THEARTOFTHEACTRESS
FashioningIdentities
LauraEngel
DuquesneUniversity
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DOI: 10.1017/9781108973519
©LauraEngel2024
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FashioningIdentities
ElementsinEighteenth-CenturyConnections
DOI:10.1017/9781108973519
Firstpublishedonline:January2024
LauraEngel DuquesneUniversity
Authorforcorrespondence: LauraEngel, engell784@duq.edu
Abstract: ThisElementlooksattheartoftheactressintheeighteenth century.Itconsidershowvisualmaterialsacrossgenres,suchasprints, portraits,sculpture,costumes,andaccessories,contributetothe understandingofthenuancesoffemalecelebrity,fame,notoriety,and scandal.The ‘art‘ oftheactressreferstotheactressrepresentedinvisual art,aswellastotheactress’slaborandskillinmakingartephemerally throughperformanceandtangiblythroughobjects.Movingawayfrom theconceptofthe ‘actressasmuse,’ arelationshipthatprivilegesthe roleofthemaleartistovertheinspirationalsubject,theauthorfocuses insteadonthevariedsignificanceofrepresentations,reproductions, andre-animationsofactresses,femaleartists,andtheatricalwomen acrossmedia.Viacasestudies,theElementexploreshowthearchive chartsbothafamiliarandattimesunknownnarrativeaboutfemale performersofthepast.
Keywords: actresses,eighteenthcentury,femaleartists,portraits,fashion
©LauraEngel2024
ISBNs:9781009486811(HB),9781108977906(PB),9781108973519(OC)
ISSNs:2632-5578(online),2632-556X(print)
4Epilogue:UnfinishedBusiness:ElizabethInchbald, LadyCahir,SirThomasLawrence,andtheAftermath
Introduction:TheArtoftheActressintheEighteenth Century
Hold,areyoumad?Youdamn’dconfoundeddog! Iamtoriseandspeaktheepilogue. Icome,kindgentlemen,strangenewstotellye; IamtheghostofpoordepartedNelly. Sweetladiesbenotfrightened;I’llbecivil, I’mwhatIwas,alittleharmlessdevil. Forafterdeath,wespriteshavejustsuchnatures Wehadforalltheworld,whenhumancreatures; Andtherefore,Ithatwasanactresshere, PlayallmytricksinHell,agoblinthere. Gallants,lookto’tyousaytherearenosprites; ButI’llcomedanceaboutyourbedsatnights. Andfaithyou’llbeinasweetkindoftaking, WhenIsurpriseyoubetweensleepandwaking. Totellyoutrue,IwalkbecauseIdie Outofmycallinginatragedy. AsformyepitaphwhenIamgone, I’lltrustnopoet,butwillwritemyown. HereNellylies,who,thoughsheliv’daslattern, Yetdiedaprincess,actinginSaintCatherine.1
JohnDryden’sepiloguefor TyrannickLove (1669),writtenspecificallyforthe RestorationactressandfamedmistresstoCharlesII,NellGwyn,providesuswith asenseofwhathertalentsmayhavebeenasaperformer.Shebeginsbyrising fromthedead,drawingattentiontotheontologyofperformanceandthemetatheatricsofthestage.NellGwynexistsontwoplanessimultaneously – sheisboth therolethatsheportraysonstageandherselfasalivingembodiedpresence.Her assertionchallengestheaudience’ssenseofillusionandbreaksthefourthwall. Evenmorecompellingistheideathatsheemergesas “theghostofpoordeparted Nelly,” aliminal figurewhooccupiesthespacebetweenbothembodiedstates. Thisdeliberateephemeralitygivesherthepowertohauntpeople.Onstagesheis an “actress,” butasaspriteinHellsheisa “goblin.” Asa “sprite” sheassuresthe ladiesthatshewillbe “civil,” for “I’mwhatIwas,alittleharmlessdevil.” Making lightofherseductivecharmsandtendencytowardmischiefforthewomeninthe audience,shethenaddressesthe “gallants” withthepromisethatshewill “surprise” them “betweenwakingandsleeping.” Theactress’sartissomething thatperformsonpeoplebothduringtheplayandafterward,lingeringinwaysthat canbesexualandunsettling.
1 Dryden, TyrannickLove
AsJosephRoachhaseloquentlyargued,throughthewritingsofSamuel Pepyswecantracetheideaofthepervasiveafterimageofearlyactressesas awayofconceptualizingthehistoryoffemalecelebrityandallure.Gwyn occupiesaprominentspaceinthistrajectory.2 Drydenclearlyrecognizedthis kindofaftereffectwhenhewrotethisepilogueforGwyntoperform.Whatwe donothavehere,however,isthepowerfulembodiedpresenceofGwynherself. Inperformance,thisspeechmusthavecontainedandsignaledavarietyofother kindsofmeaningsfortheaudience.WhenGwyndeclares, “Totellyoutrue, IwalkbecauseIdie/Outofmycallinginatragedy,” therewouldlikelybeapun detectedintheword “die,” alsoasynonymfororgasm,butinanothersense Gwynherselfisassertingthatshehaslifebecauseofherjobasanactress.Itis herart(hercreativeprocess,labor,andingenuity)thatdefinesandsustainsher existence.Forawomanwhocouldnotreadandonlylearnedtowritelaterinher life,Gwyn’sannouncementattheendoftheepiloguethatshewillcraftherown “epitaph” ismediatedthroughherstrategicembodiedperformances – onstage andinherownlife.Thejokethatshestartedasaprostituteandendeduponstage actingasaprincessisanassertionofagencyinperformanceandaprophetic mappingofherfuture.
ThisElementlooksattheartoftheactressintheeighteenthcentury. Iconsiderhowvisualmaterialsacrossgenres,suchasprints,portraits,sculpture,costume,andaccessories,contributetoourunderstandingofthenuances offemalecelebrity,fame,notoriety,andscandal.The “art” oftheactressthus referstotheactressrepresentedinart,aswellastotheactress’slaborandskillin makingartephemerallythroughperformanceandtangiblythroughobjects. Movingawayfromtheconceptofthe “actressasmuse,” arelationshipthat privilegestheroleofthemaleartistovertheinspirationalsubject,Ifocus insteadonthevariedsignificanceofrepresentations,reproductions,andreanimationsofactresses,femaleartists,andtheatricalwomenacrossmedia. Throughspecificcasestudies,Iexplorehowthearchivechartsbothafamiliar andattimesunknownnarrativeaboutfemaleperformersofthepast.
Actresses’ imageswereeverywhereinthelongeighteenthcentury;they appearedthroughoutvisualmediainportraits,miniatures,prints,caricatures, periodicalillustrations,sculpture,andporcelain.Theproliferationofmaterials representingactressesinvariousformatssignaledthepublic’sinterestin womenonthestageandincelebritycultureingeneral.Forfemalecelebrities inparticular,theblurreddistinctionbetweenactresses and artworks,and actresses as artworks,foregroundsacentralparadoxforwomenonstagethat
2 SeeRoach’sdiscussionofGwynandtheafterlifeofcelebrityin It,pp.63–6.SeealsoMcGirr, “NellGwyn’sBreastsandColleyCibber ’sShirts,” pp.13–34.
persists – thatis,thewaysinwhichthevisibilityofthefemale figureandthe culturalpoliticsoffemaleembodimentoftenmasktheprofessionalism,labor, andskilloffemaleperformers.Actresses’ visualpresencesacrossvarious genresandformatscanpotentiallyprovidetracesoftheirlost “art.” Iamnot arguingthatthereisaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenwhatactressesdid onstageandhowtheywereportrayedinprint,butIdowanttosuggestthatthere arepotentiallyimportantlinksbetweentheembodiedactionsofactressesand subsequentrepresentationsofthem.Incertaincases,withmorefamous actresses,wecangleanasenseoftheirripplingaftereffectsthroughreading multipleimagesofthemacrossmaterials.
