various stages. Their comments helped us to revise and update, and the book is better as a result.
They are (for the twelfth edition): Juliet Dee, University of Delaware; Peter Iversen, KMEG/KPTH/NMEG/ NPTH, Sioux City, Iowa; Ralph Merkel, University of Louisville; and Mel Strait, Sam Houston State University. For the eleventh edition, they are: Mac Aipperspach, Del Mar College; Marie Elliott, Valdosta State University; Rick Marks, College of Southern Nevada; Barbara Naylor, Pasadena City College; Tanya Person-Irby, Bethune-Cookman University; David Reeder, Suffolk University; Don Schroder, Loyola Marymount University; Lydia Timmins, University of Delaware; and Jane Winslow, State University of New York at Oswego. As always, our goal is to provide a text that serves as an efficient teaching and learning vehicle for introductory and secondary courses in television production. As part of that endeavor, we welcome suggestions and corrections from our colleagues.
Video production has always been a field that offers both excitement and opportunities for creativity, leadership, and personal growth. The field attracts all kinds of people—artists, technicians, organizers, and problem solvers, to name just a few. The process of putting audio and video elements together into something that tells a coherent story is more difficult than many people realize, and it is often more rewarding than they expect. It sounds like a cliché to say that video production offers something for nearly everyone, but in fact it is true.
As a field, video production has always been subject to rapid change. Since it is so dependent on equipment, it is always evolving in new and transformative ways as technology makes the tools smaller, faster, lighter, more efficient, less expensive, and more capable. However, the changes that have taken place over the past decade have been remarkable even by the standards of an industry that is used to rapid innovation. These changes—which involve the development and use of digital-based equipment and the availability of fast electronic connections between video producers
Introduction to Video Production 1 CHAPTER
and consumers—have affected both the way video production is done and the way people are viewing video programming.
Digital technology is described in greater technical detail later in this chapter and in various places throughout the book. For now, let’s just say that it allows video and audio equipment to function more like—and be able to interact more effectively with— computers. Digital technology has also been the driving force in making various production equipment more capable and less expensive. This is perhaps nowhere better seen than in the area of smartphones, which today offer not only the ability to access the Internet, countless apps, and messaging capabilities, but also in many cases function as very capable video cameras. In fact, some of today’s smartphones can record video rivaling the quality of that shot by equipment that would have cost thousands of dollars several years ago. This kind of development has been mirrored throughout the industry, as low-cost, medium-cost, and high-cost video and audio equipment has gotten better, more accessible, and easier to
● InTRoduCTIon To VIdEo PRoduCTIon
use. In a modern video production facility, everything is digital—from the time the light images go into the camera until they are shown on a monitor, and from the time sound waves are picked up by a microphone until they are broadcast over a speaker. As you will see throughout the book, this all-digital workflow affects nearly every aspect of video production.
The increased availability of fast connections between video producers and consumers has created changes that are perhaps even more profound. These connections—available via physical wire links or wirelessly through the air—are fundamentally changing the way people access and consume video content. You now no longer need to have an actual television to watch video—you can do it on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. Increasingly, you needn’t even watch your video according to a television station or network’s schedule—you can watch your favorite program when you want, you can watch it over and over, and you can even “binge watch” an entire season of a show in one afternoon if you like. An increasing number of consumers are “cutting the cable”—cancelling their cable television subscriptions and instead using the Internet and streaming services such as Amazon and Netflix for their video viewing. The rise of these new content producers has created increased demand for new programming and, hence, increased demand for video production.
In addition, digital technology and fast connections have made the range of types of video greater than ever before. This refers not only to subject matter (drama, documentary, comedy, etc.) but also to the source of the video content and the level of production quality. Digital technology has in many ways democratized video production, providing average people with access to near-professional level tools. That means that more people are creating and sharing video online through sites like YouTube and Facebook and that you can access videos from a wide variety of different sources—not just television networks or movie studios. This video content may vary widely in production quality, but today’s consumer for the most part has learned to accept video that is perhaps somewhat poorly lit or that has some shaky camera shots as long as it is conveying something interesting. In fact, someone may spend two hours watching a multimillion-dollar movie on his or her laptop, then go directly to YouTube and watch a series of cat videos that cost almost nothing to create. As long as people find the content compelling, they will often overlook lapses in quality.
