THE PrE-HiSToric PErioD
THE PALAEoLiTHic MAN (APProXiMATELY 500000–8000 bc)
In India, the earliest evidence of the existence of humans can be traced back to the Palaeolithic Age roughly between 500000 and 8000 bc. In many regions of South Asia, stone tools and cave paintings belonging to this period have been discovered. The word ‘Palaeolithic’ has been taken from two Greek words which mean ‘old stone’. Chipped stones have been discovered in large numbers in various parts of India. These have been of hard rock called quartzite. Therefore, humans in Palaeolithic India are also called Quartzite men. Palaeolithic men did not know the use of fire and did not practise any form of agriculture. They led a savage life, using stone weapons for hunting.
They did not know about family life and lived in caves and wandered in jungles like other animals. According to historians, Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito race such as the modern people living on the Andaman Islands. They were short in stature and had dark skin, curly hair and flat noses.
Punjab Plains and the Kashmir Valley
Until 1939, the evidence of three or four stone age cultures had been found in only a part of Punjab (now in Western Pakistan). These cultures have been called Pre-Sohan, Early-Sohan, Late-Sohan and Evolved Sohan (named after Sohan, a tributary of the river Sindhu) and Flakeand-Blade industries.
5.2 History and Culture
Many studies have been conducted in the foothills of the south-western Himalayas. These include the Shivaliks and the Potwar Plateau. Potwar Plateau is a part of the ancient Pan Canada, drained by the Sindhu, Sohan, Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. Rawalpindi and other modern districts of Western Punjab (now in Pakistan) lie in this region. It is believed that the existence of human beings in Punjab was noticed for the first time in Boulder Conglomerate which forms the top most surface in the Sindhu, Sohan and other rivers. It is suggested that during the Second Ice Age in the Kashmir Valley, the Potwar Plateau experienced heavy rains and the rivers carried away boulders which formed the Boulder Conglomerate. This formation had huge flakes of quartzite. Many of these were thought as artefacts, as they had traces of chipping on the sides.
Trionyx species, stegodon ganesa F. and C., Emys species, Ursus namadicus F. and C., Leptobos frazerirut, Cravus duvancelli.
R.Kabul
Tapti
Jamuna
Peninsular India
The real home of the Handaxe Culture seems to be, according to the present knowledge, Peninsular India, the region towards the south of the Ganges Plains. Because the types of tools of this culture were first found near Chennai, it is also called the Chennai Axe Culture. This is purely a regional name which should be given up, as the latest researches show that the Handaxe Culture covered almost the whole of the India—Andhra Pradesh, Chennai, Mysore, Maharashtra, Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan, the plateau regions of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal except Western Rajasthan, Sindh, Kashmir, Assam and the coastal strips of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The relics of the early Stone Age man are mainly confined to the middle reaches of the rivers, and to some distance, away from their basin. Altitudes higher than 750 m and heavily forested regions were avoided by man. No early Stone Age tools have been found in Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu) and Mysore (Karnataka). Hand axes and other associated tools were first found in the deposits of the Second Interglacial Age in Western Punjab, while in Peninsular India, they were found in the earliest pebble conglomerate bed in Narmada, which overlies the basal rock or laterite. In this conglomerate, are also found remains of extinct animals such as wild elephant, wild horse, wild ox, hippopotamus, alaeindicus F. and C., Stegodon insignis F. and C., Rhinocerus unicornis Lim.,
MaP 1.1 Stone Age Sites of India
Latest studies conducted in the Mahi and Narmada basin show that this period could not be before early upper Pleistocene. The initial Stone Age tools in the peninsular region of India include different types of hand axes, cleavers, choppers and chopping tools prepared out of pebbles or pebble halves and scrapers. Some of the tools are regular, having placed to help in holding, and some are two-ended and beaked tools. These types of tools could have been used only for cutting or engraving. Such tools were discovered in the regions of the Krishna Basin in Karnataka.
Assessment of Pre-history
We live in the geological period known as Cenozoic. It started nearly 65 million years ago when the landmasses on the earth got the shape that we at present know. Before it, different landmasses or continents were almost united to constitute one large land mass termed Pangea. The historians have sub-divided the Cenozoic period into two periods—Tertiary and Quaternary. The Tertiary period involves five epochs: (i) Palaeocene (65–56.5 million years ago); (ii) Eocene (56.5–35.4 million years ago); (iii) Oligocene (35.4–23.3 million years ago); (iv) Miocene (23.3–5.2 million years ago) and (v) Pliocene (5.2–1.64 million years ago). Primates started emerging nearly 70 million years ago at the start of the Cenozoic. Bipedalism started taking shape during the Miocene resulting into the rise of Australopithecus. The genus Homo
FIG. 1.1 Palaeolithic Age (Not Well-Shaped)
emerged during the Pliocene. This was the time that Hominids started making tools. The Quaternary period witnessed a major development in tool technology. This period is further divided into two geological epochs: (i) Pleistocene (1.64 million–12,000 years ago) and (ii) Holocene (12,000 years ago to the present). We are now living in the Holocene geological epoch. The Palaeolithic Age of pre-history falls in the Pleistocene geological epoch. During the Pleistocene period, the temperature across the world fell considerably. This caused a series of ice ages. The last known ice age started nearly 118,000 years ago and was the most widespread. This ice age attained the greatest intensity about 20,000 years ago. The ice ages ended 12,000 years ago, with which began the Holocene (or postglacial) geological epoch. During the Pleistocene epoch, there started biological evolution of humans. They were now able to adapt themselves culturally. The temperatures in Europe, Asia and North Africa have dropped considerably because of the last ice age. Stone tool technology improved significantly in this period.
THE MESoLiTHic MAN (APProXiMATELY 8000–4000 bc)
The biggest sign of the transformation of the Palaeolithic Age to the Mesolithic Age was the use of animal bones in the place of stones. The Mesolithic man began making use of special weapons, known as ‘micro lithic’ or ‘pygmy tools’. These tools were made from jasper chalk or blood stone. He was still unaware of the use of fire and did not practice agriculture. However, he had made the dog his pet and also had begun using wooden handles for tools and weapons. The art of making pot of clay is also an important development of the Mesolithic Age. Man still led a nomadic life. However, he started the practice of burying the dead.
The microliths, themselves insignificant, present a great technological development—the introduction of compound tools. The tools were universally very small, sometimes barely an inch or half an inch long, and so could not be used otherwise. Economically, man was still savage, a hunterfisher, a change was indicated in man’s modus operandi by his toolkit and the materials of which it was made. However, in some areas as elsewhere in the world, there appeared the next great step—pottery making—with its concomitant of permanent habitation and food production.
Pre-history: Important Terms
Pre-history: It is the period for which we do not have any written records.
Proto-history: This is the period for which we have written records, but we are still unable to decipher the script. Historic period: This is the period for which we have written records in the form of inscriptions and other texts.
Palaeography: It is the study of old writings used in inscriptions and other ancient records.
FIG. 1.2 Mesolithic Age (Shaped But Not Polished).
Stone-coffin or Sarcophagi Burial
Stone-circle PITBurial
Menhir (Pitmarked with stone)
FIG. 1.3 Megalithic Burial Types
In eastern India, microliths are generally found on the surface of laterite plains and in the forests in Orissa, Bengal and Chota Nagpur Plateau and on the rocky (sandstone) hillocks of Mirzapur. The few small scale excavations in these regions indicate their probable antiquity and the prevailing climatic conditions. Typologically, the microliths are non-geometric, that is, such forms as the triangle and trapeze were absent. The tools were generally made of milky quartz, though crystal, chert, chalcedony, quartzite and fossil wood of which large chunks have been found. Excavations at Birbanpur near Durgapur railway station on the bank of the Damodar River in Burdwan district (West Bengal) showed early microliths. The Kashmir Range, at the junction of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh and small-scale excavations of open air sites and rock shelters at Morahana Pahar and Bhaghaikhor near Bhainsaur and Lekhania (near Mirzapur), yielded the first non-geometric microliths and later the geometric ones with an ill-baked ochre-red pottery. The later microliths include bladers (retouched and simple), lemates, trapezes, triangular pieces, scrapers, points and a few burins. The occurrence of one ring stone or mace head of quartzite among heavy tools and two small ground or polished tools of chlorite schist at Langhnaj and Akhaj sites, in sandy alluvial plains of northern and central Gujarat, seem to be significant implying contact with or a knowledge of such tool making centres. Such tools suggest that either man had begun to cultivate with the help of a digging stick for which quartzite ring was used as a weight or the ring was used as a mace
head—a powerful offensive weapon. Pottery, though extremely few and ill baked, is associated with later microliths, which further suggests that during this period, at least temporary camps or habitations were formed.
Later, people buried the dead in large, stone-lined pits and covered them with still larger slabs, sometimes only one and deserve the name ‘Megalithic’, occupied the area. The dead were buried in highly crouched postures, preferably in north–south direction, very much like the characteristics of the Mediterranean and the Vedic racial groups. The presence of rhinoceros implies that the environment provided by lakes and the surrounding areas of scrub forests was congenial enough for such animals to flourish or that the rhinoceros lived on river banks, where they were hunted by man and their carcasses brought up to the mound. Fishing also provided food as the pieces of carapace of tortoise and fish vertebrae were found. The age of this culture is not yet determined. The Teris of South India, Birbanpur and pre-pottery and non-geometric levels in Mirzapur in eastern India, represent early phases of this Age. The later phases at Mirzapur and other sites in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Langhnaj in northern Gujarat, where pottery occurs without any definite evidence of domestication of animals and incipient agriculture might represent the next stage.
THE NEoLiTHic MAN or NEw SToNE AGE (4000–1800 bc)
The next period is called the Neolithic Age. This term is also derived from two Greek words meaning ‘new stone’. The significance of this name lies in the fact that in this age too, man had to depend solely on stone implements and was ignorant of any metals, except gold. However, their implements were very different from those of the preceding age. They used stones other than quartzite and these were not merely chipped, but were clean, bright, finished and shiny. Remains of Neolithic men are found in almost every part of India including Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Bengal and Orissa to Maharashtra (as per recent political geography of India). By then, man was familiar with agriculture and was cultivating wheat, barley, maize and many types of vegetables. The Neolithic man was not nomadic, but learnt to construct huts and also to domesticate animals. He also weaved cloth from wool and cotton. Special tombs called dolmen (consisting of three or more stone props in a circle, supporting a massive roof stone) are dated to this age. Evidence of domestication of animals, adoption of agriculture, permanent village settlements, and wheelturned pottery dating back to the middle of the sixth millennium bc has been found in the foothills of Sindh and Baluchistan (or Balochistan in the current Pakistani usage), both in the present day Pakistan. Neolithic settlements have also been found in the Kashmir valley at Burzahom and
Gufkral. The people of Burzahom lived in pits and persisted on hunting and fishing economy. They made bone tools. Here, the evidence of domestic dogs buried with their master has been found. Piklihal in Andhra Pradesh is also an important neolithic site.
The thread of the story interrupted at Langhnaj (northern Gujarat) may be picked up in Baluchistan (Pakistan). This is a transitional zone lying between the higher inland plateau of central Asia and the low flat plains of Sindh. Not only was the Quetta Valley extensively inhabited in the pre-historic times, but at a site like Kili Ghul Mohammed near Quetta, a cultural development is found. Here, four occupational periods have been identified. During the earliest period dating back to approximately fourth millennium bc, the people lived in mud brick houses, used chert and bone tools and domesticated sheep or goat. Some kind of crop production also existed. In the next period, hand-made, basket-impressed ware came into use. In the third period, however, we see two distractive elements which seem to form, along with the above mentioned chert tools, the diagnostic trails of the succeeding culture for a long time.