Muchofthescholarshipabouteighteenth-centuryactressesandfemaleartists inthepublicspherehascenteredonfamous figuressimplybecausethereis morematerialaboutthem.3 ThisElementismeanttobereadasavisual exhibitionhighlightingtherepresentations,creativeworks,collaborations, andexperiencesofbothwell-establishedandlesser-knownperformers.The sectionsareorganizedthematicallyascasestudies.Ianalyzepearlsasparadoxicalaccessoriesforactresses,femalearistocrats,andRestorationwomenartists; theactressasartistandtheartistasactressusingtheworksofAngelica KauffmanandAnneDamer;andactressesandsatirehighlightingthescandalousmistressMaryAnneClarkeandhermuff.I finallyofferan epilogue on ThomasLawrence’sunfinishedportraitsofElizabethInchbaldandLadyEmilia Cahir,exploringtheaftermathoftheartoftheactress.Eachsectionconsiders specific figuresandtheresonanceoftheirart(visualandtheatrical)across avarietyofmaterials.
Eighteenth-centuryactresseswereatthecenterofthematerializationof conflictingideologiesaboutfemaleperformanceandembodiment.Fromthe arrivalofactressesonthestagein1660totheendoftheeighteenthcentury, whencertainactresseshadestablishedthemselvesaslegitimatesuperstars,the figureoftheactressbecomesakindofinterdisciplinaryheroineabletocross genresandepitomizeanewkindofagencyand/oridentitycategoryfor women. 4 Thesignificanceoftheactressisalsotiedtoemergingacademic conversationsaboutamateurandprofessionalwomenartists,writers,and performers.Theartoftheactresscantellusimportantthingsabouthow womenfashionedtheiridentitieson-andoffstage,aswellashowaudiences
3 Formoreaboutmid-to-lateeighteenth-centuryactressesandportraiture,seeWest, Imageofthe Actor;Asleson,ed., PassionforPerformance, NotoriousMuse;Perry, SpectacularFlirtations; Engel, FashioningCelebrity;Nussbaum, RivalQueens;McPherson, ArtandCelebrity.Forworks onearlyactresses,seeMacLeodandMarciariAlexander,eds., PaintedLadies;Perry,Roach,and West,eds., FirstActresses.Foranoverviewofactressstudiesandbooksabouteighteenth-century actressesandcelebrity,seeEngel, “StageBeauties.”
4 SeeNussbaum, RivalQueens.
perceivedwomeninthepublicspherethroughtheatricallenses.Iamusingthe terms “actress” and “performance” somewhatbroadlyhere.Althoughthereis certainlyadifferencebetweenactresseswhoarepaidtobeonstageandwomen whoperformtheatricallyoffstage,modesoffemaleperformanceandthescripts offemaleperformativityexistbothon-andoffstagewiththesamekindsof visualcuesandidentitymarkers.Portraitsareaheightenedformofidealized reality,asaresatiricprints.Therepeatedappearanceofparticularvisualmarkers –accessories,poses,costumes,andhairstyles – suggestsaneighteenth-century audiencetrainedtorecognizevisualcuesconnectedtofemaleperformersand tomessagesaboutthem.Theavailabilityofimagesoffamousactresses(for example,DorothyJordan)createsapowerfulmechanismforanalogyorcomparisontolesser-knownpublic figuressuchasMaryAnneClarke.Atthesame time,femaleartistschoosingtorepresentthemselvesinwaysthatechodepictions offemaleperformersofferwaystothinkaboutthetheatricalitynecessaryfor womenartiststofashiontheirpublicandprofessionalidentities.Inaddition, consideringthecentralityoffashion – specificallyaccessoriessuchaspearls andmuffsaspotentsignifiersattachedtoavarietyofwomen,andeasilyreadby audiencesinarangeofways – givesussomeaccesstothelayeredandoften conflictingmessagessurroundingactressesandthedangerandpossibilitiesof theirallure.
Focusingontheartoftheactressfromtheactress’sperspectiveoffers possibilitiesforhighlightingactresses’ agencyinshapingtheirpersonas,as wellasthelimitationsoftheirself-fashioningstrategies.Itisimportantto considerthedifferencesandconnectionsbetweenanactresssittingforher portrait,anartistmodelingherselfalongsideactressesorasanactress,anartist usinganimageofafemaleperformermultipletimesinherwork,actresses makingtheirownself-portraits,andartiststryingtocapturetheephemeralityof actresses’ performancesintheirwork.Eachofthesemodalitiesrepresents anotherwaytoapproachtheartoftheactressbeyondthetraditionalformulation ofamalepaintercapturingalikenessofanactress/muse.Shiftingtheemphasis ontotheartoftheactressturnsourattentiontowardthesignificanceoffemale friendships,networks,andcollaborations.
Thearrivaloftheactressesintheeighteenthcenturyiscentraltounderstandingunfoldinganxietiesaboutthenation,race,gender,andheteronormativity. Ideologiesofraceandempire,particularlyinrelationtoearlyactressesasnew commoditiesinaworldwithforeignqueensandmistresses,eventuallyledtoan alignmentofwell-knownactresseswiththevirtuesofBritishnationalism.5
5 FormoreontheconnectionsamongRestorationactresses,foreignqueens,andempire,see L.Rosenthal, WaysoftheWorld.
SarahSiddons’sroleasBritannia(onstageandinportraits)solidifiedactresses’ ambiguousconnectiontowhitenessandEnglishnessbytheendofthecentury. Yet,bylookingcloselyattheresonanceoffemaleperformersandtheirpublic theatricsandart,analternativenarrativeofresistanceemerges.NellGwyn’s self-fashioningthroughexpensiveaccessories,AngelicaKauffman’scelebrationofotherfemaleperformersalongsideherownself-representations,Anne Damer ’sartisticcollaborationswithfemaleartistsandperformers,MaryAnne Clarke’sbraveandtheatricalattempttooverthrowherlovertheDukeofYork, andElizabethInchbald ’screationofhauntingandmemorablerolesfor actresses(stemminginpartfromherownexperienceasanactress)provide newwaysoflookingattheimpactandresonanceoffemaleperformersand theirperformances.
Sections
Section1, “TheParadoxofPearls,” exploresthecomplexwaysinwhichpearls appearinportraitsofcelebratedandimagined figuresintheearlyeighteenth century.Theubiquityofpearlsintheseimageshighlightsthesimultaneousrise andthreatoffemalevisibilityandperformanceinthecourtofCharlesII.Pearls inpicturesofRestorationwomenevokeconnectionsbetweentheemergenceof actressesasexotic,dazzlingcommoditiesandthepervasiveanddangerous effectsofempire.TurningattheendofthesectiontothefemaleartistsJoan Carlile,MaryBeale,andAnneKilligrew,Iexaminehowtheiruseofpearlsin self-portraitshelpedfashiontheirimagesasbothcreativeprofessionalsand beautifultheatricalsubjects,aligningtheirvisualidentitieswitharistocratsand actresses.
