Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://ebookmass.com/product/pearson-edexcel-a-level-politics-student-guide-3-politi cal-ideas-2nd-edition-jessica-hardy/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant download maybe you interests ...
Pearson Edexcel a Level Politics 2nd Edition: Uk Government and Politics, Political Ideas and Us Government and Politics Tuck
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser.
Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in well-managed forests and other controlled sources. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.
Orders: please contact Hachette UK Distribution, Hely Hutchinson Centre, Milton Road, Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 7HH. Telephone: +44 (0)1235 827827. Email education@hachette.co.uk. Lines are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Friday. You can also order through our website: www.hoddereducation.co.uk
First published in 2022 by Hodder Education, An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.hoddereducation.co.uk
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2026 2025 2024 2023 2022
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk
Cover photo: Rob Z – stock.adobe.com
Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India
Printed in India
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
■ Getting the most from this book
Exam tips
Advice on key points in the text to help you learn and recall content, avoid pitfalls, and polish your exam technique in order to boost your grade�
Knowledge check
Rapid-fire questions throughout the Content Guidance section to check your understanding
Summaries
Knowledge check answers
1 Turn to the back of the book for the Knowledge check answers.
Exam-style questions
Commentary on the questions
Tips on what you need to do to gain full marks.
Questions and Answers
■ Conservatism
Sample student answers
Practise the questions, then look at the student answers that follow.
■ Each core topic is rounded of f by a bullet-list summary for quick-check reference of what you need to know
To what extent do all conservatives agree that human nature is imperfect? You must use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and consider both sides in a balanced way. (24 marks)
As with all political ideas questions, you must look at areas of agreement and disagreement with regards to human nature. Are we rational or ruled by emotion and fear? Then weigh up how significant the level of disagreement is compared to the level of agreement in order to reach your conclusion.
Student A answer A belief in the imperfection of human nature implies that we are vulnerable, weak and potentially dangerous as a species, and that we therefore require a strong state to provide security. Most conservatives believe this and the history of conservatism has been dominated by this view. However, the late twentieth-century development of neoliberal conservatism has a different view. Like liberals, they believe in the selfish and rational individual, whose freedom should not be restricted by the state. Conservatives do not agree over human nature. One-nation, traditional conservatism and, more recently, the neoconservative strand of the New Right are defined by the belief in human imperfection. Most conservatives strongly agree with this view. This involves the view that humans are first morally weak, in that they do not have an innate sense of right and wrong and are highly emotional and jealous, so will steal the property of others or commit violent acts. Second, there is the belief that the majority of humans are not particularly intellectually able, and that they do not fully understand the complex world that surrounds them. Finally, there is the belief that humans are emotionally and mentally very fragile, easily frightened and often insecure in their surroundings. Each of these arguments has political implications.
First, if humans commit crime due to psychological weakness, this means that you cannot blame circumstances such as poverty and inequality for criminal behaviour. The individual is responsible for the crimes they commit and harsh punishments must be imposed to deter others from doing the same. The role of the state must be to maintain law and order. Thomas Hobbes had a very negative view of human nature, seeing individuals as needing strict authority as otherwise they would live in a ‘state of war’.
Second, if humans cannot make sense of the wider world and are often lacking in intellectual ability, they cannot understand abstract philosophical ideas or aims. Politics should therefore be based on pragmatism,
Pearson
Commentary on sample student answers
Read the comments showing how many marks each answer would be awarded in the exam and exactly where marks are gained or lost.
■ About this book
The aim of this Student Guide is to prepare students for the Section B: Core political ideas section of Edexcel A-level Politics Component 1, UK Politics, and the Section B: Non-core political ideas section of Edexcel A-level Politics Component 2, UK Government. The other sections of these two exam papers will be covered in a different student guide.
The Content Guidance section covers all the topics largely in the order in which they appear on the Edexcel A-level specification. You are strongly advised to have a copy of the most recent version of the specification to refer to as you go through the topics. There are three ideas in Component 1: Conservatism, Liberalism and Socialism. You will need to cover all of them. For Component 2 you will study one of the following: anarchism, ecologism, feminism, multiculturalism or nationalism. This guide covers all of these ideas briefly, but you will study only one and it will not be necessary to study any of the others. Each of the ideas is further divided into three subsections. Please note that this book does not cover the Component 2 Non-core political ideas in as much detail as the Component 1 Core political ideas due to space constraints.