The people of the Stone Age suffered from one major limitation. Because they had to depend entirely on tools and weapons made of stone, they could not find settlements far away from the hilly areas. They could settle down only in the hilly river valleys.
THE METAL AGE (1800–1000 bc)
There was a very slow transition from the use of stone to the use of metal. People initially started using copper, gold, silver and at last iron. Initially, people valued gold and then copper and bronze, which are hard and also shiny. In Europe, the Neolithic Age was succeeded by the Bronze Age, but in India, there was no specific Bronze Age. In the northern parts of India, people changed to copper from stones for manufacturing axes, spears, heads and other objects. In India, the use of bronze began in the Copper Age. Therefore, we normally term this intermediate age as the Copper and Bronze Age. The use of iron began much later, and it marked the beginning of the Iron Age in India. Hence, Metal Age in India can be divided into (i) the Copper and Bronze Age and (ii) the Iron Age.
FIG. 1.4 Neolithic Age (Well-Shaped, Sharp and Polished)
MaP 1.2 Megalithic Future Settlements (Early Iron Age)
It is very interesting to note that in the southern parts of India, there was no such intermediate Copper and Bronze Age between the Neolithic and the Iron Ages. The general features of the Neolithic period are the exclusive use of non-metal tools and the practice of agriculture with the development of village life. In India, the period has not been properly studied and currently cannot be differentiated from the so-called chalcolithic period in which the use of stone was complemented by the use of copper or bronze. In the next phase, village economy continued on the old lines, but the great chalcolithic civilisations evolved out of it. The chalcolithic culture in India conventionally involved nonurban, non-Harappan culture which initially appeared at the turn of the second millennium BC and were finally replaced by iron using cultures.
There were three major chalcolithic cultures in India i.e., Banas culture (2000 to 1600 bc), Malwa culture (1900 to 1400 bc) and Jorwe culture (1500 to 900 bc). Besides these, the other cultures that were present during this period were Ahar culture (2800 to 1500 bc), Kaytha culture (2450 to 1700 bc), Savalda culture (2300 to 2000 bc), Prabhas Patan culture (2000 to 1400 bc) and Rangpur culture (1700 to 1400 bc). The most prominent characteristic of these chalcolithic cultures is their distinct painted pottery. The red-slipped ware painted in designs of brown/chocolate colour (Kaytha culture); red-black-white designs (Ahar culture); coarser surface on which red or black designs are made (Malwa culture); lustrous red ware with glossy
surface (Prabhas Patan and Rangpur culture) are wellknown pottery forms. There were other chalcolithic villages which could be differentiated from each other mainly on the basis of pottery and other artefacts such as terracotta and tools. Around the Baluchi Hills were four principal culture groups: (i) Zhob Valley culture, (ii) Quetta Valley culture, (iii) Nal culture and (iv) Kulli culture.
People during the chalcolithic constructed houses in rectangular and circular shapes. The houses were made of mud wattle and daub, were mostly in clusters. They did not know the use of burnt bricks. Floors in the houses were made of rammed clay and roof of straw which were supported on bamboo and wooden logs. People raised cattle and did farming of Kharif and Rabi crops in rotation. They used to stored food grains in huts. Nearly all these chalcolithic cultures developed in the black cotton soil zone in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The inhabitations of Kaytha culture were just a few in numbers, most of which were located on the banks of Chambal and its tributaries. Ahar culture inhabitations such as Balathal and Gilunds were among the largest. Excavations show that Balathal was a well-fortified inhabitation. There are adequate evidences that indicate that the chalcolithic communities traded and exchanged goods with other contemporary communities.
Large inhabitations such as Ahar, Gilund, Nagada, Navadatoli, Eran, Prabhas Patan, Rangpur, Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon would have been major centres of trade and exchange. Religion was the common liking factor for all the chalcolithic cultures. All the cultures worshipped mother goddess and the bull. The worship of fire was a very extensive phenomenon among the chalcolithic people. Fire altars have been discovered from a great number of chalcolithic settlements. In South India, the dead were placed in east-west position. In Maharashtra, the dead bodies were buried in urns under the floor of their houses in north–south direction. In Chandoli and Nevasa in Maharashtra, some children have been found buried in
Sanganakallu Excavation
Excavation at Sanganakallu, Karnataka (Bellary district) has provided evidence to show that in this region, microliths are of considerable antiquity, positively before the Neolithic or Polished Axe Culture or the beginning of agriculture. As the microlithic deposits underlie the Neolithic and overlie the Palaeolithic, it is truly ‘Mesolithic’ as in Western Europe. Further, its association with a sticky black brown soil indicates climatic conditions when much more rain fell in the region, which is semi-arid today. Thus, a real transition between the pure food-collecting stage and the food-producing stage can now be postulated in several parts of India. However, any clear developmental history of the succeeding stage is not yet available from any one area. The picture has to be reconstructed or pieced together from scenes here and there.
Somnath
Nevasa
Terdal
Brahmagiri Hallur
Adichanallur
Perumal Hills
Junapani
Eran
Chirand Rajgir
Kaushambi
graves along with copper-bead necklaces. The chalcolithic people made notable advancements in ceramic and metal technology. The painted pottery was efficiently made and baked in kilns at a temperature of 500–700°C. In the upper parts of Doab, Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) belonging to 2000 to 1800 bc has been excavated.
People were acquainted with copper, as copper-bead as well as a celt and few other objects have been found. Gold was perhaps the earliest discovery, but it was used as a material for ornaments only. The Iron Age concludes the pre-historical period. Several historians are of the opinion that the later part of the Iron Age extended up to the period when the Rig Veda was composed. This period saw a notable progress in the culture and civilisation in India. The exceptional discoveries in large quantities in ancient sites show that in South India, stone was directly followed by iron, while in North India axes, swords, spearheads, awl, daggers, etc., were first made in copper and afterwards with iron.
We see the use of iron starting in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent at the start of the first millennium bc. Iron objects used by the people can be categorised as: (i) Weapons used for warfare or hunting and fishing such as arrowheads, spearheads, daggers, lances and fish hooks; (ii) Household objects such as nails, pins, needles, knives, clamps, rings, bangles and tongs; (iii) Craft tools such as axe, chisel and borers; (iv) Agricultural tools such as spade, sickle, hoe, axes and ploughshare. However, till now, only a few iron tools associated with the first half of the first millennium have been unearthed, which show that at this stage, iron did not contribute adequately in the progress of handicraft and agriculture. In the initial stage in India, iron could not be used for production because of its scarcity. However, in this phase iron may have been used in warfare, for clearance, for making wheels and the body of carts and chariots and in the building of houses. Thus, it is evident that the period between 1025 and 500 bc was to a great extent an age of iron weapons and not iron tools.
iNDUS VALLEY ciViLiZATioN (2500–1800 bc)
The Indus Valley Civilisation was one of the first great civilisations having a writing system, urban centres and a diversified social and economic system. It appeared nearly 2500 bc along the Indus River Valley in Punjab and Sindh. An Indian historian such as D. P. Aggrawal, however, is of the view that the Indus Valley Civilisation dates back to 2300 bc. He declares this on the basis of his calculations using C-14 dating technique. It appears that the civilisation flourished until 1800 bc. Thereafter, each urban phase characterised by systematic town planning, widespread brick work, art of writing, use of bronze tools and red ware pottery painted with black designs gradually disappeared.
ArEA AND JUriSDicTioN
This was the earliest civilization that flourished in India on the banks of the River Indus, from its frontiers extending from Manda on the Chenab near Jammu, in the north, to Daimabad on the Godavari in Ahmednagar in the south embracing 200 sites in the Kutch-Saurashtra region of Gujarat. It covered more than 12,99,600 km2, from the borders of Baluchistan to the deserts of Rajasthan, from the Himalayan foothills to the southern tip of Gujarat.
DiScoVErY of THE iNDUS VALLEY
ciViLiZATioN
The famous cities of the mature Indus Valley Civilization were discovered accidentally in the mid-nineteenth century
during the construction of a railroad by British engineers John and William Brunton. Although it was correctly surmised at the time that antiquities from Harappa predated the historical period, true archaeological excavations did not begin until the 1920s. Nothing was known about the Indus Valley Civilization till 1922–1923, when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations at Mohenjodaro on the banks of the River Indus (Larkana district of Sindh in Pakistan), Harappa (Montgomery district of Punjab on the banks of the River Ravi, also in Pakistan) and Lothal (near Ahmedabad) in India. During that decade, the so-called twin capitals of the Indus Civilization, Mohenjodaro and Harappa, were excavated under the direction of Sir John Hubert Marshall; other important settlements were surveyed by Sir Aurel Stein and N. G. Majumdar. These excavations revealed that some 5,000 years ago, before the emergence of the Aryans in India, the Indus Valley was the cradle of a highly developed civilization that flourished during the same period as the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria. The existence of a great civilization roughly contemporaneous with that of Sumer and of ancient Egypt was soon confirmed. Hundreds of smaller settlements have since been discovered. Recent archaeological investigation has concentrated on documenting the beginnings of urban life in the area, and a variety of different types of sites have been excavated, including fishing villages, trading outposts and what may have been a port.
land over 1600 ft AFGHANISTAN
Mundigak SEISTAN
Kili Ghul
Periano Ghundai
Mohammad
Damb Sadaat
Rana Ghundai
Togau
Siah Damb
Anjira
Nal
Nundara
Kulli
Harappa
R.Indus DryBedofR.Ghaggar
Mohenjo-Daro
Pandi Wahi
Ghazi Shah
Kotrash
Tharro
Amri
Hariyupiyah
It is mentioned in chapter XXVII, section 5, ‘Indra destroyed the seed of Varasikha. At Hariyupiyah, he smote the vanguard of the Vrcivans, and the rear fled frightened’. The question rise if the Hariyupiyah mentioned in this hymn from the Rig Veda is in fact, the Harappa of the Indus Valley. The oldest recorded history of the Indian subcontinent is traced in the Vedas. It is traditionally estimated that the gap between the decline of Harappa and Vedic history has been around 1,000 years. However, some fresh researches suggest that the Vedas could have been written much earlier. We cannot say with conviction that Hariyupiyah refers to Harappa. There has been no mention of the place in the Vedas again. Some historians feel that it may be the name of some river. There is also no mention of Varasikha and the Vrcivans again. However, we get much relevant information about the Indus Valley from the Rig Veda which helps us in our understanding of the region. Many other ancient texts from Mesopotamia, China and Greece also provide information about what happened to the Harappans.
MAJor cENTrES
The remnants of two major cities—Mohenjodaro and Harappa—reveal remarkable engineering feats of uniform urban planning and carefully executed layouts for water supply and drainage. Excavations at these sites and later archaeological digs at approximately seventy other locations in India and Pakistan provide a composite picture of what is now generally known as Harappan culture (3000–1800 bc). In India, important sites connected with the Indus Valley Civilization are Lothal near Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banwali in Hissar district of Haryana and Ropar near Chandigarh in Punjab. These sites were flourishing centres between 3000 and 2000 bc. Perhaps, there are many more significant Indus Valley sites which are still unknown. Some of those may have been lost by shifting
Kalibangan
courses of rivers. Some others may be replaced by modern towns. One thing is very clear that most of the sites were important commercial centres. They are mostly situated near rivers. A number of specialised manufacturing facilities discovered indicate that these towns were involved in trade not only with each other, but also the regions far away.