That is not to say, however, that you shouldn’t strive for quality no matter what level of video production
you’re doing. There are basic concepts and aesthetic considerations common to virtually all levels of video production, such as how to focus or how to properly frame a shot. This book is designed to introduce you to those basic concepts and aesthetic considerations, providing a basic foundation for video production at any level. It concentrates on traditional, studio-based video production, but also acknowledges more informal production techniques as well. Video production is an exciting field. Whether you are putting together a video of your college graduation ceremony to upload to YouTube or directing a hit show for network TV, you will find that the art of combining audio and visual elements into a meaningful whole is a creative process that is both stimulating and rewarding. In video production, you must interact with people and equipment. The purpose of this book is to give you the skills to do both.
TYPES OF PRODUCTIONS
Imagine yourself in a cable network TV studio directing a show where famous actors discuss their careers and films. Imagine yourself interviewing dignitaries in China to report on the growth of the Chinese economy. Imagine yourself on the sidelines at the Super Bowl, hand-holding a camera to capture comments from the winning coach. Imagine yourself editing shots of an emotional medical drama, building the tension in the story as you work. Imagine yourself producing a webbased show that goes viral and becomes a national sensation. Imagine yourself in Antarctica experimenting with various microphones to pick up the noises made by penguins.
The above examples are just a sampling of the many ways to produce and classify video material. Video production can be divided into genre—drama, documentary, news, or reality, for example. It can be divided by its method of distribution—broadcast network TV, cable TV, satellite TV, or Internet. However, for the purposes of learning basic production techniques and disciplines, it is most useful to divide it in terms of studio production, field production, and remote production.
Studio production uses either a purpose-built studio or other controlled, indoor environment to produce video content. The studio will also be accompanied by a control room, where video and audio shot in the studio are channeled and mixed. News programs, game shows, talk shows, morning information programs, situation comedies, and soap operas are a
few of the program types that are generally shot in a studio. Field production takes place outside of a controlled studio environment, venturing into the “real world” to gather footage. While field production offers less control over the shooting environment, it allows a broader range of scenes to be captured. Documentaries and dramas are shot primarily using field production, and many studio productions may also contain material shot through field production: interviews with witnesses of a robbery that are included in a newscast, the scene at an airport filmed for a soap opera, or footage of vegetables being grown on a farm used as part of a cooking show. Remote production is a combination of studio and field production. The control room is housed in a truck or set up temporarily in a designated area, and the “studio” is in the “field”; it might be a football stadium, a parade route, or an opera house.
Studio Production
Studio production is the main focus of this book, but many of the principles related to the studio apply
equally well to field and remote production. The main difference is that field and remote production must take into account the technical problems created by the “real world,” such as rain, traffic noise, and unwanted shadows. The studio is a controlled environment specially designed for television production.
The Studio
This section describes an ideal studio; the studio you use may not have all of these features, or it may have additional features. To begin with, a television studio is typically housed in a large room at least 20 feet by 30 feet without any posts obstructing its space. (See Figure 1.1.) Usually, a set occupies one end of the studio, and the cameras move around in the other space, but, if a studio is large enough, there may be several sets and the cameras move among them. The floor should be level, usually made of concrete covered with linoleum or another surface so camera movement is smooth. The ceiling should be 12 to 14 feet high to accommodate a pipe grid from which lights are hung.
A studio is best located on the ground floor with large doors that open to the outside so set pieces and
Figure 1.1 A typical TV studio. (Courtesy of Shutterstock.)
other objects can be brought in easily. Walls and ceilings should be soundproofed. The air-conditioning and ventilation systems need to be quiet so that the sound is not picked up by the microphones. Because lighting and other equipment require a lot of power, studios need to have access to much more electricity than the average room. Wall outlets must be provided not only for power but also to connect cameras, microphones, and other equipment to the control room, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Performers—who are often called talent—work in the television studio while one or more cameras pick up their images and microphones pick up the sound. Dedicated lights are usually necessary so that the cameras can pick up good images. Each camera’s shot is different so that the director, the person in charge of a studio production, can choose which shot to use.