You should use the Content Guidance to ensure you are familiar with all the core ideas and principles and the debates and divisions within each ideology. Each idea, with its core principles, different strands and key thinkers, is studied in relation to its beliefs relating to human nature, the state, society and the economy. It is essential that you have a clear understanding of what these four terms mean before you start to analyse their links to each ideology. You should also make sure you are aware of the central arguments developed by each of the named key thinkers and link them to the strands. The focus of all questions is the level of agreement and disagreement within the political idea in regards to a particular area e.g. the economy. There is a series of knowledge check questions (AO1) in this book which act as a guide to some important information which you will need to use when answering essay questions and which will also help to establish detailed knowledge. The answers to these knowledge checks can be found at the end of the guide. Exam tips are designed to help you avoid significant common errors made by students as well as guiding you towards good practice. Key terms definitions and Linked concepts relate to the key terms named in the specification. All the terms in the specification linked to Socialism, Conservatism and Liberalism are covered. For the Component 2 ideologies, only some are covered. The key terms appear in the margin in green.
The Questions & Answers section is an opportunity to hone exam technique and to become familiar with the essay skills and structures that examiners are looking for. The essays range in length and quality, and each comes with comments on strengths and weaknesses so that you can use them to develop your essay writing skills. It is not possible to provide sample questions and answers on every aspect of each ideology, and you need to be aware that any parts of the specification could be tested in the examination.
This guide does not go into full detail, so you must use it alongside other resources such as class notes, textbooks such as Political Ideas for A-level and articles in Politics Review magazine (published by Hodder Education).
Content Guidance
Core political ideas
■ Conservatism
Conservatism is an ideology that is constantly evolving and is remarkably successful as a result. It is in opposition to change and favours protecting traditions, but it can accept slow change if it is necessary. Most but not all conservatives believe that humans are imperfect and vulnerable and therefore a strong government is needed to guide and protect.
Core ideas and principles
Pragmatism
A pragmatist seeking to solve a problem turns not to fixed ideas or theories but to practicalities — what is the most sensible and workable way to resolve this issue? Conservatives often describe themselves as non- ideological in that they do not believe in absolutes. Instead they advocate a ‘what works’ approach based on circumstances and experience. This can make the ideology itself quite hard to pin down for students and can also suggest that conservatism is not an ideology at all but is merely what conservatives themselves might describe as ‘common sense’ and critics might describe as advocating what might be popular in order to win elections. It also suggests that conservatism is flexible and able to vary its values.
Linked concept
A pragmatic approach to politics in conservatism led to the belief in change to preserve, despite being opposed to change If it was necessary to preserve the status quo, e�g� by increasing the size of the electorate, this should be carried out� (See page 7�)
Pragmatism suggests that politics should be based on circumstances and events rather than on ideological objectives. Conservatives reject abstract and rigid theories such as those associated with Marxism and see them as dangerous as they are not rooted in history and traditions and can therefore cause chaos and instability in society. They are supporters of empiricism. This view is linked to their rather negative view of human nature. Conservatives therefore reject all utopian ideas as they are a rejection of tradition, knowledge and learned wisdom.
Despite conservatism’s claims to be a tradition rather than an ideology, it is clear that conservatives share a range of core beliefs, alongside some variables. These will be explored below. So conservatism is not entirely based on pragmatism.
Ideological Relating to a set of political ideas/ body of doctrine Most conservatives would describe themselves as pragmatic rather than ideological�
Exam tip
Although conservatism is more pragmatic than other ideologies, it clearly does have some core values that you must know
Empiricism A rejection of ideology� The theory that knowledge comes from tradition and experience rather than from ideas
Tradition
This refers to the significance and importance of learning from previous generations and having a connection to what has gone before. For weak and insecure humans, tradition helps us to feel safe and to understand where we fit in. We are connected to our ancestors and to those who will follow us in the future. This helps us form our personal identities and to feel connections to others with shared histories and culture, thus creating social cohesion.
For conservatives in the UK, tradition can be found in institutions such as the monarchy, the Church of England, the House of Lords and the armed forces. Americans could seek security in the flag, the Constitution and in celebrations such as the 4th of July. These institutions have developed and survived over hundreds of years and are therefore full of wisdom and should be preserved for the future. They cannot simply be abolished and replaced as such a move would lead to dangerous instability. Most conservatives are suspicious of change, as it goes against tradition and creates insecurity in vulnerable and weak humans. This belief in the importance of tradition can lead some conservatives to be suspicious of multiculturalism and immigration. Much of the conservative view of tradition comes from the religious beliefs of many (but not all) conservatives and can be linked to many religions, not just Christianity.
Exam tip
Don’t forget that not all forms of conservatism value tradition — neo-liberals are in favour of change and are rationalists
However, this does not imply that all conservatives are opposed to any form of change but simply that change should be slow and evolutionary rather than radical, and it should take place only if it is seen as absolutely necessary. So, while the Conservative Party originally opposed devolution, it now sees it as a way to protect the union. Change here is a response to specific circumstances — devolution had taken place and could not be abolished — rather than something that the party initially wanted and can be described as change to conserve. Change should also be based on an analysis of previous events, rather than for abstract reasons or utopian visions.