Mohenjodaro
One of the most important centres of the Indus Civilization was Mohenjodaro, situated along the west bank of the Indus River, approximately 320 km (200 miles) north of Karachi, in Pakistan. Mohenjodaro is probably the best known Indus Valley site. It is located by the Indus in Sindh,
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
MaP 1.4 Sites of Indus Valley Civilization
INDIA
Othmanjo Buthi
Makran Coast
Kot Diji
Indian Desert
MaP 1.3 Map of Pre-Harappan Settlements of the Indus System and Baluchistan
Pakistan. Here, the Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization were discovered in the 1920s. Owing to the rising water table, most of the site remains unexcavated and its earliest levels have not been reached. Like most cities of the Indus Civilization, it consisted of two major areas of occupation: a high citadel to the west and a lower city of domestic dwellings to the east. Careful urban planning is evident in the neat arrangement of the major buildings contained in the citadel, including the placement of a large granary and water tank or bath at right angles to one another. The lower city, which was tightly packed with residential units, was also constructed on a grid pattern consisting of a number of blocks separated by major cross streets. Bakedbrick houses faced the street, and domestic life was centred on an enclosed courtyard. Sanitation was provided through an extensive system of covered drains running the length of the main streets and connected with most residences by chutes.
The remains of Mohenjodaro are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Mohenjodaro is also spelled ‘Moenjodaro’, the spelling used by the UNESCO World Heritage Organization.
Harappa
Harappa was an Indus Valley urban centre. However, in spite of its essentially urban culture, the city was supported by extensive agricultural production and commerce, which included trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). It is located on the old river bed of Ravi nearly 640 km towards north east of Mohenjodaro in the Punjab, Pakistan. The nearby but smaller site of Kalibangan is situated farther east, in India, along the banks of the now extinct Ghaggar-Hakra River. Both, Mohenjodaro and the Harappa sites follow the familiar plan of a small, high citadel to the west and a lower city to the east, with the streets arranged in a rectilinear grid pattern. Immediately north of the heavily fortified citadel at Harappa, two sets of barrack-like dwellings, for labourers, were excavated alongside enormous granaries for the city’s food supply. There is a structure which was earlier considered a granary, but now it is believed that it was a palace having ventilated air ducts. At Harappa, we find the first indications of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization. Nearly five mounds have been discovered at Harappa in the latest research. Two of these mounds have large walls around them. These walls were perhaps erected for trade regulation as defence.
Kalibangan
The height of the Indus Valley multiple regional centres could have been built as per standard plan. The Kalibangan site shows settlement underwent drastic changes as it got
incorporated in to expanding Indus civilization. Along the river-bed of Ghaggar-Hakra, more cities were discovered especially towards the south-west of Kalibangan.
Dholavira
It is situated on Khadir Beit, which is an island in the Rann of Kutch in the Indian state of Gujarat. The first excavation work at Dholavira started in 1990. It is as large as Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The architecture found here is best preserved. An obscure signboard in Indus script has also been found.
Lothal
Lothal is located on the top of the Gulf of Cambay in the Indian state of Gujarat, on the banks of the River Sabarmati near the Arabian Sea. Lothal is a very important site on the sea coast, so it is one of the most extensively researched site. Archaeologists have found a bead factory and Mesopotamian seal from this site.
Rakhigarhi
Archaeologists have very recently discovered this site in Haryana, India. It is still an unexcavated site. The city of Rakhigarhi was as large as Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
Ganeriwala
This site is located in Punjab, Pakistan, adjoining the Indian border. It was found in the 1970s. Its area is 80 hectares is almost equal to the area of Mohenjodaro. It is situated adjoining a dry bed of the Ghaggar or Sarasvati River. It lies almost at an equal distance from two important Indus towns of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. It may have been the urban centre of a third Indus Valley region, expanding over copper-rich Rajasthan.
Daimabad
It is located in the state of Maharashtra, near Mumbai. It was discovered in 1958. Some of the archaeologists suggest that the artefacts found here indicate its association with the Harappan Civilization, while others believe that the evidence is not enough. A unique catche of exquisite bronze chariots and animals which may or may not belong to the Indus Valley was also discovered at this site.
Chanudarho
It lies almost 80 miles south of Mohenjodaro in Pakistan. It is suggested that it was an important manufacturing centre. Different types of tools, shell, bone and seal-making facilities were traced at this site. It seems that Chanudarho was hastily abandoned.
Sutkagendor
It is situated in Baluchistan, Pakistan near the border of Iran. It is the westernmost known Indus Valley Civilization site. It is believed that it was once situated on a navigable inlet of the Arabian Sea. The site also has the usual citadel and a town with 30 feet wide defensive walls. Sutkagendor was situated on the trade route from Lothal in Gujarat to Mesopotamia.
Indus Valley Civilizations
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished approximately 2500 BC in the western part of South Asia, in what today is Pakistan and Western India. It is often referred to as the Harappan Civilization after its first discovered city, Harappa. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. It was not discovered until the 1920s. Most of its ruins, including major cities, remain to be excavated. Its script has not been deciphered. Basic questions about the people who created this highly complex culture remain unanswered.
The Harappans used same sized bricks and standard weights for thousand miles. There were other highly developed cultures in the area. Some are thousands of years older. Harappa was settled before the Harappans of the Indus Valley and they were replaced by other still anonymous people.
There seems to have been another large river which ran parallel and west of the Indus in the third and fourth millennium BC. This was the ancient Ghaggra-Hakra River or Sarasvati of the Rig Veda. Its lost banks are slowly being laid out by researchers. Along its bed, a whole new set of ancient towns and cities have been discovered.
According to ancient Mesopotamian texts there were two important sea faring civilizations in India’s neighbourhood in the third millennium BC. These civilizations were Makkan and Meluha. They conducted trade with real financial sophistication in amounts involving tonnes of copper. According to the Mesopotamians, Meluha was an aquatic culture, where water and bathing played a pivotal role. Many Indus Valley objects have been discovered buried with the Mesopotamians.
Since 1986, the joint Pakistani American Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) has been carrying out the first major excavations at the site in 40 years. These excavations have shown Harappa to have been far larger than once thought, perhaps supporting a population of 50,000 at certain periods.
many accounts of the Aryan people driving the indigenous Dravidian people into South India. There is a tribe known as the Brahui tribe in Baluchistan, to the west of the Indus. The tribe speaks Dravidian language similar to Tamil spoken in South India. It suggests that there was a migration of people to South India. It is still not clear that the ancient Harappans were Aryans or Dravidians.
Many new studies are being conducted on ground in India and Pakistan. There is a possibility that in future, we shall get answers to questions about them and the drying up of river beds. The first encouraging script interpretations have been done. Radiocarbon chronologies are becoming helpful. Old trade routes are being discovered through satellite imaging.
Art and Crafts
The most wonderful but most obscure Harappan artefacts discovered till now are the steatite seals. These have been found in abundance at Mohenjodaro. We get the most clear and accurate picture of Harappan life from these small, flat and mostly square objects with human or animal motifs. They also have inscriptions believed to be inscribed in the Harappan script. However, it has eluded scholarly attempts at deciphering. There are debates on, if the script represents numbers or alphabets, if it is protoDravidian or proto-Sanskrit.
The remains of the Indus Valley have been found from Mumbai in the southern part of India, to the Himalayas in the north and northern Afghanistan. In the west, it expands on the Arabian Sea coast in Baluchistan, Pakistan, up to the Iranian border. In the east, it expands up to Uttar Pradesh in India. Excavations in Gujarat show a southern coastal network expanding hundreds of miles. It seems that the civilization moved on from the west towards the east. It also appears that the settlements in the central and southern India flourished after the decline of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The drying up of the ancient Sarasvati or Ghaggar-Hakra River may also have adversely affected the civilization. There were a number of Harappan sites along that river bed. The Rig Veda provides
Three seals found at Mohenjodaro depict a seated horned deity. He is surrounded by wild animals. The image is believed to be the portrayal of the Hindu God Shiva or Pashupati, the Lord of Beasts. The apparent cult of the bull and the stress on washing and ablutions, prove by these remains, bring out the unanswerable question of the influence of this early pre-Aryan civilization on Hindu practices in ancient India.
Architectural Layout
Mohenjodaro was a well-fortified city. The town did not have city walls. Though, it had towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. If we consider these fortification arrangements, we are faced with the question if Mohenjodaro was an administrative centre. The architectural layout of both Harappa and Mohenjodaro is almost same. These towns were not as heavily fortified as the other Indus Valley towns. The identical layout of the cities in the Indus Valley suggests that there was some kind of political or central administration.
ASPEcTS of iNDUS cULTUrE
Harappan had a conservative outlook and their culture remained almost unchanged for centuries. They always followed the same construction pattern of their cities devastated in floods. Harappans are known for their
stability, regularity and conservatism, it could not be ascertained who wielded authority—whether an aristocratic, priestly or commercial minority. However, little bit of regional variation within the Indus Valley Civilization can be traced because of its vast geographical expanse. For instance, baked bricks were commonly used for construction at Mohenjodaro and at Harappa because stone is rare there, while limestone was more commonly used at Dholavira.
Agricultural
The Indus people supported themselves by irrigation-based agriculture. They grew rice, wheat and barley, and they may have cultivated dates and cotton as well. They were among the first people in the world who were known to have kept chicken; they also had dogs, buffaloes and humped cattle. They may have also had domesticated pigs, horses, camels and possibly elephants. Mehrgarh is the earliest known farming settlement in south Asia (established circa 7000 bc), the first of several villages to appear among the hills of Baluchistan along the western edge of the Indus plain. Stone sickles found at Mehrgarh provide definite evidence of wheat cultivation. The people cultivated wheat and barley and raised sheep, goats and cattle, all traditions that paved the way to civilization. Soon after, they began making painted pottery, ornaments and terracotta figurines representing both humans and animals. The early agricultural society that developed wheat cultivation in South Asia had not yet discovered metal tools. Instead, these early farmers used sickles made of small stone blades, inserted diagonally into wooden sticks for harvesting cereals. These composite tools were reusable as the original blades could be replaced with new ones when the old ones were broken. Sickles used for reaping wheat still have traces of silica from ancient wheat stems on their blades, which produce a sheen that is visible to the naked eye. Stone arrowheads were also used and some of the arrowheads were decorated with artwork. Asphalt or bitumen was used to help secure these stone tools (blades and arrowheads) to the wooden components of composite tools and weapons.
Political
There was a central government. Weapons of war like axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows were made of stone. Leadership is said to have been vested with merchants and traders.
Socio-Economic
The Indus Valley Civilization people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded and reaped their harvest of wheat and barley in April before
the advent of the next flood. Wheat, rice, barley, milk, dates, fish, eggs and animal flesh formed their staple food. Cotton was first produced by the Indus Valley people. Spun and woven cotton and wool dresses were also used by them. Agriculture, hunting, fishing and rearing of animals/birds was their main source of livelihood.
Social
The people had a highly developed artistic sense, which is reflected in their pottery and paintings on vases. Their pottery was generally wheel-made and was painted red and black. Some of it was also inscribed, polychromed and glazed. More than 2,000 inscribed seals with pictorial scripts have been discovered; these were used as amulets, exchange medium or family symbols. The society, in general, was literate, artistic and was fairly egalitarian in spite of the practice of slave labour.
People made tools and weapons using copper and bronze but not iron. Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing. Wheat, rice and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated. A number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated.