Section2, “TheActressAsArtistandtheArtistAsActress,” considersthe connectionsbetweentheworkoftheartistAngelicaKauffmanandthesculptress,actress,andnovelistAnneDamer.ForKauffmanandDamer,theinextricablerelationshipbetweenartisticpracticeandperformanceisevidentinthe waysinwhichtheyrepresentthemselves.Kauffman’smanyself-portraits dramatizetherelationshipbetweentheactofbeinganartistandthemultifaceted meaningsofappearingasoneself.Aseriesofportraitsoftheatricalwomenthat Kauffmancompletedinthe1790sechoesoneofhermostfamousself-portraits nowintheUffiziGalleryanddisplayedinthesameroomasAnneDamer ’s marblebustofherself.Damer ’saesthetic,drawnfromantiquesculpture, emphasizedtheidealizedbeautyandserenityofherfemalesubjects.Incontrast totheelegantpathosandsolemnityofherportraitbusts,Damer ’sperformances inprivatetheatricalswerecharacterizedbyherdazzlingcostumesandornate accessories.ThetensionbetweenDamer ’sartforms – thepermanenceof
sculptureandtheephemeralityofperformance – issimilartothepullthat Kauffmandramatizesinherself-portraitsbetweentheartisticpracticesof paintingandsinging.Damer ’sandKauffman’stiesto “theartoftheactress” evokeahistoryoffemalecollaborationsandartisticnetworks.
Section3, “MaryAnne ’sMuff:ActressesandSatire,” usesanextended casestudyofsatiricprintsofMaryAnneClarke,courtesan,actress,and mistress,toexploretherelationshipbetweenactresses,politics,seduction, andcaricature.In1809MaryAnneClarke,themistressoftheDukeofYork (theking ’ssecondsonandcommanderinchiefofthearmedforces), testifiedbeforeParliamentthatshehadsoldarmycommissionstothe highestbidderstodecoratethelargemansionbequeathedtoherbyher royallover.MaryAnneClarke’stheatricalityandfashionchoices,particularlythelargewhitemuffsheworetotestifyattheHouseofCommons, featureprominentlyinmanysatiricprintsbywell-knowncaricaturistssuch asThomasRowlandson.Clarke ’sattemptstorepresentherselfasaninnocentheroineareparodiedthroughreferencestoherroleasamistress,her desireforfameandluxury,andherconnectionstofamousactressessuchas SarahSiddonsandDorothyJordan(thelatterherselfthelongtimemistress oftheDukeofClarence).
Ina brief epilogue, “UnfinishedBusiness:ElizabethInchbald,LadyCahir, SirThomasLawrence,andtheAftermathoftheArtoftheActress,” Iconsider twounfinishedportraitsbySirThomasLawrenceoftheactress,playwright,and novelistElizabethInchbaldandtheIrisharistocratandamateuractressLady EmiliaCahir.ThepaintingofLadyCahir,inspiredbyherperformancein ElizabethInchbald’splay TheWeddingDay,inwhichsheactedopposite LawrenceintheBentleyPrioryPrivateTheatricals,isastartlingexampleof theaftereffectsoftheartoftheactress.Thehauntingandlastingimpression InchbaldandLadyCahirbothmadeonThomasLawrenceconnectsusas contemporaryspectatorstotheprocessoftheirartisticproductionandtothe resonantimpactsoftheirperformances.
1TheParadoxofPearls
Pearls figureprominentlyinpicturesofcelebratedwomenacrosstheeighteenth century.Fromthe firstsuperstaractressandmistresstoKingCharlesII,Nell Gwyn(Figure1),tothemostfamousfemalecelebrityofthelateeighteenth century,SarahSiddons,themysterious,opaque,andgleamingwhiteaccessory alignswiththeequallymutable,seductive,andthreateningroleoftheactress. Wornaroundtheneckasachoker,acollar,orinropesorstrands;inhairwoven throughtendrils;asearrings;drapedaroundthebodyandbodiceasadecorative
Figure1 NellGwyn bySimonVerelst,ca.1680.NationalPortraitGallery
element;orembeddedinthesettingsofjewels,boxes,frames,miniatures,and brooches – pearlsadorn,trespass,andtransgress.Theyaccessorizeandcolonize.Theyhighlightandfetishize.Theyperform.6
Inthissection,Iconnecttheintangibleperformancesofpearls,theirmultiple meanings,andvariablevaluetotheartoftheactressbothon-andoffstage. Elsewhere,Ihavewrittenaboutthelinksbetweenportraitsandthedynamicsof performance.7 DrawingonRebeccaSchneider ’sconceptof “performing remains,” Icontendthatportraitscontainthetracesofpastencounters,relationships,anddesiresthatarereignitedwhenpeoplelookatthem – bothinthepast andinthepresent.8 Theperformativedynamicsofportraitsaretranslatedto viewersinspecificwaysthroughvisualcodes.Clothing,accessories,and jewelryperformaspartofacomplexseriesofmessages.TracingrepresentationsofpearlsinportraitsofRestorationactresses,artists,andaristocrats broadensoursenseofthewaysinwhichwomenwereseen,aswellasthe waysinwhichtheywishedtorepresentthemselves.Asanexpensive,elegant accessory,pearlsappearinportraitsofactressestosignifytheoftenambiguous “value” oftheirperformances,particularlyinrelationtotheirintroductiontothe
6 Formoreonthehistory,distribution,marketing,andculturalmeaningofpearls,seeWarsh, American Baroque;Shen, Pearls;JoyceandAddison, Pearls.Fordiscussionsofpearlsineighteenth-century portraitsandfashion,seePointon, BrilliantEffects;Ribeiro, DressandMorality
7 Engel, Women,Performance,andtheMaterialofMemory,pp.57–60.
8 SeeSchneider, PerformingRemains.
theaterasbrilliantnewcommoditiesin1660.PearlsinportraitsofRestoration womenofferconnectionsbetweenthenovelty,sexuality,andagencyofearly actressesandtheseductiveandinsidiouspowerofempire.Turningtofemale artistsandtheiruseofpearlsinself-portraitslaterinthissection,Isuggestthat wecanlearnsomethingimportantabouthowwomenwishedtorepresent themselvesascreativeprofessionalsandbeautifulsubjects.
1.1Women,Pearls,andVisualLegacies
Asoneofthemostsought-aftercommoditiesoftheearlymoderncolonial enterprise,preciousjewelstiedtobondage,slavery,andviolence,pearlshave abaroqueandcomplexhistory.ThehistorianMollyA.Warsharguesthatpearls representedaparticularkindofparadoxforfemalesubjectsinthelateseventeenthcentury: “Inthecontextofrisingdebatesaboutluxuryandconsumption andconcernabouttheincreasedvisibilityandpoliticalprominenceofwomenin theaftermathofthetumultoftheEnglishCivilWarandProtectorate,pearls’ natural,reflectivebeautycouldabsorbtheduelingfantasiesofwomenas controllableanduncontrolled” (Figure2).9 Moreover,inhermajesticstudyof
Figure2 AnneHyde,DuchessofYork,afterSirPeterLely,oiloncanvas, feignedoval,basedonaworkofcirca1668–70.NationalPortraitGallery
9 Warsh, AmericanBaroque,p.221.
earlymodernjewelry,MarciaPointonarguesthatpearlsalwayssuggest adualitybetweenlifeanddeath.10 Further,accordingtoWarsh, “bytheend oftheseventeenthcentury,pearlswerelinkedinthepopularimaginationto women’spoliticalidentityandtotheirperceivedvirtueandworth.”11 Inthe samewaythatthepresenceofpearlssignaledthesimultaneousriseandthreatof femaleagencyandvisibilityatthecourtofCharlesII,representationsofpearls inportraitsofactresseschanneledtheambiguitysurroundingtheirpower, prestige,andprecarioussocialstanding.Actressesposedaspecificchallenge toestablishedmodesoffemaleidentityandcontainment.Theywerenot legitimatemembersofthearistocracy,yetsomebecameanintegralpartofthe courtthroughtheirstrategicliaisons.Pointonexplainsthatpearlssignified chastityandsexualitysimultaneously: “Theyareanattributeofchastityin representationsoftheVirginMary(forexampleinHansMemling’sMadonna of1487inBrugesandinTintoretto’s TarquinandLucretia intheChicagoArt Institute),buttheywerealsowornbythewhoreofBabyloninthe Apocalypse.”12 Portraitsofactresseswithpearlsthusreflectthetenuousnature oftheirpositioninsocietyandtheveryrealanxietiescirculatingabouttheir disruptivepower.