A studio usually has TV sets called monitors that allow crew members and talent to see what is being shot. There is also a studio address loudspeaker system that personnel in the control room (see below) can use to talk to everyone in the studio, both talent and crew.
This, of course, cannot be used during production because the microphones would pick up the sound as part of the program audio. That is why there is also an intercom system that allows various crew members to communicate with one another over headsets while a program is being recorded or aired. Many studios also have an IFB (interruptible foldback) system that enables control room personnel to talk to the talent, who wear small earpieces.
The Control Room
The control room, which is the operation center for the director and other crew members, is usually located near the studio. (See Figure 1.3.) It usually has a raised floor so the cables from the studio equipment can be connected to the appropriate pieces of equipment in the control room. Often, a window between the studio and control room allows those working in the control room to see what is happening in the studio. This window consists of two panes of glass, each of which is at a slightly sloped angle so that sounds do not reflect directly off the glass and create echo. The window
Figure 1.2 Connectors on the wall of a television studio allow video, audio, and other signals to be routed to the control room and other locations.
should be well-sealed so sounds from the control room do not leak into the studio. Some control rooms, especially those used in teaching situations, have an area set aside for observers.
The control room contains a great deal of equipment, which will be discussed in detail in the following chapters. Basically, the images from the cameras go to a switcher that is used to select the pictures that can be sent to the recording equipment (which in school settings is often located in the control room). The sound picked up by the microphones goes to an audio console, where the volume can be adjusted and sounds can be mixed together. A graphics generator is used to prepare titles and other material that need letters, numbers, and figures. The graphics, too, go through the switcher (or are sometimes incorporated in the switcher) and can be combined with images from the cameras. Other inputs that might go to the switcher and audio board include a satellite feed and previously produced material that is fed into a show from a computer-based video server.
As noted, the control room will have a series of monitors, generally one for each input to the switcher and several to show what has been selected to be
recorded or go out over the air. There are also speakers for audio and headsets so that the equipment operators can be on the intercom. In addition, numerous timing devices are used to ensure that the program and its individual segments will be the right length. The dimmer board that controls the studio lights may be in the control room or in the studio. The same is true for the controls for the prompter, the device that displays the script in front of the camera lens so that talent can read from it. There may also be camera control units (CCUs) that adjust settings on the studio cameras, such as the amount of light coming into the lens.
The trend in studios is to incorporate more and more computer controls that combine and automate tasks. This means that the people operating equipment need to understand various functions—for example, zooming the camera, adjusting the audio levels, composing graphics, dimming lights, and operating the switcher. A person who is a specialist in one field, such as audio, will sometimes be less valuable in the studio situation than a generalist who understands the techniques and disciplines needed to operate all the equipment.
Figure 1.3 A TV control room.
other Studio-Related Spaces
Most studios—whether they are housed in a dedicated production facility or are part of a television station or other entity—also have accompanying spaces where other production-related work is performed. The floor plan of a typical production facility is shown in Figure 1.4.
Studios that are part of TV stations or other entities that send a signal into the airwaves or to some other outside destination have an area called master control. The end product from the control room goes to master control, where it is processed in various ways to be sent on its journey. Sometimes programs and commercials are stored on large computer servers and are sent out from master control. Master control is also where satellite feeds or feeds from remote locations are received.
Most studio complexes have editing suites where material shot either in the studio or in the field can be edited. They may also have an area for storing portable and infrequently used equipment and an area where sets and props can be built and stored. Because constructing sets is noisy, this area is often some distance from the studio, but storage is placed as close as possible.
A green room is a waiting area for those about to go on a program, such as a talk-show guest or gameshow contestant. It is called a green room because the walls are often painted green in line with the theory that the color will relax performers. A makeup room may also be found near the studio. As a student, you probably can’t change how your school’s studio facility is designed, but you can decide what features you like best and remember them in case you have a chance
Figure 1.4 A floor plan of a typical TV production facility.
during your career to give input regarding the building or remodeling of a facility.