Religious
They worshipped the Mother Goddess, Pashupatinath, stones, trees and animals. There seems to have been some veneration of horns and pipal leaves throughout Baluchistan and the Indus valley, even centuries before the establishment of the Indus Valley Civilization. At that early stage, the motif of a human head with horns decorated with flowers or pipal leaves appeared for the first time, probably representing the beginning of an ideology involving a priestly figure or a deity. The stone sculpture of the Priest King from the Indus Valley Civilization may have originally had a horned head dress affixed to the back of its head. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization apparently regarded buffalo horns and pipal trees as sacred. Depictions of men wearing horned head dresses decorated with pipal leaves of some seals and tablets may have represented religious as well as secular leaders. Perhaps, these men wore the unique ornaments made of gold and semi-precious stones found at Indus sites. Of these ornaments, carnelian beads with bleached (etched) white designs treated with alkaline solution were an Indus speciality, exported as far as the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.
Town Planning
Archaeologists have long commented on the uniformity and standardization of the material remains of the Indus Valley Civilization. Except in the outposts along the Makran coast and in its most remote colonies, Indus cities were all built of baked-brick blocks with standard
proportions of length to width to thickness of 4:2:1. Great buildings, double-storeyed dwellings and a drainage system were in existence. There were planned cities and roads. Mortar and baked bricks were used for the construction of dwellings. The major cities contained a few large buildings, including a citadel, a large bath—perhaps for personal and communal ablution—differentiated living quarters, flatroofed brick houses and fortified administrative or religious centres enclosing meeting halls and granaries. Ritual bathing may have been carried out at the Great Bath as part of rituals for such concerns as a plentiful harvest and peace in society. Crops may have been brought for storage in the granary and later distributed to craftsmen such as potters, jewellers and merchants who resided in the city. Mohenjodaro, one of the largest cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, covers an area of approximately 12 km. Mohenjodaro and some other Indus cities consist of two sectors, a western Citadel and an eastern Lower City. Size and layout are typical criteria for differentiating cities from villages.
The ‘Lower Town’ was divided into a number of blocks by a grid of straight streets running north–south and east–west, and each block was further divided by small lanes. Some houses had rooms with wells, bathing rooms (paved with baked bricks) and even toilets. Waste water was drained out of the houses through drain chutes built into the side walls that fed into a system of drains built alongside the lanes and streets.
Animals in Daily Life
Cattle, water buffalo, sheep, dogs, elephants, rhinoceroses, monkeys, birds and many other animals are represented in the figurines of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the animals depicted in figurines are familiar to us today, but others are no longer common or may have been mythical creatures, caricatures or representations of humorous characters in stories. The significance of these animals and the affection of people towards some of them are clear, despite their relatively simple features.
Pottery
Pottery forms and designs were also remarkably similar throughout the vast area encompassed by the Indus Valley Civilization. Few large works of art or pieces of statuary have been discovered from Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Tools and Ornamental Objects
Copper and bronze implements included farming implements and tools, fish hooks, weapons, ornaments and vessels. These metal implements may have served as status symbols. They were manufactured in two ways: (i) by casting (pouring molten metal into moulds) and (ii) by
heating and hammering the metal into shape. Spears, knives and other objects of copper and bronze have been found, but most are of rather poor quality. Ornaments of silver, gold, ivory, copper and precious stones were used. They carried on considerable amount of trade in stones, metals, shell, etc. within their cultural zone. They were goods traders and might have carried on all exchanges through barter. They knew the use of wheels and solid wooden wheels were fixed on bullock carts and boats, used as means of road and river transportation.
Sculptures and Carvings
The most developed craft appears to have been the carving and drilling of square stamp seals that depict various domestic animals such as humped bulls, rhinoceroses and elephants. These seals, numbering in the thousands, are the major source of the pictographic Indus script. Attempts to decipher these symbols have so far been unsuccessful largely because no major inscriptions have been discovered. This lack of evidence has forced some scholars to conclude that the characters do not represent writing in the same sense as Sumerian cuneiform or Egyptian hieroglyphics; instead, they may symbolise elaborate heraldic devices or standards that served to identify families and their properties from others.
Three seals from Mohenjodaro show a seated horned deity surrounded by wild animals, an image that may foreshadow the portrayal of the Hindu God Shiva in his aspect of Pashupati, the Lord of Beasts. The apparent cult of the bull and the emphasis on washing and ablutions, suggested by these material remains, raise the fascinating if unanswerable question of the influence of this early preAryan civilization on Hindu practices in ancient India. A round seal, found at the Harappan mound of Rangpur, has perforations that run through its sides to make a ring. It measures 35 mm diameter, is approximately 4 mm thick, and bears engraved motifs on both sides. It was probably worn around the neck. It is believed that the people of Rangpur had trade relations with Egypt between 2000 and 1500 bc and such seals came from Egypt. The illustration on the seal, of the figure of a unicorn, shows delicate intaglio carving. When stamped in wet clay, the seal creates a raised image of itself in the clay. The limestone torso of a god is believed to represent a friendly god. The rhythmic repetition of the curving lines of the torso shows a love for linear rhythm. Indus sculptors also stressed on harmonised forms, as shown in the way the torso is unified by its softly swelling curves. The sculptor has carefully rounded these curves, particularly the abdomen. This emphasis on harmonised forms appeared later as a dominant characteristic of the Indian sculpture. The well-known bronze statuette of a girl may represent a dancer who has paused between movements. The dynamic quality of this sleek figure is partly because of the rhythmic, angular thrust
of her arms, legs and torso. The sculptor has also indicated movement by contrasting the linear rhythms of the torso and legs against the triangular right arm and the forward left leg. A similar linearity and dynamism is characterised much later in the Indian sculpture.
Terracotta Objects
Triangular terracotta cakes were common at most Indus sites. Earlier, some scholars proposed that they were used as toilet paper. However, as many of them have been found inside kilns and hearths, it is more likely that they were used for retaining heat during pottery firing and/or cooking. A few triangular cakes are incised with human figures, which have led some scholars to interpret them as objects used in fire rituals. Terracotta cakes were either triangular or round/oval and sometimes had a finger impression in the centre. The model of a terracotta plough, in almost perfect condition, was recovered from the site of Banawali. It is S-shaped with a sharp edge near the point and a hole at the end of the central component to fasten it to a yoke. The shape of the plough is exactly like those used even now in South Asian villages. The terracotta model of a house and some other terracotta objects with carved designs have provided rare examples of architectural features such as windows or doorways, and perhaps even the general structure of houses of the Indus Valley Civilization. Thresholds and window frames were probably made of wood and then set into baked brick walls. Windows may have been covered with cloth curtains or carved screens. The house depicted in the model may have originally had two storeys because part of an upper threshold is preserved.
Transport Vehicles
Bullock or ox carts with a curved frame probably had wooden components for attaching wheels and for protecting and containing the load. People may have even used these carts to peddle pottery or other goods. The coloured patterns on some of the wheels may indicate that the wheels were made from joined wooden planks, like some carts still found in parts of Pakistan. Other designs painted on wheels may have represented spokes. Terracotta models of yokes that would have been used to hitch animals to these carts (or to ploughs) have also been found at Nausharo. Most figurines were hand-made, but in a few cases where intricate detail was desired, moulds were used.
Trade
Trade supplied the Indus valley people with essential foods and with basic raw materials such as timber, raw cotton, dyes, metals and glass. Archaeologists have also found a large quantity of well-made pottery, replicas of bullock carts, statues showing the human face, bronze objects
(including a beautiful female statuette) and glass beads. These findings prove that the people of Harappa practised industrial crafts such as ceramics, sculpture, metalwork and glass making. There is a strong similarity between the Indus Valley Civilization and the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia in the Middle East. Scholars believe that sea trade may have existed between north-western India and the Persian Gulf.
DEcAY of iNDUS VALLEY ciViLiZATioN
The Indus Valley Civilization began to decay between 2000 and 1750 bc. Changing river patterns may have disrupted the agriculture and economy of the region. Overuse of the land along the riverbanks may also have damaged the territory. By approximately 1700 bc, the Indus Valley Civilization had disappeared. Some historians consider invaders from central and western Asia to have been the destroyers of Harappan cities, but this view is open to reinterpretation. More plausible explanations are recurrent floods caused by tectonic movement, soil salinity and desertification.
Important Findings and Their Sites
Cemetry H: Harappa
Cemetry R 37: Harappa
Coffin burial: Harappa
Two rows of six granaries: Harappa
Stone dancing Natraja: Harappa
Figure of youth whose legs, hands and head are missing: Harappa
Urn burial: Harappa
Person wearing Dhoti: Harappa
Nine-hundred seals: Harappa
Human anatomy figure: Harappa
Vanity box: Harappa
Copper model of carts: Harappa and Chanhudaro
Great bath: Mohenjodaro
Great granary: Mohenjodaro
Naked bronze dancing girl: (Proto-Australoid) Mohenjodaro
Bearded man: Mohenjodaro (Mongoloid)
Seven layers of towns: Mohenjodaro
Ship on seal and terracota amulet: Mohenjodaro and Lothal
Seals with figures of composite animals: Mohenjodaro
One thousand and five hundred seals: Mohenjodaro
Woven cotton cloth: Mohenjodaro
Cylindrical seals of Mesopotamia: Mohenjodaro
Ink-well: Chanhudaro
Persian Gulf seal: Lothal
Double burial: Lothal and Rangpur
Terracota horse figure: Lothal
Horse bone: Surkotada
Dockyard: Lothal
Bead-making factory: Lothal and Chanhudaro
Fire altars: Lothal and phendan Kalibangan
Bustrophendan writing style: Kalibangan
Houses opening on the main street: Lothal
Scale: Lothal
Bun shaped copper ingots: Lothal
Brick chamber grave: Kalibangan
Stone button seal: Mundigak (S. E. Afghanistan)
Limestone male head: Mundigak
Humpless bull seals (common): Harappa
Sun dried bricks (common): Kalibagan
Rhinoceros on seal: Amri.
Cities such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan had a gradual decline in urban planning and construction of houses made of old dilapidated bricks, shoddy houses encroached upon the road and streets. Later on, some of the settlements like Mohenjodaro, Harappa were abandoned. However, in most other sites, people continued to live. Some important features associated with the Harappan Civilization such as writing, uniform weights, pottery and architectural style disappeared. These evidences have been interpreted by scholars as indicative of the decline of Harappan Civilization. Earlier, the scholars believed that there was a dramatic collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. As such, they were looking for some calamity of catastrophic proportions which wiped out the urban communities. The search for the cause of decline of the Harappan Civilization has moved to two directions: (i) That some natural calamity led to the collapse of the civilization and (ii) That it was a barbarian invasion that destroyed it. Scholars have used the evidence of flooding from Mohenjodaro to justify the first point.
Mohenjodaro habitations show at least three instances of deep flooding. There is evidence of deposits of silty clay and layers of collapsed building material mixed with clay which indicates the flooding of the city. Some scholars carried the argument further and related periodic flooding to tectonic uplift of the region. Earthquakes might have raised the flood plains of the lower Indus River that led to prolonged submergence of cities like Mohenjodaro. It is pointed out that findings at sites like Sutkagendor in the Makran coast indicate that they were sea ports. However, at present, they are located away from the sea coast. It is known that geomorphologically, the Indus River area is a disturbed seismic zone. It is believed that the upliftment of the coastal areas caused destruction of the Indus cities and disruption of commercial life based on river and coastal communication. Some others suggest that changes in the course of the Indus led to the decline of Mohenjodaro.