Acenturybeforetheresto rationofCharlesII,portraitsofQueenElizabeth Iinropesofpearlsestablishedher fi gureasemblematicofthebodypolitic andtheBritishEmpire. 13 Inthemid-eighteenthcentu rytheauthor,architect, andcollectorHoraceWalpolehighlightedpearlsasadistinctivefeatureof QueenElizabethI ’svisuallegacy: “ ApaleRomannose,aheadofhairloaded withcrownsandpowderedwithdiamonds,avastruff,avasterfardingale, andabushelofpearlsarefeaturesbywhicheverybodyknowsatoncethe picturesofQueenElizabeth ” ( Figure3 ). 14 Evenindeath,Elizabeth ’swax fi gurewasadornedin “ sphericalpearlsinwax,longnecklacesofthem, agreatpearl-ornamentedstomacher,pearlearringswithlargepear-shaped pedants,andevenbroadpearlmedallionsontheshoebows. ” 15 Depictionsof Elizabeth ’spearlsassymbolsofherextraordinarywealthandtherangeofher empirearealsoinextricablylinkedtothefakewaxaccessoriesthatdecorate
10 Pointon, BrilliantEffects,p.108. 11 Warsh, AmericanBaroque,p.220.
12 Pointon, BrilliantEffects,p.116.TheambiguityofpearlsisalsopresentinPointon’sdiscussion ofSirJoshuaReynolds’sportraitofthecourtesanKittyFisherasCleopatra: “Thiscourtesanis posingasaqueenfamiliarinhistoryandfablebut,foraneighteenth-centuryaudience,Kitty stoodfortheephemeral,foranidentitythatcouldnotbeanchored,forachameleon-likefemale independenceallthemoredangerousforbeingcentredinthevisiblespaceofamasculinedesire topossess” (p.123).
13 OnthevisuallegaciesofQueenElizabethI,seeSharpe, “ThyLongingCountry’sDarling,” p.10; Doran,ed., ElizabethandMary
14 Walpole, AnecdotesofPaintinginEngland,p.84.
15 KunzandStevenson, BookofthePearl,p.454.
hercof fi n.Itisdif fi culttoassessthevalueofapearlunlessyouareholdingit inyourhandandlookingatitclosely. 16 Thistensionbetweenauthenticityand illusioniscentraltotheallureofpearlsandtotheartoftheactress(thelegacy ofQueenMaryIofEnglandandthePeregrinePearl,whicheventuallywas ownedbytheactressElizabethTaylor,alsocontributestotheseriesof connectionsamongpearls,royalty,andactresses).Actresses’ abilityto mimicanddisguisethemselvesallowedthemtoblurtheboundariesbetween theirrolesonstageandtheirperformancesoffstage.Theavailabilityofpearls, bothexpensiveandaffordable,increasedintheseventeenthcentury,atthe samemomentwhentheperformance,sexuality,andpowerofwomeninand aroundthecourtofCharlesIIwerebeingcelebratedinimagesofthem wearingawidearrayofpearlaccessories.
Figure3 QueenElizabethI(TheDitchleyPortrait),byMarcusGeeraertsthe Younger,1592.NationalPortraitGallery 16 Shen, Pearls,pp.30
Figure4 HenriettaMaria,afterSirAnthonyVanDyck,oiloncanvas, seventeenthcentury,basedonaworkofcirca1632–5.NationalPortraitGallery
1.2Queens,Ladies,Mistresses,andPearls
Earlyseventeenth-centurycourtpainters,suchasAnthonyVanDyck(1599–1641),portrayedavarietyofwomenwearingpearls.Inhis1636portraitof QueenHenriettaMaria(Figure4),thequeenlooksthoughtfullyoutatthe viewer,herhandsclaspeddeliberatelyoverherroundingpregnantbelly.She wearsastrandofpearlsaroundherneck,andthebodiceofherdressisadorned withpearltrimmingthatrunsaroundherbreast,joininginaloopthatdrawsthe eyedowntowardherunbornprogeny.Pearlsinthisimagesignifywealth, production,andHenrietta’sroleasaqueeninfurtheringthelineofanation. VanDyck’spaintingofhismistressMargaretLemon(ca.1638),alsowearing asinglestrandofpearls,isamoreintimateviewofthesubject.Margaretisseen inprofilelookingoverhershoulderattheviewer.Sheholdsapieceofdrapery aroundhershoulders,whichmayormaynotbeallthatsheiswearing.Pearlsin thisimagesuggestsexuality,sensuality,andavailability.Intheportraitofhis wife,MaryLadyVanDyck,circa1640(Figure5),LadyVanDyckispresented asafashionable,confidentwoman,portrayingthroughherbeautythedynamic skillsofherartisthusband.Shewearsapearlnecklacewithpendantearrings andadecorativeoakaccessoryinherhair.Hergownismadeofexpensive,
Figure5 Mary(néeRuthven),LadyVanDyck,byRichardGaywood,afterSir AnthonyVanDyck,publishedbyPeterStent,etching,mid-seventeenthcentury. NationalPortraitGallery
luxuriousfabricandsheholdsabeadedcrucifixinherhands,asymbolofher Catholicismand fidelity.Pearlsrepresentacombinationofsignifiershere –wealth,status,fashion,Catholicism, fidelity,fertility(Marywouldgivebirthto adaughterin1641).
ThecourtpainterPeterLely(1618 – 80)wouldborrowfromVanDyck ’suse ofpearlsinhisimagesofactresses,mist resses,andaristoc ratsofthecourtof CharlesII,particularlyinhisseriesknownasthe “ WindsorBeauties. ” AccordingtoCatherineMacLeodandJuliaMarciariAlexander, “ These paintings,whichhangintheCommunicationsGalleryatHamptonCourt Palacetoday,apparentlyformedtheheartofLely’sworkforhisimportant royalpatrons,theDukeandDuchessofYork,intheyearsjustfollowingthe Restoration. ” MacLeodandMarciariAlexandergoontoobserve, “ Beautiful, decorative,fashionable,andhungharmoniouslytogether,theportraitsof thesewomenmusthaveprovokedcomment,admirationandawe,gossip andnudges,andeven,perhaps,smirksandgigglesfromtheiraudiences.