Makeshift Studios
In some production situations, a fully functioning studio and its ancillary spaces are not needed. For example, a political blogger might just need an area where she can interview politicians or other newsmakers and then post the video to her site. The finished video may just need to be a simple head and shoulders shot of the interviewee, edited to perhaps a minute or two. In this case, all that is really needed is a space, a camera, a microphone, and some relatively simple lighting. This space could be set
up in the corner of a small office or perhaps even in an area in the blogger’s apartment; the specific area might be chosen based on natural lighting or sound quality. A makeshift studio might not be suitable for producing a network drama, but it can be perfectly fine for certain kinds of lower-budget video production.
Field Production
Field production often involves shooting and recording with a single camcorder. (See Figure 1.5.) The image that comes through the lens is recorded directly,
Figure 1.5 Field production takes place outside the studio and involves much less equipment than a studio shoot. (Courtesy of Shutterstock.)
bypassing the need for a switcher. Sound is recorded with a microphone, but it, too, is usually recorded directly.1 Later, the desired images and sounds are edited together in the proper order.
Because the “real world” is both the studio and the control room, there may be no need for a set, and the natural lighting from the sun or the lights in the room may suffice. This is usually the case for news and documentaries where you want to show the actual natural environment. But for other programs, especially dramas and comedies, you may find that natural lighting and sets are inadequate and that you need to spend a good deal of time working to combine available natural light with additional lighting you set up. Similarly, getting clean sound can be a challenge when doing field production, as unwanted extraneous noises may interfere with what you want to record.
In general, field production uses a smaller crew than studio production because there is less equipment. In fact, some news crews consist of one person who sets up the camera, attaches the microphone, and then steps in front of the camera to report the story. Various types of field production will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 12.
Remote Production
Remote production, as noted previously, is a combination of studio and field production, although it resembles studio production in that the outputs of the cameras are fed into a switcher and then either go out live or are recorded. However, remotes, such as the coverage of a football game, can be more complicated than studio productions and require a larger crew. In fact, sports productions (or parades or awards ceremonies) usually require many more camera operators than a studio production because of the size of the venue and all the angles that must be covered. As with field production, the location’s sound and lighting may create challenges that will need to be overcome.
The control room will either be in a truck or set up in a designated area convenient to the production. (See Figure 1.6.) These control rooms often resemble studio control rooms, albeit a little more cramped. There may be more recording and playback devices because of the need for instant replays and feature inserts. Editing equipment may also be used during production, for example, to put together game highlights to be shown during halftime. The control room may have the capability to send footage back to master control or to uplink it to a satellite.
Sometimes studio, field, and remote production are all used during the course of a program. For example, a newscast coming from a studio may include an edited story of a fire that was shot in the field earlier in the day as well as a live feed from a remote unit about to start televising a baseball game.
THE PRODUCTION PATH
Another way to look at production is to consider a model that consists of five basic control functions related to audio and video—transducing, channeling, selecting/altering, monitoring, and recording/ playback. (See Figure 1.7.) This isn’t the only model of production, but it serves as an appropriate overview of the video process.
Transducing
Transducing involves converting what we hear or see into electrical energy, or vice versa. For example, a microphone transduces spoken sound into
Figure 1.6 A truck used for remote production (a), and the control room inside a remote truck (b). (Photos courtesy of Game Creek Video.)
(see Chapter 7). It vibrates differently depending on whether the sounds are loud or soft, high-pitched or low-pitched. In essence, the microphone arranges electrons in a type of “code” that represents each particular sound. These electrons then travel through equipment as electrical energy until they come to a speaker. The speaker does the opposite of what a microphone does; it transduces the electrical waveforms back into sound waves that correspond to those originally picked up by the microphone.
A camera operates in the same way. It transduces light waves into electrical waveforms that can be stored or moved from place to place. When this electrical energy reaches a video monitor, it is transduced into a moving picture that the eye can see. Whether the production is studio, field, or remote, microphones and cameras act as transducers.
Channeling
Channeling refers to moving video and sound from one place to another. In television studios this is typically accomplished over wires called cables. Outlets in the studio allow the cables for the cameras and mics to run through the walls to the control room rather than being strewn all over the studio floor (see Figure 1.2). The most common way for the electrical signal to leave or enter a piece of equipment is through a connector.
The channeling in studios and remote trucks is fairly similar. The walls of the truck and studio have places to plug in cameras and microphones, and these signals will then be transported through connectors and wires to audio consoles, switchers, recorders, monitors, and other equipment.