Writers like Mortimer Wheeler believed that Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. It has been pointed out that in the late phases of Mohenjodaro, there are evidences of massacre. Human skeletons have been found lying on the streets. However, it has been pointed out that Mohenjodaro was abandoned by approximately 1800 bc. Aryans, on the other hand, came to India approximately 1500 bc. Also, Mohenjodaro was in a dilapidated condition.
Therefore, the presence of a few disorderly placed skeletons in the late levels cannot explain the decline which had already taken place. Writers like Walter Fairservis have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan Civilization in terms of the problems of ecology. He believes that the Harappan townsmen degraded their delicate environment. A growing population of men and animals confronted by falling resources wore out the landscape. With forest and grass cover removed, there were floods and droughts. These stresses in the end, led to the collapse of the urban culture. The enduring fertility of the soil of the Indian subcontinent over the subsequent millennia disproves this hypothesis. The urban phase involved a delicate balance of relation between the cities, towns, villages, farmer communities and nomadic people. It also meant a fragile but important relationship with the neighbouring groups of people in possession of various minerals crucial for trade. Similarly, it meant the maintenance of link with contemporary civilization. Any breakdown in these chains of the relationship could lead to the decline of cities.
The scholars working on the Indus Valley Civilization no longer look for the causes of its decline. That is because, they believe that it is a wrong question. Archaeologically, all that seems to have happened was that some of the sites were abandoned and the tradition of literacy, seals and sealing were lost. It simply meant the end of the urban phase. Many smaller sites continued to exist. The archaeological findings show a stylistic continuity from the Harappan phase. In fact, in the areas of Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat vibrant agriculture communities emerged in larger numbers in the succeeding periods. Thus, from a regional perspective, the period succeeding the urban phase can be treated as one of the flourishing agricultural communities. That is why scholars now talk about cultural change, regional migration and modification of integrated system of settlements and subsistence. After all, no one talks about the end of the ancient Indian civilization in early Medieval India when most of the cities of the Gangetic Valley declined.
Comparing Mesopotamia and Indus Valley Civilization: I
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley are considered as culturally disparate, with separate philosophical foundations. Distinctive world views and philosophies characterise the people of distinct regions. The Indus culture is seen as non-violent and non-materialistic with a common good behavioural orientation. Animistic views influenced the cultural course taken by the Indus Valley Civilization. Most people lived in small villages. Central organization, planning and construction of large regional centres are evidenced in the Indus Valley. In Mohenjodaro, the largest Indus city, an enormous investment in human energy is manifest in the two massive mud-brick platform mounds, the Citadel and the Lower Town. The north–south grid system demonstrates large-scale planning and coordination.
Comparing Mesopotamia and Indus Valley Civilization: II
Earlier settlement patterns in Mesopotamia include elaborate public architecture at the centre of each settlement. By the time of Indus settlement, some economies seem to have evolved related to monument occurrence and the scale and extent of central organization. Successful earlier developments in organization are apparently refined and streamlined. Indus Valley evidence suggests more efficient states regulating larger, more egalitarian and possibly more democratic polities. In the earlier Mesopotamian sequence, rural abandonment and population concentration in walled urban precincts is suggestive of circumscription, competition and intra-regional warfare. In the later Indus Valley sequence, the walled city scenario was avoided. Geographic size may have been a contributing difference. The Indus area is far larger. Cultural traits were certainly a factor. Perhaps, the very stable political structure of the Indus village in combination with social-behavioural factors enabled greater stability, longer continuity and more expansive regional integration.
THE SUccESSorS
Most of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were abandoned by circa 1800 bc; however, a number of village cultures continuing some aspects of the Indus tradition later developed in these regions. By at least 1500 bc, IndoAryans had entered South Asia, and by circa 700 bc, they had established new cities along the Ganges River. From approximately 2000 bc, new regional cultures were gradually emerged. Among these were the Cemetery H Culture of the Punjab, which was strongly influenced by the preceding Indus Valley Civilization, and the cultures represented by Pirak in Sindh, the Quetta Hoard and the Gandhara Grave Culture. All exhibit some central Asian influence. Further eastward, in what is now northern India, the Copper Hoard Culture and the Painted Grey Ware Culture, both of which are believed to have been associated with the Indo-Aryan speakers, developed. Evidence of new traditions such as urns containing cremated bones and ashes appear, particularly in the Cemetery H Culture and the Gandhara Grave Culture. Domesticated horses and camels were also fully used for the first time in South Asia during this period.
Continuing Traditions
The use of baked bricks in architecture, which began even before the Indus Valley Civilization, continues to be the most common type of construction in South Asia today. Traditions involving the worship of nature and possibly even the ‘Mother Goddess’ were integrated into the traditions of the Indo-Aryan speakers in the form of a reverence for cows, pipal trees, rivers and water. The traditions and beliefs of the Indus Valley Civilization contributed to the rise of the Hindu religion and laid the
foundation for all the subsequent civilizations in South Asia. Thus, many of the traditions of South Asia have survived for millennia and continue to this day.
Kot Diji
The site of Kot Diji is located at the foot of a range of limestone hills in northern Sindh on the eastern bank of the Indus River, some 60 kilometres north-east of Mohenjodaro. Excavated in 1955 by F. A. Khan, it is the type-site of the Kot Diji Culture, which represents the first evidence of habitation at the site. This culture is characterised by the use of the red-slipped globular jar with a short neck painted with a black band. Briefly co-existing with the Indus Valley Civilization (the Harappan Culture), the Kot Diji Culture eventually gave way to the blossoming Indus Valley Civilization. During the peak of the Kot Diji Culture, the site was divided into a citadel and a lower town. Standardised bricks, terracotta cakes, fish-scale and intersecting-circle designs on pottery and other traits found in the Indus Valley Civilization were already in use at the site. On the basis of this evidence and the fact that similar artefacts were found over much of the vast area of the later Indus (or Harappan) Civilization, Dr. M. R. Mughal suggested calling the early stage at Kot Diji and at other sites the Early Harappan Culture.
Civilizations that Developed After the Indus Valley Civilization
Cementry H Culture (circa 1900–300 BC) This culture, which developed in and around Punjab following the peak of the Indus Valley Civilization, was named after the cemetery found in Area H at Harappa. Some of the burials in Cemetery H were secondary burials of urns containing human remains. The pottery was generally decorated with red slip, painted with antelopes, peacocks and other motifs in black, and was sometimes polished. A pot that was excavated at Dadheri may represent a local variation of this culture.
Finds from Pirak (circa 1800 to eighth century BC) Contemporaneous with the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Pirak Culture with its characteristic geometric polychrome pottery arose on the Kachi plain where the site of Mehrgarh had also prospered. Here, horses and camels were domesticated for the first time in South Asia, and the riding of horses is clearly attested. Another major transition occurred as summer crops, namely sorghum and rice, were added to the existing winter crop assemblage, which was dominated by wheat. A saw-toothed stone sickle was probably used to harvest these cereals.
The Quetta Hoard (the beginning of second millennium BC) This well-known group of vessels and ornaments made of precious metals and stones was discovered by chance in the modern city of Quetta. The gold pendants shaped like cattle, the gold cups decorated with lions and other figures in relief, the gold necklaces and carnelian and chalcedony pendants rimmed with gold are all beautifully
crafted. These objects, all reportedly found in tombs, are excellent examples of the combination of cultural influences from Baluchistan, northern Iran and Turkmenistan that began during the period following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Gandhara Grave Culture (circa 1600–200 BC) The Gandhara Grave Culture developed from circa 1600 to 200 BC in the regions of Swat, Gandhara and Taxila. The culture is characterised by artefacts found primarily in graves and pottery that is somewhat similar to some of the pottery from northern Iran. The terracotta figurines buried with the pottery are simply made and other ornaments are also simply decorated with dot designs. Because horse remains were found in at least one burial, it has been suggested that these people may have been Indo-Aryans who were presumably in the area by this time.
Copper Hoard Culture (circa 1500 to 1000 BC) Hoards of copper implements such as celts, harpoons, anthropomorphs, double axes, antennae swords and rings have been found at several sites, mostly in northern India. In some cases, they are associated with OCP. The high degree of purity of copper may indicate that the people exploited the Lakker mines in the Chotta Nagpur range. The size and weight of these artefacts would have made them unsuitable for daily use. In addition, the absence of use-wear and the context of the findings suggest that they were ritual objects. Some of the axes are similar in shape to those from the Indus Valley Civilization, which may suggest some cultural interaction. Archaeologists only recently have discovered some of the habitation sites of the people who left behind these hoards. Utilitarian and decorative artefacts such as stone tools, bangles and beads made of precious stones have now been recovered as well.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture (circa 1200 to sixth century BC ) Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery
was made of well levigated clay on a wheel. It is typically grey in colour, thin in section, and painted with black or red geometric patterns. The limited range of shapes includes a flat-based, convex-sided dish; a small hemispherical bowl; medium and large flat-based, straight-sided bowls; and a vase (lota) with a straight-sided body, sharp at the shoulder and a straight neck. PGW represents deluxe ware in a mixed ceramic assemblage of various fabrics and manufacture. These ceramic assemblages have been found in the Ghaggar and Indo-Gangetic regions and belong to the Early Iron Age in India.
Amri
Amri is located in Sind (Pakistan) on the western bank of the Indus River, approximately 150 kilometres south of Mohenjodaro. The site was excavated by N. G. Majumdar in 1929 and by J. M. Casal between 1959 and 1962. The site reached its maximum extent of more than six hectares under the influence of the Baluchistan Culture. A number of structures identified as granaries were constructed, which suggests that there were farm surpluses and population growth. Pottery from the early period at this site is similar to the Nal pottery of southern Baluchistan and is thus, sometimes referred to as Amri-Nal pottery. During the transitional phase with the Harappan Culture (or Indus Valley Civilization), a wall encircled the site and a platform made of sun-dried bricks was constructed inside. A thick layer of ash over parts of the site suggests an incident with fire, after which the site exhibits the exclusive influence of the Harappan Culture.
THE VEDic PErioD: THE ArYANS
EArLY VEDic AGE (1500–1000 bc)
The Aryans
During the second millennium bc, Indo-European-speaking semi-nomads, called Aryans, migrated in different phases. These pastoralists spoke what can be identified as an early form of Sanskrit. The language had close similarities to other Indo-European languages like Avestan in Iran and ancient Greek and Latin. The word ‘Aryan’ meant pure and they consciously attempted to retain their tribal identity and roots. They tried to maintain a social distance from other inhabitants. The Aryans belonged to the region near the Caspian Sea in central Asia. Perhaps, they entered India through the Khyber Pass around 1500 bc in more multiple phases looking for new pastures. Zend Avesta, the holy book of Iran suggests that there is a possibility of entry of some Aryans to India through
Iran. The word ‘Aryan’ has been derived from ‘ar’, which meant ‘foreigners’ or ‘strangers’ during the Vedic times. We find the first mention of the term Aryans in the Bagharkai Peace Treaty concluded in 1350 bc between the kingdoms of Mitanni and Hittites, to which the Aryan gods Varuna, Indra, Mitra and Nasatya were the witnesses.
rEGioN The Aryans initially settled down in the region of Punjab and migrated towards the east and spread all over the Gangetic plain later on. The region occupied by the Aryans, extending from Afghanistan to Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh, was termed as Sapta Saindhav which means the Land of the Seven Rivers.
cHArAcTEriSTicS The Aryans introduced a new language; a new set of anthropomorphic gods; a new social system based on the religion and philosophy of varnashrama dharma
Concepts of Vedic Philosophy
(a) Atma (Soul) also called jeevatma or living soul. It is a part of Paramatma or God. It is invisible and leaves the body after death.