Suchportraitswouldhavemarkedtheirownersascourtinsiders,amongthose most ‘intheknow.’”17 Pearlsformaconnectivethreadthatlinkstheseimages together.Inallelevenportraits,thesittersarewearingsomeformofpearls,as necklaces,earrings,decorativemotifs,clasps,brooches,andhairornaments.Some womenappearasthemselvesandothersappearasgoddessesorsaints(forexample, BarbaraVilliersasMinerva,18 ElizabethHamiltonasSaintCatherine).Pearls anchorthese figuresaspresentinthemomentoftimeandcontextthatproduced themasspecifictypesofcelebritiesfamousfortheirallure,wealth,position,and sensuality.
1.3NellGwynandMargaretHughes:ActressBeauties
Portraitsoftheactressesandwell-knownmistressesNellGwynandMargaret HugheswearingpearlsechotheWindsorBeautiesseriesalongwitharangeof portraitsofRestorationwomenthatfallintothreeoften-overlappingcategories –portraitsthathighlightpearlsasfashionableaccessoriesrepresentingwealth andluxury;picturesthatcon flatepearlswithmythologyandsexuality;and imagesthatunderscorepearlsassignifi ersofwhiteness,empire,andpower. Gwyn ’sandHughes’sassociationwithotherpowerfulwomenatcourtthrough avisuallegacyofpearlsunderscorestheblurredboundariesbetweenactresses andaristocrats. 19
LikeNellGwyn,MargaretHugheswasoneofthe firstactresses.Knownfor herbeautyandtheatricaltalents,shebecameevenmorefamousforbeingthe mistressoftheking’scousinPrinceRupert.PortraitsofGwynandHughesby PeterLelyresembleLely’simagesofcountessesandduchesses.Inseveral picturesbymembersofLely’sstudio,imagesofGwyninprofiledressedin stylishgowns,wearingpearls,mimicLely’sportraitsofElizabethWriothesley, CountessofNorthumberland(laterDuchessofMontagu),andAnneDigby, CountessofSunderland.20 AnelaborateportraitbyLelyofMargaretHughes depictstheactressseatedinprofilenexttoanornatelycarvedfountain (Figure6).Sheholdsascallopshellinonehandtocatchthestreamingwater, andalemonintheother.Shewearsapearlnecklace,pearlearrings,andalong strandofpearlswoventhroughherhair.Thecuratorsoftheexhibit Painted Ladies note, “OncePrinceRuperthadridhimselfofhispreviousmistress, FrancesBard,heandPegHugheslivedpracticallyasmanandwife.Something oftheproprietyoftheirrelationshipisreferredtoinLely’s fineportrait,inwhich
17 MacLeodandMarciariAlexander, “‘WindsorBeauties,’” pp.81,104.
18 www.rct.uk/collection/404957/barbara-villiers-duchess-of-cleveland-ca-1641-1709 .
19 FormoreonRestorationactressesandtheirportraits,seeMacLeodandMarciariAlexander, PaintedLadies;Perry,Roach,andWest, FirstActresses
20 MacLeodandMarciariAlexander, “‘WindsorBeauties’ , ” pp.92–3.
Figure6 MargaretHughes,mezzotintbyRobertWilliams,afterSirPeterLely, 1670s–80s.NationalPortraitGallery
thesitterisdepictedasaladyofquality,withnopictorialillusionstobeing eitheranactressormistress.”21 Thesubsequentmezzotint,whichallowedfor evengreaterdistributionoftheimage,clearlyrendersthecomposition.
SeveralportraitsofNellGwynasVenushighlighthernudityandsexuality whilesimultaneouslypresentingherasanidealizedgoddess.Inanengraving titled NellGywnandHerTwoSons byAntoineMasson(afteraportraitbyHenri Gascar),circa1677–80,Gwynisrecliningpartiallydressedonabedof floraand silkwearingaprominentpearlnecklace.Hersons,illegitimatechildrenofthe king,hoverasnakedcherubimaboveher,oneholdingacurtaininagestureof theatricalunveiling,theotherholdingCupid’sarrow,asiftosuggesthismother’s roleasVenusandhisownbirthasaproductofseduction.22 Perhapsthepearlsare
21 QuotedinMacLeodandMarciariAlexander, PaintedLadies,p.115.
22 Theengravingcanbeviewedonline: www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/charles-ii-art-power/ the-queens-gallery-buckingham-palace/nell-gwyn-and-her-two-sons.AsthisRoyalCollectionsTrust webpageinformsus,
Eleanor “Nell” Gywnwasoneofthe firstprofessionalactressesontheLondonstage.She becameCharlesII’smistressin1668or1669andborehimtwosons.Thisprintcelebrates Nell’sfertility.Surroundedbyplants,shereclineswithhertwosonsdepictedascupids, whileCharlesIIisshownacross thelakedressedinRomangarb.Anearlypencilannotation
addedheretoidentifyGwynspecifically,and/ortotieherdirectlytothecourt. Gwyn’sroleasVenusandasherselfinthisimageconflatesidealizedimagesof herwiththeembodiedrealityofherintimateconnectiontotheroyalfamily.The printfunctionsasbothapinupofGwyn,anotheradvertisementofherbeauty,and asanimportantreminderofherconnectiontotheking.
ThepearlsinLely’spaintingofMargaretHughessimilarlyechoarangeof meaningsthatinfactreinforcethepowerofheridentityasanactressto reimagineherselfinanotherrole.ForHughes,jewelryandpearlsspecifically becamesymbolicofhertransformationfromastageactresstoapowerfulroyal mistress.PrinceRupertgaveMargaretanextraordinarypearlnecklacethat belongedtohismother,ElizabethStuart,QueenofBohemia(oftenknownas theWinterQueen).NellGwynapparentlyborrowedandworethispieceof famedjewelryintheportraitofherbySimonVerelst(Figure1)picturedin Section1.Laterinherlife,tohelpsettleherextensivegamblingdebts,Hughes soldthenecklacetoGwyn,whoboughtitforanenormoussum.23 Thetransferenceofpearls,bothrealandimagined,betweentheseactresseswhocamefrom nothing,rosetoprominencethroughtheirtheatricalcareersandstrategic liaisons,andultimatelydiedinpoverty,marksthetangibleandsymbolic trajectoryoftheircelebrity.
1.4PearlsandEmpire
Thetangibleandvisiblecelebrity ofearlyactresses(andbyextension Charles ’smistresses),alongsidetheirabi litytoinsinuatethemselvesinto thebedroomsandlivesofpowerfulmen,engenderedagreatdealofanxiety. Actressescouldbedangerousforeigninfi ltratorscapableofcontaminating bloodlinesandusingtheirallurin gexoticcharmstodivertwealthand resourcesfromlegitimatedescendant s.Pearlsoftenappearinportraitsof womenassymbolsoftheforeign,enslaved,sexualized,andunknown,aswell asemblemsofwhiteness,exoticism,empire,andglobalnetworks.Actresses wereenmeshedinthesetrajectories – bothintermsoftheirperformancesin playslikeDryden ’s TheIndianQueen andintheirassociatedcharacterization asforeignmysteriousothers. 24
onthisimpressionstatesthatsheiswearingalacegownstolenfromhermainrivalfor Charles’saffections,LouisedeKéroualle.
23 AccordingtoLindaPorter, “Nelllikedjewelsasmuchasanysocietyladyoftheperiodand seemstohavehadaparticularweaknessforpearls ... In1682,afterthedeathofCharlesII’s cousin,PrinceRupert,shepaidover£4,000,or£644,000today,forapearlnecklacethatthe Princehadgivenhismistress,PegHughes,herselfanactress” (Mistresses,p.161).