Linked to this faith in tradition comes a firm belief in the value and significance of private property. Conservatives believe that ownership gives insecure individuals security and independence from the government, while also encouraging respect for the law and for the property of others. Property owners are therefore more likely to be supportive of the status quo, fearing change might lead to a threat to their property rights. They will respect those in authority who help to protect what they own and will support the traditional family values that will allow them to pass on a legacy to future generations. They also argue that private property is a way for individuals to express their personality and character, for example through furnishings. This belief in the value and significance of private property is at the heart of all conservative thinking and one of the few areas in which there is agreement.
Radical Far-reaching and thorough, a major departure from what has gone before
Change to conserve
The belief that change may be necessary but should be slow, evolutionary and based on experience in order to protect tradition and to prevent social instability�
Authority The legitimate right to rule and to have power over others� This right can come from tradition, a monarch for example, or through election, such as a prime minister
Knowledge check 1
What do conservatives mean by property?
Key thinkers and their ideas
Edmund Burke (1729–97)
Burke, in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), rejected liberal ideas, specifically the idea of progress as desirable He argued that inheritance and tradition were the basis of a stable society, and that the institutions and beliefs that form society are formed by the wisdom and knowledge of those who came before us and must be respected� He used France — the tyranny and disaster of the aftermath of the 1789 revolution — as an example of what happens when you destroy this past knowledge Burke argued for continuity — ‘change is only necessary in order to conserve’ — and saw society as a partnership or bond between the dead, the living and the unborn future generations rather than a social contract between the government and the governed These connections create stability and security in society and create social order, preventing social chaos�
Burke, like many conservatives, also rejected the abstract ideas and theories, e�g� rights, that developed as a result of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution He rejected democracy and saw inequality as natural The people should be represented by the elite and the wise (the same thing), who would not be delegates but would follow their own conscience in making decisions Burke was not a supporter of social contract theory, which suggests that the relationship between the government and the governed can be broken if power is abused� Society exists to provide individuals with a link to the past and future� However, Burke defended the Glorious Revolution and did not believe in absolute monarchy, rather that the king should be constrained by a parliament elected by the few
Human imperfection
Conservatives see human nature as selfish and flawed, and as emotional rather than rational. This pessimism impacts on their view of the society and the state. First, conservatives see human nature as psychologically weak. Due to our fragile and vulnerable nature, we desperately seek security and this can be found in hierarchy, a social system in which we all know our place and our roles and happily defer to the natural leaders who will be positioned above us. This is clearly in stark contrast to the optimistic beliefs of liberals and it leads most conservatives to value order above freedom and liberty.
Linked concept
A belief in hierarchy suggests a belief in authority In order to maintain the divisions in society there needs to be obedience to those at the top
Our vulnerability also means that some individuals are likely to become criminals. Unlike that of liberals and socialists, this view of human nature suggests that humans do not have a natural sense of morality. Our human nature is selfish and greedy and we can have a tendency to violence. We require institutions such as the education system, the nuclear family and the police to impose the values of right and wrong on us. This has implications for the role and powers of the state. Without a strong state,
Hierarchy A society ordered on an unequal basis, with those at the top holding authority and those on the lower levels obeying those above them� This structure is not based on ability or talent�
Knowledge check 2
What is meant by the doctrine of original sin?
society will become unstable and chaotic. Conservatives are therefore more likely to blame the criminal for their actions than to see society as in any way responsible for crime and this is linked to a focus on strict law and order policy, such as the death penalty in parts of the USA.
Intellectually, human imperfection implies that we cannot really understand or make sense of the complex and frightening world around us. Religious institutions can play a part in explaining this to us and will be part of the ordered hierarchy of a conservative state and society. This is also linked to the conservative rejection of abstract ideas — we will find them unsettling as they suggest change and a rejection of learned experience.