(b) Karma (Deeds) refers to the good and bad actions a human commits during his life span.
(c) Pap and Punya (Demerits and Merits) Pap is the end result of bad deeds and Punya is the fruit of good ones. A human is sure to achieve happiness and satisfaction if he earns more punyas and is sorrowful if he commits more pap during his life span.
(d) Punarjanma (Re-birth) The soul never dies. It is reborn after each life span comes to an end.
The Purushartas of Vedic Philosophy
(a) Dharma (the Piety) actions of goodness.
(b) Artha (Means of living) earning for food, clothes, shelter as per the dharma
(c) Kaama (Progeny) continuation of mankind through regeneration by family system.
(d) Moksha (Deliverance) liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and death.
Rajan had two assemblies—sabha, involving elders and samiti, the national assembly. He was not an autocrat. His powers were restricted by the ‘will of people’ that they expressed in the sabha or samiti Vidatha was a tribal assembly. The king was obliged to lead the tribe in battle and protect them. People rendered him obedience and voluntary gifts or bali in return. An Aryan raja or king was primarily a military leader who took a share of the booty after successful cattle raids or battles. The king, however powerful and authoritative, avoided conflicts with the priests, whose knowledge and austere religious life surpassed others in the community.
It is very difficult to offer the precise translation of the concept of varnashramadharma; however, it is based on three fundamental concepts:
Varna: It originally referred to the colour of skin, but later it was taken to mean social class.
Ashrama: It refers to the stages of life such as youth, family life, detachment from the material world and renunciation.
Dharma: It means duty, righteousness or sacred cosmic law.
The inherent idea of the varnashramadharma was that present happiness and future salvation depend on one’s ethical or moral conduct. Both society and individuals must follow different but righteous courses appropriate for everyone.
PoLiTicAL The fundamental unit of the Vedic State was family (kula). Vedic people lived in villages (grams). Each village was headed by a chief or a gramani. They elected panchayat to manage the affairs of the village. A cluster of villages was called the vis (district or clan) and a group of vis was termed as jana (tribe). Each tribe was managed by a hereditary chieftain or the king (Rajan), who was responsible for the protection and welfare of the persons living in his tribe. The chieftain managed only his Jana (tribe) and did not have any specified territory. The
Rigveda 08 09 122
Later Vedic Texts 17 13 22
SociAL The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoralists, following a joint family system, living in groups and speaking Sanskrit. The head of the family was the father and he was called the grihapati. Women were respected individuals in the society. They dressed simply. They pursued outdoor activities such as dancing, wrestling, boxing, etc. They generally build their houses of wood. The fundamental unit of the Aryan society was family. A cluster of families made up a village, and many villages constituted a tribal unit. Child marriage was not very common. Parents’ involvement in the selection of a spouse, and dowry and bride-price were very common. They wished for the birth of a son as he could tend the cattle, bring laurels in battle, perform sacrifices, inherit property, and continue the family name. Monogamy was practised, although polygamy was not uncommon. Ritual suicide of widows was expected at a
More About the Aryans
The most accepted view is that the original home of the Aryans was in the great steppe land which stretches from Poland to central Asia. In the second millennium BC, they started moving from their original home and migrated westwards, southwards and eastwards. The branch that went to Europe was the ancestors of the Greeks, Romans, Celts and Teutons. Another branch went to Anatolia. The great empire of Hittites grew up from the mixture of these people with the original inhabitants. One branch of Aryans remained in their original home. They were the ancestors of the Slavonic people. Those who moved southwards came into conflict with the west Asian civilizations. The Kassites, who conquered Babylon, belonged to this stock. In the excavation at Boghaz-koi in Asia Minor, which dates approximately 1400 BC, inscriptions were found containing the names of deities like Indra, Varuna and Nasatya. These gods are all mentioned in Rig Veda. To the same period as the Boghazkoi, belong the clay tablets with cuneiform script discovered at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt where references are found of princes of Mitanni in
Rigveda No. of Sabhas No. of Samitis No. of Vida-thas
Ancient History 5.17
north-west Mesopotamia, bearing Indo-Aryan names. In the course of the journey to the east or south, a group of Aryans had settled in Iran and developed a civilization of their own. Later, one branch crossed the Hindukush and entered India through Afghanistan. They occupied Punjab after defeating the original habitants and ultimately conquered the greater part of northern India.
husband’s death. This might have led to the practice known as sati later on.
EcoNoMic The economy of the Aryans was largely rural based. They had the knowledge of agriculture and it was their main occupation. The Rig Veda mentions artisans such as potters, weavers, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, etc. They also knew metal work. Cattle’s breeding was another source of livelihood. Cattle were the chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many heads of cattle was known as gomat. In the Rig Veda, gavyuti is used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time. The use of fire and stone tools is also mentioned in the Rig Veda. Permanent settlements and agriculture led to trade and other occupational differentiation. As lands along the Ganga (Ganges) were cleared, the river became a trade route, the numerous settlements on its banks acting as markets. Trade was initially restricted to local areas, and barter was an essential component of trade. Cattle were the unit of value in large-scale transactions, which further limited the geographical reach of the trader. Custom was law, and kings and chief priests were the arbiters, perhaps advised by certain elders of the community.
rELiGioUS Being lovers of nature, Aryans worshipped the sun, water, fire, etc. Lighting the sacred fire, that is, Yajna or havan was an essential part of their religion. They are said to have been the origi-nators of the Hindu religion.
rELiGioUS BooKS Though archaeology does not provide proof of the identity of the Aryans; there is no dispute over the issue of their evolution and spread across the Indo-Gangetic Plain. A body of sacred texts: the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Puranas is the source of modern knowledge of the Aryan culture. The sanctity accorded to these texts and their preservation over several centuries— through oral tradition—has made them part of the living Hindu tradition. These texts guide in piecing together Aryan beliefs and actions. The Aryans followed their tribal chieftain or raja They remained engaged in wars with each other or with other ethnic groups. They gradually became settled agriculturalists having consolidated territories and distinguished occupations. They were skilful in using horse-drawn chariots. They also had the knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. All this gave them a military and technological advantage that forced others to accept their customs and religious beliefs. By around 1000 bc, Aryan culture had spread over most of the northern parts of India, and in the process embraced much from other cultures that existed before them.
THE VEDAS These are the most sacred books of early Aryans. As per many historians, the Vedas were composed between 1500 bc to 400 bc. These give vivid descriptions of the life of the Aryans and are supposed to contain a divine mission. They were passed on orally from generation to generation; they were rendered in script during the Gupta period. There were four Vedas and the Brahmanas concerned with these Vedas are:
■ Rig Veda (Brahamani Aitaraya and Kaushitika)—Book of Hymns
■ Sama Veda (Brahamana Jaminya and Tandyamaha)—Book of Melodies and Chants
■ Yajur Veda (Brahamana Satpatha)—Book of Sacrifices
■ Atharva Veda (Brahamana Gopatha) Book of Magical and Technical Formulae.
Among these, the Rig Veda is claimed to be the oldest book in the world. It contains 1,028 hymns (1,017 + 11 Valakhilyas divided into 10 Mandalas) and 8 Astikas written by a family of seers, such as Atri, Agnirases, Bhardwaj, Gritsamad, Kanva, Viswamitra, Vamdeva and Vasistha in the form of prayers to gods like Vayu, Agni, Indra, Varuna, etc. The Sama Veda deals with music. The Yajur Veda deals with sacrifices, rituals and formulae. The Atharva Veda deals with medicine. It also contains descriptions about goldsmithy, blacksmithy, organised agriculture, etc. These books reveal the beliefs, customs and culture of the Aryans. Vedic texts are sruti (heard)— directly revealed to the authors by the gods and not smriti (remembered). Rishis who were the authors of the Vedas are Madhuchandra Vaisvamitra, Gurutsamida, Atri, Bhardvaj, Kanva, Kashypa, Rushikas, Vamadeva, Yami Vaivasvatai, Sasvathi and others.
The entire Vedic literature is called Sruti and apart from the four Vedas, it includes Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads
The Vedic doctrines were composed between 600 bc and ad 100. These are also called the six philosophies of Vedic Hinduism.
SiX SYSTEMS of THE iNDiAN PHiLoSoPHY
The Six systems of the Indian Philosophy are Nyaya, Vasiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa. Each of these systems differs in one way or the other in terms of its concepts, phenomena, laws and dogmas. Each system has its own founder as well. Each system of Indian philosophy is called a Darshana. Thus, the Sanskrit word ‘Shad-Darshna’ refers to the six systems of philosophy’.
Nyaya
Gautama is known as the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya belongs to the category of Astika
Darshanas. Astika Darshanas realise the significance of verbal testimony or the authority of the Vedas. Gautama, who is also called Akshapada is thought to have lived during the mid-fifth century bc. He was the first philosopher to stress the importance of the valid means of knowledge and hence, the Nyaya system of philosophy is said to have laid the firm foundation to the development of the Science of Hindu logic. Gautama’s Nyaya System of Philosophy is called by names such as Nyaya Sastra and Tarka Sastra.
Vaisheshika
The Vaisheshika System of Indian Philosophy was founded by Kanada or Uluka. That is why it is called Aulukya Darshana. Vaisheshika System followed the Nyaya System very closely and hence, experts in the study of philosophy offen combine the two schools as Nyaya-Vaisheshika.
The Vaisheshika System recognises seven ‘Padarthas’ or categories which are: substance, quality, action generality, particularity, relation of inherence and non-existence.
Samkhya
Sage Kapila founded the Samkhya System of Philosophy. The Samkhya system laid the firm foundation for the Advaita Vedanta later on. The dogmas put forth by Kapila were further expounded by his disciples Asuri and Panchashikha. The Samkhya system accepts only three Pramanas or the valid means of acquiring knowledge. They accept Pratyaksha or perception, Anumana or inference and Shabda or verbal testimony. The Samkhya Sutras compiled by Kapila were commented on later by Ishvara Krishna of the fifth century ad
Yoga
The Yoga System of Philosophy was founded by Patanjali. He authored the Yoga sutras or the aphorisms of Yoga. Yoga aims at the final state of spiritual absorption through eights component parts together called Ashtanga Yoga. According to Patanjali, the eight limbs of yoga are Yama, Niyama,
Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. All the eight are jointly called Raja Yoga. The Yoga System of Philosophy accepts three fundamental realities namely Ishwara, Purusha and Prakriti or the Primordial matter. Patanjali names some obstacles to the path of Yoga. They are called ‘Antarayas’ and they include Vyadhi (illness), Styana (apathy), Samsaya (doubt), Pramada (inadvertence), Alasya (lazyness), Avirati (incontinence), Bhrantidarshna (wrong understanding), Alabdha Bhumikatva (nonattainment of mental plane) and Anavasthitatva (instability).
Purva Mimamsa
The Mimamsa Darshna believes firmly in the performance of rituals and supports the view that the body is perishable but the soul survives even after the death of the body and it reserves the right to enjoy the fruits of the rituals in heaven. The school firmly believes in the preservation of the effect or the fruits of the rituals by a remarkable power. This philosophical system of Purva Mimamsa was founded by Jaimini. He accepts two types of knowledge namely Pratyaksha (immediate knowledge) and Paroksha (mediate knowledge). Mimamsa does not speak about the existence of God. Performance of daily duties or the Nitya Karmas is the ultimate goal of man.