24 ForanexcellentanalysisofAnneBracegirdle’sparasolinaprintofherasSemerniatheIndian Queenintheplay TheWidowRanter,asaprotectorofwhitenessandasappropriatedaccessory, seeRoach, It,pp.166–7;L.Rosenthal, WaysoftheWorld,pp.136–7.
PierreMignard’snow-famousportraitofLouisedeKéroualle,Duchessof Portsmouth,thewell-knownFrenchmistressofCharlesIIandacontemporary ofNellGwyn’s,depictsthebeautifullydressedduchessinpearlearringswith herarmaroundayoungblackfemaleservant,wearingapearlchokerand holdingaconchshellofgleamingpearlsinherhand(Figure7).Setagainst abackgroundofadistantsea,theimageemphasizesthegloryofconquestand maritimeexploits,embodiedbytheduchess’sornatedress,regalpose,and translucentwhiteskin.Theenslaved figuregazesupathermistress,thepearls aroundherneckhighlightingherblacknessandsubjugation.Sheoffersher mistressadditionalpearlsasanextrasignificationofthedepthoftheduchess’s wealth.Herpresenceinpearlsfurtherhighlightsthesustainmentoftheviolent colonialpracticesthatproducedpearlsasexchangeablecommodities.ForKim Hall,thisportraithelpsusunderstandhowpearlsoperateinconveyingideas aboutbeauty,whiteness,andEnglishidentity:
Inusingtheservant’sskintoaccentuateherstatus,Portsmouthreinserts herselfintoapoliticaleconomyofbeauty ... InofferingPortsmouththe objectsthatcreatebeautyinmetaphor,theBlackattendantoffersthespectatoranaffirmationofanEnglishideal.However,astheposeofthechild suggests,thatEnglishidealofthefairwomanisgeneratedandmaintainedby
Figure7 LouisedeKéroualle, DuchessofPortsmouthwithanUnknown FemaleAttendant,byPierreMignard,1682.NationalPortraitGallery
theaccumulationofgoods.Coralandpearlsarenotjustmetaphors.They appearprominentlyinbothdomesticmanualsandarttreatises:theacquisitionoftheseitems figuredprominentlyinEnglishtradepractices.25
Additionally,Warsh,inheranalysisofthepainting,contendsthatpearlsare oftenexplicitlylinkedtovariedmodesofenslavement: “Thepearlsheresuggest theDuchess’sslavishdevotion – whethertoluxuryortotheking – bylinking themtotheenslavedchild.Thepearlcollaronthefemaleslave,wornas achokerratherthanasanecklace,furthersuggeststheblurringoftheline betweenpearlsasadornmentandpearlsassymbolsofslavery.”26 Inasense,the factthattheduchessandtheenslavedchild both wearpearlscreatesan unexpectedanalogybetweenthem.
Issuesofenslavement,whiteness,andmodesofidealizedbeautyarealso presentinaminiatureportraitofNellGwynbyananonymousartistthat surfacedin2011,whichdepictsGwyninlow-cutwhitenightdresswearing pearlsandmakingsausages.The figureofayoungblackboystandsbehindher dressedinservant’sliverywithametalliccollararoundhisneck,aclearsignof hisstatusasapossession.Hestaresupather,liketheyounggirlintheDuchess ofPortsmouthpaintingwhogazesathermistress.Gwynandtheduchessboth lookdirectlyoutatthevieweranddonotengagewiththeservants.Accordingto theantiquesexpertPhilipMould,theportraitofGwynis “themostgraphic contemporaryportrayalofhersexualqualificationsthatwehavefound.What makesitsodistinctiveisthatthisisnotasmuttydoodle,butexquisitelycrafted. Onecanonlyassumethatitmayhavehadanintimatepurposeinthecourt circle.”27 Althoughwecannotknowifthispainting,whichwasintendedfor “privateuse,” isadirectresponsetoorreworkingofMignard’sportrait,Gwyn andtheduchesswerewell-establishedrivals,andtherearesomecompelling parallelsinthepaintingsthatbothconnectanddistinguishthewomenfromeach other.Theduchessisdressedinasumptuousgownofluxuriousfabricsfastened withjewels,setagainstanidealizedwindowoverlookingthesea.Gwynis barelyclothedinasimplewhitegown.Sheisinaninteriordomesticspace caughtintheactofmakingsausage.Gwyn’sperformanceishighlysexualized, andsheisbeingwatchedbytheenslavedboybehindher,whichsetsupaseries oferoticgazes.Gwyn,liketheboy,isalsoanobjecttobeowned,anactress/ mistresswhohasboughtintosexualwork.Atthesametime,Gwyn,withher characteristicpearls,canalsobeseenashavingperhapssomecontroloverher abilitytoenslaveandseducementhroughherperformances.Gwyn’swhiteness
25 Hall, ThingsofDarkness,p.253. 26 Warsh, AmericanBaroque,p.222.
27 Alberge, “GraphicPortraitofCharlesII’sMistressComestoLight.” Ahigher-resolutionversion oftheimagecanbeviewedonline: www.historicalportraits .com/Gallery.asp?Page= Item&ItemID=2233&Desc=Portrait-of-Nell-Gwyn-| –Anglo-Dutch-School.
inthisimage,highlightedbyherdress,exposedskin,andaccessory,are juxtaposedwiththeboy’sblackness,suggestingthatthroughherperformances sheisachievinganembodimentoffeminizedEnglishness,althoughherstatus asanactresswillalwaysmakeheraforeignbeing,someonewhohasinfiltrated ahigherspacefrombelow.Incomparisontotheduchess,whosestatusand wealthisparamountinherportraitandwhoseenslavedservantwearspearls insteadofametalcollar,Gwynispresentedasthecounterfeitcounterpartin abehind-the-sceneslookatwhatreallyhappensinthedark.Pearlssignify Gwyn’sroleasanactress,amistress,andaninsidiousinfiltratorofdomestic spaces – someonewhoiscapableofsexualproductionthatcoulddestabilize anation.Pearlsareessentialmarkersofmeaninginbothimages,helpingus understandthemanywaysactressesoccupiedaprecariousandsignificantplace intheearlymodernworld.
1.5JoanCarlile,MaryBeale,andAnneKilligrew:Self-Portraits andPearls
ConsideringportraitsoftheearlyactressesNellGywnandMargaretHughes alongsideimagesofaristocratsandwealthymistressesofthekingpresentsan opportunitytothinkabouthowartistsusedpearlstohighlightandcomplicate actresses’ paradoxicalpower,beauty,anddangerousallure.Butwhatdoesit meanwhenfemaleartistsusepearlsassignifiersintheirself-representations? UntilrecentlyverylittleattentionhasbeenpaidtoRestorationwomenpainters JoanCarlile,AnneKilligrew(alsoawell-knownpoet),andMaryBeale.As BendorGrosvenor,thecuratorofthebeautifulexhibit BrightSouls:The ForgottenStoryofBritain’sFirstFemaleArtists (2019),remindsus,atthe samemomentthatactressesappearedontheBritishstage,womenartistswere alsoemerginginandaroundthecourt:
TherehadbeenprofessionalwomenartistsworkinginBritaininthe16th century,thoughthesecamefromEurope,suchastheminiaturistLevina TeerlincofFlanders,wherewomenenjoyedgreaterfreedoms.Butwhenit cametoeaselpaintinginoil,noBritishwomanhadeverattempted – ormore likely,beenallowed – toworkprofessionally.Thepoliticalupheavalsin17thcenturyBritain,however,soshookthetraditionalstructuresofsocietythat justoccasionallyopportunitiesarosewhichallowedgiftedamateurfemale painterstotrytheirhandatpaintingformoney.28
Itisperhapsnotsurprisingthattheseearlypainters – JoanCarlile,MaryBeale, andAnneKilligrew – allportrayedthemselvesinpearls.