As you will see throughout this book, modern video production equipment usually uses digital signals. This means that audio and video information can travel over computer network connections. One advantage of these connections is that information can travel not just within the confines of a single room or building but also across town or to the other side of the world. Increasingly, channeling can be accomplished without wires at all, by using the airwaves in the same manner as a home wireless ( wi-fi ) network.
In the field, channeling is generally much simpler. Because the camera and recorder are one piece of equipment, external wires for video are often unnecessary. Although some cameras have built-in mics, an external microphone needs channeling to the camcorder, usually through a wire and connector.
Selecting and Altering
Signals that are transduced by microphones and cameras are usually channeled to an audio console or a switcher, where they can be selected. The switcher has
transducing channeling selecting/altering monitoring recording/playing back
Figure 1.7 A model showing basic control functions.
buttons, each of which represents one of the video signals—camera 1, camera 2, server 2, graphics generator, satellite feed, and so forth. The person operating the switcher pushes a button to select the appropriate signal. Most switchers also allow for altering pictures to some degree. For example, you can take the picture from camera 1 and squeeze it so it only appears in the upper left-hand corner of the frame. (This will be explained in more detail in Chapter 9.)
Similarly, the audio board can be used to select one sound to go over the air, or it can mix together several sounds, such as music under a spoken announcement. Most audio consoles can also alter sounds, such as making a person’s voice sound thin and tinny, perhaps to represent a character from another planet.
Once again, these functions are similar for studio and remote production. In field production, sounds and pictures are also selected and altered, but usually this is done during the editing process, after the material has been shot. Most editing software can select, mix, and alter, so that the end result looks or sounds just like what would come from a switcher or an audio console.
Monitoring
Monitoring allows you to hear and see the material you are working with at various stages along the way. In addition to a monitor for each signal, a control room normally has a preview monitor, which is used to set up effects before they go out on the air, and a program monitor to show what is currently being sent out from the switcher.
Speakers are used for audio monitoring; some are used to hear the current program audio, while others are used to monitor the sound from a particular piece of equipment. Sometimes, the sound is fed not into a speaker but only into the audio operator’s headset. In that way the sound does not interfere with what crew members are saying to each other.
Pictures and sound can also be monitored with specialized electronic equipment. A VU (volume unit) meter, for example, shows how loud audio is, and a waveform monitor shows the brightness levels of a camera image. These pieces of equipment show things you cannot necessarily see or hear by using a video monitor or speakers (see Chapters 5 and 7).
Studios and trucks both have many monitoring devices, while monitoring in field production is often limited to seeing the picture you are taking through the display or viewfinder of the camera and listening to the
audio you are recording through headphones plugged into the camera.
Recording and Playback
Recording equipment retains sound and picture in a permanent electronic form for later playback (see Chapter 10). For many years the only material available for recording and playing back audio and video was tape. However, today tape is seldom used, as other forms of recording media—such as hard drives, optical discs, and solid state media—have taken its place.
Some of the equipment discussed in this section performs more than one function. For example, some recording devices allow for several channels of audio and enable you to select which sound you want. Also, monitors act as transducers. There is no need to get hung up on categorizing each piece of equipment specifically according to its basic control function, but it is necessary to acknowledge that both picture and sound go through a process. When you are sending someone’s voice into a microphone, for example, you should take into account the way the sound might be channeled, selected, altered, monitored, recorded, and played back, so that you record it in a manner that will allow it to reach the final stage properly. The same is true for an image created by a camera.
CONVERGENCE AND THE DIGITAL AGE
During your professional career in video production, one thing will be certain—change. As noted earlier, one of the most important changes currently taking place is the convergence of media forms made possible by digital technology.
Differences between Analog and Digital
Both sound and light travel through the air naturally in the form of waves. For many years, the transducing process always resulted in electronic signals for sounds and video that were in the form of waves as well. These signals were called analog because the electronic waveform that resulted from the transducing process was analogous to the original sound or light wave. (See Figure 1.8.) In other words, it contained representations of the same essential elements—such as loudness, brightness, pitch, and color—that characterized the original sound or light wave. These representations varied continuously over a range of values;