Uttara Mimamsa
The Philosophical System of Uttara Mimamsa does not have a specific founder because it is a conglomeration of three different schools of thought namely Advaita, Visishtadvaita and Dvaita. The Philosophical system of Uttara Mimamsa is otherwise called Vedanta. All the three schools of Vedanta had different teachers. Adi Sankara was the head of the Advaita system, Ramanuja was the architect of the Visishtadvaita system and Madhva was the head of the Dvaita system of Vedanta Philosophy. It is important to note that all the three teachers accepted Vedas as a valid means of knowledge.
The Upanishads At the end of the Vedic period, we notice that there was a strong reaction against the
Doctrines Priest/Teacher
1. Nyayasutra (Logical Doctrine) Gautama Maharishi Hindu doctrines based on logic
2. Vaisheshika (Monic Doctrine) Kanad and Ramanuja This is the basis of Vishishtadwaita
3. Yogasutra (Yoga Doctrine) Maharshi Pathanjali A harmonic doctrine that deals with harmony between the mind and the body through Yoga
4. Sankyasutra (Numerical Doctrine) Kapilamaharshi and Madhvacharya Dwaita Siddantha which deals with numerals
5. Uttara Mimamsa Badarayans
6. Poorva Mimamsa Jaimini Maharshi
Major Upanishadic work taken up by the rishis of that time
About worship via Yajna (rituals) and also became the basis of Karmamarga
Table 1.1 The Six Schools of Philosophy of Hinduism
domination of priests, cults and rituals, particularly in the regions of the Panchalas and the Videha. In this background, in about 800 to 500 bc the Upanishads were compiled. The Upanishads were philosophical texts that criticised the rituals and stressed on the value of right belief and knowledge. They also criticised the ceremonies and sacrifices. The Upanishads are the major source of Indian philosophy. There are nearly 108 Upanishads. Of these, 10 have been greatly appreciated at a global level because they deal with the philosophy and theology of the Aryans. These ten Upanishads are Ishopanishat, Kenopanishat, Kathopanishat, Parshnopanishat, Mandukopanishat, Koushikopanishat, Thaittariyopanishat, Aittareyopanishat, Chandogyopanishat and Brihadaranyakopanishat. These are in form of commentaries attached to the Aranayakas and associated mainly with philosophy and religion.
The Brahmanas They present the socio-political life of the Aryans. They also explain their religion, particularly the sacrifices. They also involve ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and the priests.
The Aranyakas These are the forest books on mysticism and philosophy and are the last parts of the Brahmanas. They are associated with the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. They do not emphasise on sacrifice but on meditation. They oppose sacrifices and a number of the early rituals. They stress on the moral virtues. They form a bridge between the way of works (karma) and the way of knowledge (gyan)
The Smriti The Smritis are the additional treatise or the supplementaries of the Vedas. Smritis refer to the literature that has been carried on from one generation to the other. It is a derivative word and considered less authoritative than ‘Shrutis’, which is considered authorless and literally means that ‘which is heard’. Manusmriti is the most important of all the smritis. It deals with the laws of inheritance, duties of hings and their subjects Manusmriti or ‘Laws of Manu’, served as a foundational work on Hindu law for the ancient Indian society.
The Puranas There are 18 Puranas totally. The Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are the most important. They offer religious and historical information
A Note on Vedas and Puranas
It is well known that ancient India did not produce any historical work, but even the Vedas and Puranas contain some data on political history, while they have great value for reconstructing the social, religious and cultural history of India. They have preserved not only the names of the kings and tribes, but also of important events as well, for example, the Dasarajna, the battle of 10 kings.
The Pariplavaakhyanas (cyclic tales), which were recited by the lute players during the Asvamedha sacrifice, included the Vamsanu-charita or the dynastic history. The Pariplavaakhyanas also contained all the elements of parica laksanas of the
puranas, and it is possible that the puranas (in the Vedas this term usually occurs with Itihaasa or history) continued the tradition of the Vedic Age, and gave the dynastic lists a permanent form by reducing them to writing. The dynastic list is not free from mistakes, but they make useful framework. The practice of compiling dynastic lists persisted for a long time particularly in Nepal and Western India.
about the Aryan Civilisation, and involve legends, rituals, tradition and moral codes.
LATEr VEDic PErioD (1000–600 bc)
From the original settlements of Aryans in the Punjab region, they gradually began to penetrate eastwards, clearing dense forests, and establishing tribal settlements along the Ganga and Yamuna (the whole of eastern Uttar Pradesh) plains between 1500 and 800 bc. By approximately 500 bc, most of northern India was inhabited and had been brought under cultivation, facilitated by the increasing knowledge of the use of iron implements, including ox-drawn ploughs, and spurred by the growing population that provided voluntary and forced labour. As riverine and inland trade flourished, many towns along the Ganga became centres of trade, culture and luxurious living. Increasing population and surplus production provided the bases for the emergence of independent states with fluid territorial boundaries over which disputes frequently arose.
Region
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts that were compiled during the post-Rig Vedic era. These texts reveal that Aryans expanded from Punjab to the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. On excavating these regions, archaeologists have found the remains of few cities of this period out of which Hastinapur, Ahichatra and Kausambi form prominent examples.
Guild (Shreni ) in Ancient India
Guild (Shreni) in ancient India was an association of traders, merchants and artisans. Normally, a separate Shreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the same activity. However, persons engaged in life destroying activities like hunting and fishing did not form any shreni. One of the widely referred shreni was of ivory carvers of Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. This Shreni is accredited with sponsoring and financially supporting the construction of the southern gateway of the stupa at Sanchi which is presently a World Heritage Site. Some scholars have opined that as the each economic activity and craft was having its specific traditions and trade secrets, Shrenis were formed to protect the same and the fathers used to pass on the same to their sons, and so it continued from one generation to the next generation.
Characteristics
PoLiTicAL This period was more developed than the early Vedic period; the tiny, early tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. The rudimentary administrative system headed by tribal chieftains was transformed by a number of regional republics or hereditary monarchies that devised ways to appropriate revenue and to conscript labour for expanding the areas of settlement and agriculture farther east and south, beyond the Narmada River. These emergent states collected revenue through officials and built new cities and highways. Powers of the king, who was called Samrat, increased phenomenally; the importance of assemblies declined. A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. The Rajanyas, who based their power on their role as a protector of their tribes in the Vedic period now came to be known as Kshatriyas. There are also references to the priest (Purohita), commander-in-chief (Senapati), charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Sangrahita) and tax collector (Bhagdugha). The other important members of the royal court were the crowned queen (Mahisi), the chamberlain (Ksatlar) and the game companion (Aksavapa). By 600 bc, 16 such territorial powers—including the Magadha, Kosala, Kuru and Gandhara—stretched across the North Indian plains from modern day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was gained, was usually legitimised through elaborate sacrificial rituals and genealogies concocted by the priests who ascribed divine or superhuman origins to the kings. The famous Aitareya Brahmana classification of ruler ship was Samrat in East, Svarat in West, Viral in North, Bhoja in South and Raja in central India.
SociAL Growth of big cities like Ayodhya, Indraprastha and Mathura were seen. Women enjoyed freedom and respect but, in comparison to the early Vedic period, their overall status deteriorated. A daughter came to be regarded as a source of misery. Women could not attend sabha; they were excluded from inheritance and along with Sudras could not own property. The necessity of a trained class of people who could perform accurately the elaborate and complicated ceremony of the yajnas led to the growth of a distinct body of learned men who came to be known as Brahmanas, and gradually with an increase in numbers, formed a distinct class in society, highly respected on account of their association with religious duties. There was an advance in the knowledge of metals. In addition to gold and ‘ayas’ (copper or iron), there is mention of tin, lead, silver, etc.
EcoNoMic In addition to agriculture and cattle rearing, trade and industry also gradually began. References to corporations (ganas) and older men (sresthins) indicate the organization of merchants into guilds. Niska, Satamana and Krisanala were used as convenient units of value. Niksa was probably a lump of gold of a definite weight while Krisanala weighed one ratti
rELiGioUS This was also called as the Brahminical age, which came very close to modern Hinduism. There was
a remarkable development in the domain of religion and philosophy. The simple ceremony of worship gave place to elaborate sacrifices, a complicated procedure. Some old deities like Varuna and Prithvi passed into insignificance, while new ones like Rudra and Vishnu rose to eminence. In the later period, Samhita and Brahmana sacrifices dominated the scene.
The doctrines of Karma, Maya, transmigration, identity of individual soul with the universal soul, which were the foundations of the different systems elaborated by later writers and which find their first expression in the Upanishads.
Varna System
The original three-tiered society—Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warrior) and Vaishya (commoner)—eventually expanded to four to absorb the subjugated people—Shudra (servant)—or even five, when outcasts were included. Thus, the Hindu society was divided into four major Varnas, initially based on occupation (during the Rig Vedic period), which later became hereditary (during Later Vedic period), namely: (i) Brahmins (priestly class), (ii) Kshatriyas (military class), (iii) Vaishyas (business or trading class) and (iv) Shudras (labour class).
The Four-Fold Varna Division
The four-fold Varna division is mentioned in Purusha Sukta, and is a part of the tenth mandala of the Rig Veda. It says that the Brahmanas emanated from the mouth of the primeval man, the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaishyas from his thighs and the Shudras from his feet.
The Epic Age
It was the epic age in which the Aryan tribes established themselves all over North India. The land between the Himalayas and Narmada River was divided into 16 independent states. Information about the socio-religious life of the people is derived from the two great epics of this period—the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The victory of good over evil is epitomised in the epic Ramayana (The Travels of Rama or Ram in the preferred modern form), while another epic, Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata), spells out the concept of dharma and duty. The Mahabharata records the feud between the Aryan cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, which culminated in an epic battle in which both gods and mortals from many lands allegedly, fought to death. The Ramayana recounts the kidnapping of Sita, Rama’s wife, by Ravana, the demonic king of Lanka (Sri Lanka), her rescue by her husband (aided by Hanuman and the Vanar Sena) and Rama’s coronation, leading to a period of prosperity and justice.
The Ramayana
Originally, the Ramayana included 12,000 verses. With the passage of time, the number of verses was raised to 24,000. Just like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also grew by accumulation as the time passed through many years. Its development started nearly by 300 BC and continued for the around next 500 years.
The Mahabharata
It is believed that the composition of the Mahabharata began as early as 500 BC. Its development went on for the next 900 years. Finally, it reached its present form nearly by 400 AD, under the rule of the Gupta rulers. Originally, it was of Kshatriyan origin; however, over the years it became specifically a Brahman work. During its growth, it included the Bhagavad
Gita and many other works entirety in itself. Finally, it attained a length of 107,000 octameter couplets. Its entire length is over seven times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined together. It grew in an accumulative manner and is clear from the fact that its author’s name has been given as Vyasa, meaning ‘arranger’ in Sanskrit. Initially, the epic Mahabharata was a description of a feud between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, two prominent Aryan tribes. Both the tribes claimed to be the descendents of the mighty Bharata. Therefore, they were known as the Maha Bharata or Great Bharata tribes. It gave the epic its name. It is from Bharata that the modern name of India has been derived. Perhaps, the Mahabharata was the earliest Indian endeavour to write history. Its significance as a historical source is still to be critically examined despite the fact that scholars agree that the basis of the epic story is based on facts. The epic is useful for rebuilding the social and cultural history of the era. Originally, the epic had had 8,800 verses and it was named as JayaSamhita. These verses increased to 24,000 and were renamed as Bharata. Its final compilation raised the number of verses to 100,000 and it came to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita
THE EMErGENcE of KiNGDoMS or MAHAJANAPADAS
As cultivable land came to be considered as familial property, the wider but ill-defined Janapada, the ancesteral territory of a particular clan, assumed fixed boundaries. The Gangetic basin’s abundant rivers and river beds made convenient frontiers for the newer Janapadas in the east. By approximately seventh century bc, territories combined and grew, giving rise to larger kingdoms that stretched from what is now Afghanistan to what is now the state of Bihar. Cities became important during this time, and shortly thereafter, systems of writing developed. Various heterodox sects emerged, challenging the orthodox practices of the Vedic tradition and presenting alternative religious world views. Two of these schools emerged as the most popular sects and developed into separate religions: Buddhism and Jainism. Jain and Buddhist records give us an insight into the political anarchy of the period. By the sixth century bc, there were a number of kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas, and the entire region was steeped in anarchy.