JoanCarlile(ca.1606–79),thewifeofanamateurplaywrightandpoet, movedtoLondoninhermid-fortieswithhersixchildrentotrytomake alivingasanartist.ShesettledinCoventGarden,thetheaterdistrictand hometothestudiosofimportantartistssuchasSirPeterLely.Charles Ieventuallybecameherpatron,andhersurvivingworkssuggestthatshe excelledatportraitsofnotablefemalearistocratsandfamilies.Carlile’sspecialtyseemstohavebeenrepresentingwomeninluxuriouswhitedresses wearingpearls.Threeportraitsofaristocraticwomenfromthe1650sfeature figuresinwhitesilkdressesstandingcenterstageagainstdelicatelyrendered landscapes.29 Thedressesarenearlyidenticalwithcharacteristicmidseventeenth-centurylow-cutbodicesandpuffedsleeves,trimmedwithjewels atthenecklinethatdrawattentiontothesubject’spearlnecklaces,earrings,and hairornaments.GrosvenorsuggeststhatCarlilehitonawinningformulawith theserepeatedrepresentations.30 Womenclearlywishedtoseethemselves styledwithpearlsinimagesthathighlightedtheirroleaswealthy,regal,lovely performers.Laterinthecentury,whitedresseswouldbecomesynonymouswith actresses’ stagecostumes.31 Paintingawhitedressandgleamingaccessories displaystheskilloftheartistindepictingshimmeringfabricsandobjects. CarlilewasherealsoclearlyechoingothercontemporaryartistssuchasVan Dyck,Lely,andKneller.
In TheCarlileFamilywithSirJustinianIshaminRichmondPark(TheStag Hunt) (ca.1650),Carliledepictsherselfinafashionablewhitegownandpearls, insertingherselfastheartist,object/subject,alongsideherfamilyandanother wealthyfamily(Figure8).HereCarlile’sartisticpracticeislegitimizedand subsumedunderthenormalactivitiesforEnglishfamilies.Sheenacts aperformanceofcreativetalentanddisguise;sheisthedirectorofthisscene aswellasanactressonthestageofthecanvas.Carlile’spearlsandwhitedress echothecostumeandaccessoriesshedesignedforherportraitsofwealthy women.Theportraitisanadvertisementforherselfasanartist,aswellas astatementofself-fashioningandcreativelegitimacy.
TheartistMaryBeale(1633–99)is “creditedwithbeingthe firstsuccessful womanartist.”32 Bythelate1670s,herextensivelistofpatronsincluded aristocratsandroyalty.Herhusband,Charles,alsoherstudiomanager,kept detailedrecordsofhertransactionsthatstillsurvive.NellGwynbecameMary
29 See,forexample,Carlile’s PortraitofanUnknownLady,circa1650–5,online: www.tate.org.uk/ art/artworks/carlile-portrait-of-an-unknown-lady-t14495
30 Grosvenor, BrightSouls,p.14.
31 Forfurtherdiscussionofwhitestagedresses,seeEngel, Women,Performance,andtheMaterial ofMemory,pp.34–8.
32 Grosvenor, BrightSouls,p.17.
Figure8 JoanPalmerCarlile, TheCarlileFamilywithSirJustinianIshamin RichmondPark,1650s.KindlyreproducedbypermissionofLamportHall PreservationTrust
Beale’sneighborin1670,whenCharlesIIsetupahouseforherandhernew baby,theking’ssonwhowouldbecometheDukeofSt.Albans.33 Bealepainted Gwyn’sportraitin1676–7.34 Sheportraystheyoungactresswearingablue dressandpearls.NothingabouttheportraitsuggestsGwyn’sidentityas atheatricalperformer.Thesimplestrandofpearlsaroundherneckcanbe readasasignifierofherstatusasafashionableyoungwoman.Withherportrait ofGwyn,BealeseemstoanticipatelaterartistssuchasSirJoshuaReynolds, GeorgeRomney,andThomasLawrence,whooftendepictedactressesin portraitsas “themselves.” Theseimagesservedassimultaneousadvertisements forthefemaleperformerandtheartist.
Anearlyself-portraitofBealedated1660depictstheartistposedwithher familywearingpearls.35 WhileCarlile’sportrayalofherselfisidealized – her
33 Hunting, MyDearestHeart,pp.133–4.
34 Beale ’sportraitofGwyncanbeseenonline: https://commons.wikim edia.org/wiki/File: Mary_Beale_(attr)_Portrait_of_Nell_Gwyl.jpg
35 ThisBealeself-/familyportraitcanbeviewedonline: https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/selfportrait-of-mary-beale-with-her-husband-and-son-133035.
featuresandexpressionarelikeotherfacesinherportraits – Beale’sdepictionof herselfismorespecificandunique.Shestandsinprofileandlooksdirectlyatthe viewerwhileherhusbandwatchesher.Theirsonstandsbetweenthem.Beale wearsafashionablebutunadornedbrowndress.Herpearlnecklaceandearrings aretheonlysignifiersofwealthandprosperityinthepainting.Thewhitenessof thepearlsagainstBeale’sbosomalsodrawsthespectator ’seyetoherhand,which holdsapieceofdraperyacrosshershoulder.PerhapsBealewantedtohighlight thepresenceofherhandasatoolforherartistry.Inthispainting,pearlssignifythe agencyandadornmentofeverydayprofessionalwomen.Sheseemstobechallengingtheviewertoseehersimultaneouslyasanartistandasamother.This wouldbeastrategyforgaininglegitimacylaterinthecenturyforwomenartists suchasVigéeLeBrun.Aprintofaself-portraitofBeale,nowintheLewis WalpoleLibrary,depictsherwearingpearlsandlookingconfidentlyatthe spectator(Figure9).Thus,itcouldbesaidthattheafterlifeofBeale’sselfimageiscloselytiedtopearlsasasymbolofprosperityandstatus.
ThepoetandpainterAnneKilligrewdiedveryyoungofsmallpoxin1685. Drydenwroteanowwell-knownodetotheyoungprodigy,whichhasreceived farmoreattentionthanKilligrew’sownpoetryandpaintings.36 Killigrew’s
Mrs.Bealethepaintress,drawnbyherself.CourtesyoftheLewis WalpoleLibrary,YaleUniversity
36 Onlyfourportraitsandtwenty-fivepoemsofKilligrew’ssurvive(Grosvenor, BrightSouls, p.30).
Figure9
participationinthesesister-artsestablishesacompellingearlytrajectorythat willresurfacelaterinthecareersofAngelicaKauffmanandAnneDamer(the subjectsof Section2).Killigrewgrewupatcourtsurroundedbytheroyalart collections,music,theater,fashion,andjewels.Herfatherwasthechaplainof theChurchofEnglandandhermotherwasalady-in-waitingtothequeen, CatherineofBraganza.AnnelaterbecamethemaidofhonortoMaryof Modena,thesecondwifeofJames,theDukeofYork.Hercontemporaries includedAnneFinchandSarahJennings,theDuchessofMarlborough, aspeci fi cfavoriteofQueenAnne.Further,thereisthepossibilityof adirectlinkbetweenKilligrewandJoanCarlile.Grosvenorsuggeststhat KilligrewmightactuallyhavebeentaughtbyCarlile,andhehighlightsthe theatricalconnectionsbetweenthetwofamilies: “ Wecanwithreasonable certaintyassumethattheKilligrewsandCarlileswereacquainted:theylived veryclosetoeachothernearWhitehall;bothwereinvolvedwiththeroyal household;andasaplaywright,LodowickCarlileworkedwithDryden,and musthaveknownbothThomasandWilliamKilligrew,Anne ’splaywright uncles. ” 37
Ina1685self-portrait,shestandscenterstageagainwearingpearls,dressed inaluxuriousgownwithablackbodice,whitesleeves,andaredsilkskirtwith a fl oralpattern. 38 Inherhandsheclaspsapieceofpaper,perhapssignifying herroleasanauthor/poet.Behindherareornatestonesculptureswith meticulouslyrenderedscenesofwomen – awomanwithachildonthetablet toherrightandafemalegoddess figure,perhapsDianaorMinerva,onthe pedestalofthesculpturetoherleft.Thesetoftheportraitisframedbycurtains thatrevealalandscapeinthebackground.Whiletherearesomesimilarities betweenKilligrew’sandCarlile ’scompositions – bothartistscentertheir subjectsagainstidealizedlandscapes – Killigrew’sself-portraitsaredramatic representationsofheridentityindifferentguises.Killigrew’sattentionto detailsuggestsherdesiretoportray herselfasaseriousartistcapableof copyingmasterworkswhileproducingherowninterpretationofclassical subjectmatter.Presentingherselfas anaccomplishedartistandauthorin aroyalsetting,wearingpearls,Killigrewhighlightshercreativity,genius, andstatus.
37 Ibid.,p.32.Fromhere,Grosvenorcontinueswithfurthersupportforthiscontention: “Another tantalisinglostpaintingdescribedbyGeorgeVertuecouldyetberevealing: ‘Mrs.Carliletaught aLady todraw&paint.&drewherownpicturesettingwithabookofdrawingsonherlap.& thisLadyStandingbehindher.Thispicturewasinposses.ofMrCarlileinWestminster.’ Wasthe ‘Lady’ Anne?” (ibid.).
38 ThisKilligrewself-portraitcanbeviewedonline: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Anne_Killigrew_(British_1660-1685)-_Self-Portrait.jpg.
Inanevenmorestrikingimage,anotherself-portrait,circa1685,Killigrew depictsherselfinapastoralsetting,perhapsinspiredbyherperformancein AnneFinch’scourtmasque VenusandAdonis,forwhichsheworepearls.39 Unlikethesomewhatmoresomberdepictionsinthepreviouspaintings, Killigrew’scostumehereisavibrantpinktrimmedwithwhite.Hersandaled footpeeksoutfrombeneathherskirt;shegazestentativelyattheviewer,her pearlnecklaceandearringshighlightingthewhitenessofherskin.Grosvenor furtherspeculatesthatKilligrew’sallegoricalpainting VenusAttiredbythe Graces mayhavebeencreatedinhonorofMaryofModena,whowasreferred toasa “ModernDayVenus.”40 KilligrewthererepresentsVenusandher attendantwithpearlsintheirhair.Killigrew’sreferencestoVenus,highlighted byheruseofpearls,signalsherparticipationintheVenus-inspiredcultureof femalebeauty,power,andperformanceatcourt.Herplayfuladoptionofrolesto promoteherownimageestablishesimportantconnectionsamongvisual,narrative,andtheatricalmodesofself-fashioning.AposthumousprintofKilligrew, afteraportraitbyPeterLelypublishedin1821,portraystheartistwearing pearls(Figure10).Asintheself-portraitofMaryBealecirculatedafterher death,theafterlifeofKilligrew’simageisalsoconnectedtopearls.LikeCarlile andBeale,Killigrew’schoicetopresentherselfinpearlssuggeststhevarietyof meaningsandmodalitiestheaccessorycouldconveytoRestorationaudiences. Asearlyfemaleartists,thesewomenalsoperformedasactresses,placingtheir ownbodiesondisplayforaudiences,sellingversionsofthemselvestospectators.PearlsconnectCarlile,Beale,andKilligrew’sself-portraitstodepictionsof actresses,mistresses,androyalwomenbyaccomplishedmaleartists,while simultaneouslyemphasizingthelinksbetweenthesesubjectsandtheartists themselves.Theartoftheactress,then,canalsobeextendedtotheperformancesoffemaleartists,whomayhavebeenchannelingsomeoftheallure, mystique,andagencythatNellGwynandotherRestorationperformers embodiedon-andoffstage.41
39 Winn, QueenAnne:PatronessofArts,p.105.AccordingtoWinn,FinchdirectedthatKilligrew performalivetableautoaccompanythismomentinJohnBlow’slibretto: “Whilethegraces dance,thecupidsdressVenus,onecombingherhead,anothertiesabraceletofpearlsroundher wrist.” Thisreenactmentinvolvingself-fashioningwithpearlsechoesthelinesinAphraBehn’s poem “PindarickPoemontheCoronation,”“Andinthe flowingjettycurles/Theyweaveand braidthelucedpearls” (ibid.).Thisself-portraitcanbeviewedonline: https://commons.wikime dia.org/wiki/File:Anne_Killigrew,_Portrait_of_a_Lady,_Private_Collection,_Scotland.jpg .
40 Grosvenor, BrightSouls,p.35.The VenusAttiredbytheGraces paintingcanbeseenonline: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File :Anne_Killigrew_-_Venus_Attired_by_the_Three_ Graces.jpg.
41 SeealsoaprintmadebyAbrahamBlooteling(1640–90)ofAnneKilligrew’sself-portraitinthe YaleCenterforBritishArt.Shewearspearlearringsandherdressisdecoratedwithpearls: https://collections.britishart.yale.edu/catalog/tms:51044 .
Figure10 AnneKilligrew,byFrancisEngleheart,afterSirPeterLely,stipple engraving,1821.NationalPortraitGallery
1.6PearlsandPaste:TheAfterlivesofStagePearls
Whilepearlsremainedfashionableaccessoriesinportraitsofroyaltyand aristocratsintotheeighteenthcentury,particularlyinthe1770s,imagesof actressesinpearlsreachednewheightsinthe1780swithalavishportraitof thecelebratedactressElizabethFarren(ElizabethFarrenasHermioneinThe Winter ’sTale,ca.1780)byJohanZoffany(Figure11),aswellasthelegendary SarahSiddonsastheTragicMuse bySirJoshuaReynolds(1784)(Figure12).42
Zoffany’sfull-lengthportrayalofFarrenasHermionein TheWinter ’sTale presentstheactressleaningonastonepedestalwearingasumptuouswhite
42 PerhapsZoffanywasinspiredbyAngelicaKauffman’s1775portraitoftheactressElizabeth HartleyasHermione: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w iki/File:Elizabeth_Hartley_by_ Angelica_Kauffmann.jpg.AlthoughHartleyisnotwearingpearlstherein,thecurtain,stone pedestal,andcostumeprefigureZoffany’sportrayalofFarren.Thispaintingisalsocompelling whencomparedtoKauffman’slaterportraitsofperformingwomen,andherownself-portraitof 1787discussedin Section2.Formoreonthispainting,seePerry, SpectacularFlirtations,p.32.