MAHAJANAPADAS
From the sixth century bc, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar facilitated the formation of large territorial states. The new agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce far more food grains than they required for consumption. These material advantages naturally enabled the people to stick to their land and also to expand at the cost of the neighbouring areas. People began owing strong allegiance
to the Janapada or the territory to which they belonged and not to the Jana or tribe to which they belonged (as was the case in the Later Vedic period).
Buddhist texts list sixteen mahajanapadas or major janapadas, as having been in existence in the sixth century bc. They extended from Gandhara and Kamboja in the north-west of what is now Pakistan, Awanti and Chedi in central India and Anga and Kalinga in Bengal and Orissa. Soon to be known as Rashtra or kingdoms, many still retained their tribal names; Kuru was still the land of the Kuru and Malla belonged to the Malla. However, allegiance was now tied to economic and social dependency. Instead of being focused on tribe and clan, loyalty was increasingly to the territory itself, to the individual or body which had sovereignty over it and to the town or city where the power resided. The 16 mahajanapadas of that era were:
Brahmanic Period
By the conclusion of the Later Vedic Period (between1000 and 500 BC) also known as the Brahmanic Period, the Aryans shifted across the plain region which separates the Yamuna from the River Ganga. It was not an easy project. The Doab region was thickly forested; the Aryans gradually burned and settled the Doab. Finally, they reached the Ganga. The Rig Veda is associated with the most primitive religion of the Aryans, while the religion of the Later Vedic period is associated with the Brahmanas, or priestly book. The Brahmanas were composed between1000 and 850 BC. Every aspect of the Aryan life came under the control of priestly rituals and spells in the Later Vedic Period. The Later Vedic Period
is known as the Epic Age. Though the great epics of the Indian culture, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, were composed between 500 and 200 BC, they were originally formulated and told in the Later Vedic Period. These epics deal with heroes from this period. These also demonstrate how Aryan cultural values were being transformed by mixing with the Indus cultures.
(i) Magadha Kingdom (South Bihar): The initial capital of the Magadha was Rajagriha and later Pataliputra was made its capital. It is believed that Brihadrata was the founder of the Magadha Kingdom.
(ii) Anga and Vanga Kingdoms (East Bihar): The capital of the kingdom was Champa which was a prosperous and thriving business centre. Later, the kingdoms were annexed by Bindusara and made a part of Magadha.
(iii) Malla Kingdom (Gorakhpur region): Kushinagar was the capital of the kingdom. It was also a seat of many other smaller kingdoms. Buddhism was the main religion followed there. Later, the kingdom was merged into the mighty kingdom of Magadha.
(iv) Chedi Kingdom (Yamuna and Narmada belt): The capital of the kingdom was Tisvathirati. One of the families from this kingdom later merged into the Kalinga Kingdom.
(v) Vatsa Kingdom (Allahabad): The town of Kausambi was the capital of this kingdom. Udayan was the most famous ruler of this kingdom.
(vi) Kashi Kingdom (Banaras): The capital of this kingdom was Varanasi. Kashi fought several battles against the Kosala Kingdom. Finally, Kashi was merged with the Kosala Kingdom. Dhrutarashtra was a famous ruler who once ruled over the kingdoms of Kashi and Anga.
(vii) Kosala Kingdom (Ayodhya): Its capital was Sravasti which is identified with Sahet Mahet. However, Ayodhya was a significant town of Kosala. Ajatshatru, the ruler of Magadha merged Kosala with Magadha. Kosala was also a part of the tribal republican territory of Sakyas of Kapilvastu.
(viii) Vajji Kingdom (North Bihar): Its capital was Vajji which was the seat of a united republic of eight smaller kingdoms including Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas. The Lichhavis had their capital at Vaishali which was a prosperous kingdom. Later, it was merged with the Magadha Kingdom. Mithala was the kingdom of the Videhas Kingdom. Its most famous ruler was King Janaka. Magadha merged this kingdom as well with their kingdom.
(ix) Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut and present day Delhi): Indraprastha was the capital of the Kurus. During the Vedic period, it was an important kingdom. It had friendly relations with the kingdoms of the Bhoja and Panchala.
(x) Panchala Kingdom (Uttar Pradesh): It had its capital at Kampila. Initially, it was a monarchy but later it became an autonomous republic. Kanauj was the most important town in this kingdom.
(xi) Matsya Kingdom (Jaipur): The capital of this kingdom was at Viratanagar. The Matsyas attained independence from the Chedi Kingdom under the leadership of Virat Raja.
(xii) Surasena Kingdom (Mathura): The kingdom had its capital at Mathura. King Avantiputra was its most famous ruler.
(xiii) Assaka Kingdom (Godavari): It had its capital at Potali. King Brahamdatta was its most famous ruler.
(xiv) Gandharva Kingdom (Peshawar and Rawalpindi): The capital of the kingdom was at Taxila, which was an important trade and education centre during the later Vedic age. The Magadha ruler Bindusara, defeated its ruler King Pukkusati.
(xv) Kamboj Kingdom (North-east Kashmir): Rajapure was the capital of this kingdom. The most prominent centre of trade and commerce in the kingdom was Hajara.
(xvi) Awanti Kingdom (Malwa): Awanti had two parts—north and south. Ujjain was the capital of the northern part, while the southern part had its capital at Mahismati. Avanti was the most vulnerable of all the Mahajanapadas. It was ruled by many kingdoms and was finally merged with the Magadha Kingdom.
University of Taxila
It is said to be the first organised educational epicentre of ancient India. It is also the oldest university and it is not known who actually founded this university. However, it was funded by almost all the great kings and rulers of that time. Many great kings and rulers passed their early years in this university. It was a centre of learning for logic, religion, medicine, mathematics, astrology, the Vedas, warfare and primitive science. Taxila, which was the earlier capital of the Gandharva Kingdom, allowed students from all parts of India to be enrolled and education was free for all. Only Chandalas were not allowed to study in this university. Scholars like Nagarjuna, Panini, Chanakya, Prasanajit, Jeevka (son of Bimbsara) all came to this place to study before they became important personalities in Indian History. Even foreign rulers accepted its importance and many of them took scholars from this university to their nations. Alexander took some scholars from Taxila to Greece. In 500 BC, the Hun ruler, Toramana, attacked and demolished the university campus. During that time, most of the records which were burnt or destroyed could have thrown more light on the management of this university and the ways it shaped the social and political stature of ancient India.
Lokayata
Charvaka’s Darshan is a very famous Indian philosophy. It was termed as Lokayata because it was based on the ideas which were derived from the common people. Charvaka did not believe in the existence of any supernatural divine agency. He propagated that the Brahmanas created rituals for obtaining gifts.
Advance in Knowledge
In the later period, samhitas referred to the list of subjects for study and showed a wide range of knowledge embracing, not only Vedas, Itihaasa, Puranas and grammar, but also astronomy, military science, dilectics and knowledge of portents. There were several competent ‘Kshatriya’ teachers as also women teachers.
Political Unrest
None of the mahajanapadas was great kingdoms and they continuously fought among themselves. The smaller and weaker kingdoms were defeated by the relatively stronger kingdoms. The stronger kingdoms had a general tendency towards civil wars, which disintegrated them into smaller parts that others could easily capture. This state of political
disorder continued till the emergence of the Mauryan Empire in the early fourth century bc. Another important point was the continuous emergence of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh regions as trade and commerce centres and the lack of prominence of the Punjab region, which was the hub of activity during the Rig Vedic period.
GrowTH of JAiNiSM AND BUDDHiSM
As a result of a revolt against the supremacy of Brahmanical priests, several new schools of philosophy, which opposed Brahmanism, were developed and led by the Kshatriyas of the royal families of Magadh, who later helped in the propagation of Jainism and Buddhism. From the sixth century onwards, the records and chronology of Indian history became more definitive and reliable.
Revolution in World’s Thinking:
Sixth Century BC
Zoroaster (Persia) : founder of Zorastrianism
Isaiah (Palestine) : the Hebrew prophet Confucius (China) : the philosopher Lao Tse (China) : the philosopher Hereclitus (Greece) : the philosopher Mahavira (India) : 24th Thirtankara of Jainism Buddha (India) : founder of Buddhism
JAiNiSM
Jainism is also a non-Brahminical religion, founded as a result of the revolt against the Brahmanism of the sixth century bc. Some sources place Jainism as one of the oldest religions, belonging to the era of Rig Veda. Jainism rejects the Vedas and condemns the caste system. It believed in Thirtankaras and rejects the existence of God as a Paramatma
The Founder
Jainism was founded by Rishabha, who was the father of King Bharata, the first Chakravarti of India. Rishabha was succeeded by 23 other Tirthankaras. Jainism became a major religion under Vardhamana Mahavira who was the 24th Tirthankara or Prophet of Jainism. Persons of prime importance to Jainism are
PArSVANATHA (850 bc) The 23rd Tirthankara, has an important place in the history of Jainism. He laid down four
Triratna or Three Gems of Jainism
The following three gems are the route to moksha or liberation or deliverance according to Jainism:
(a) Right Faith (firm belief in the omniscient Lord Mahaveera)
(b) Right Knowledge (understanding the doctrines of Jainism)
(c) Right Conduct (fulfilment of the great five vows of Jainism)—(i) non-violence, (ii) truthfulness (iii) no stealing, (iv) no attachment to property and (v) brahmacharya or chastity.
fundamental principles for his followers: (i) ahimsa or noninjury, (ii) truthfulness, (iii) no stealing and (iv) non-attachment to property. He was the son of the King of Banaras, Ashwasena, and renounced the world to become an ascetic at the age of 30.
VArDHAMANA MAHAVirA (599–527 bc) He was a great Kshatriya belonging to the royal family of Magadha. He was born at Kundalgrama (Vaishali), near Muzaffarpur in Bihar. At the age of 30, he became an ascetic and after 12 years of penance, at the age of 42, he attained perfect knowledge— kaivalya. He conquered misery and happiness and came to be known as Jina (the conqueror). He added the last vow, to the four vows given by Parsvanatha, Brahmacharya or chastity. These five vows became the fundamentals of Jainism. Many kings like Bimbisara and Ajatshatru became his patrons and he visited many parts of India, the most significant being Kosala, Magadha and Anga. He died at the age of 72, in 527 bc, in Bihar.
Influences of Jainism
PoLiTicAL Jainism weakened the prevailing military spirit and created a peaceful atmosphere.
Vedic Hymns
The number of hymns attributed to different Vedic gods is as follows:
Indra: 250; Agni: 200; Soma: 120; Varuna: 12; Surya: 10; Pushan: 08; Vishnu: 06; Rudra: 03; Mitra: 01.