Linked concept
A belief in human imperfection suggests that change is not something that humans are able to cope with and understand� Therefore, it is better only to change to preserve, and any radical ideas must be rejected or there will be instability in society� (See page 7�)
Key thinkers and their ideas
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
Thomas Hobbes was a supporter of absolute and unlimited government, which in his time meant monarchy� In Leviathan (1651), he argued that strong government was absolutely necessary in order to protect humans from the chaos and violence of the alternative — a ‘state of nature’ of ‘all against all’ where life would be ‘nasty, brutish and short’ He believed that, left to themselves, individuals would live in constant fear of each other From this you can see that Hobbes had a very negative view of human nature, seeing people as self-seeking, power grabbing and irrational As a result, a strong authoritarian government without limits was needed to protect humans and without it, so-called ‘normal’ life would be impossible� Thus government’s role was to enforce law and order� Hobbes believed that humans would be very happy to accept this�
Hobbes was one of the thinkers who developed social contract theory Citizens must accept and obey the government, even a repressive one, because the alternative would always be far worse Hobbes therefore believed that it was worth giving up one’s freedom and liberty in return for the protection that only the state could provide� The contract between the citizens and the state consisted of the citizens’ unlimited obedience in return for personal security� However, this negative view of human nature is not fully accepted by libertarian New Right conservatives Not only do they advocate change, they also support the liberal view of human rationality and have a firm belief in some ideas that could be described as abstract, such as laissez-faire economics
Exam tip
Although most conservatives see humans as deeply emotional, weak and seeking security, neoliberals take a different view, seeing humans as rational and selfish� This is also linked to the neo-liberal rejection of the importance of tradition
Human imperfection
The belief that humans are psychologically, morally and intellectually weak and incapable of understanding the world around them
Knowledge check 3
Why do conservatives reject the idea of equality?
Organic society/state
The term ‘organic society’ is a metaphor that sees society as a human body. This theory is particularly linked to one-nation conservatives. Every part of the body has a specific and essential part to play, and the body cannot function without it. The whole is more than the sum of its parts and more important than any individual within it. If a part is changed, the body will be damaged. When they are all playing their part and are healthy, the body is in harmony and will flourish. This metaphor suggests that there must be no attempts to transform society as disaster will result. It is also closely linked to the conservative view of the importance of hierarchy — within society there will be various classes and groups but they can live in peace as part of a larger whole.
Organic society gives fragile humans a sense of security as it provides a clear role and purpose for each one of us, depending on what part of the ‘body’ we are. It connects us to social groups and institutions such as the family, workplace and religious community, and also to the wider whole, the nation. This view of society can be linked to nationalism and patriotism. This also implies that those with money and power have a duty to look after those less fortunate, and it implies a rejection of atomism. This is called noblesse oblige
Linked concept
Atomism is linked to laissez faire� If we have no obligations to others then the state should leave us alone as much as possible and allow us to be free� (See page 9 )
There is some disagreement within conservatism over organic society. It is supported by traditional conservatives, who reject individualism. However, New Right supporters see individual rights and freedoms as more important. As Margaret Thatcher once famously stated, ‘there is no such thing as society, only individuals and their families’, an idea firmly rejected by David Cameron.
Paternalism
The term ‘pater’ means father and so the role of the paternalistic state is to act as an authoritative father figure to the weak and flawed citizens, providing for their care and maintaining order by regulating their behaviour. A paternalistic state is hierarchical and unequal and aims to protect that status quo by preventing any uprising of the working classes. As a result it will include some form of welfare provision in order to prevent discontent. It is a key aspect of one-nation conservatism.
There are two forms of paternalism. Hard paternalism favours forcing people to do things, such as giving up smoking, while soft paternalism favours persuasion and education.
Atomism The idea that humans are selfseeking and unconnected to others� Some conservatives see human beings as fundamentally selfish and therefore society is simply a collection of isolated individuals Noblesse oblige The belief that the wealthy, those at the top of the hierarchy, have a duty to look after those less well off
Hard paternalism
A form of government not concerned with consent� The state can step in to prevent actions or activities that are potentially dangerous or undesirable — for example, banning smoking Soft paternalism The idea that government should act in a fatherly, authoritative way, looking after the needs and regulating the behaviour of citizens, but that it should do so with their broad consent�
Linked concept
A belief in paternalism means a belief in hierarchy and authority Some are born to rule and guide others, and deserve privileges as a result, but this role comes with a duty to support those lower down the hierarchy (See page 10 )
The implications of paternalism include a belief that inequality is both natural and desirable. Edmund Burke argued that leaders came from the ‘natural aristocracy’, and the Victorian prime minister Benjamin Disraeli agreed, arguing that the rich had a duty to the poor. Linked to the belief in organic society, paternalism implies that there are natural leaders who will form the elite and who will act in a responsible way, as they see fit, rather than acting in a representative way. This puts most conservatives in opposition to democracy, although as pragmatists, conservatives have adapted to accept and accommodate democracy, where the masses can choose between a selection of members of the elite to make decisions on their behalf.
Libertarianism (specifically neo-liberalism)
Also closely linked to liberalism, and recently seen on the banners of Donald Trump supporters in the USA, the belief in libertarianism focuses on the need to provide citizens with as much freedom as possible, therefore seeking to limit the role of the government and the state. This is linked to a firm belief in the free market and is in stark contrast to paternalism. Libertarians believe strongly in individualism, that the individual should be entirely responsible for their actions and that individual rights to life, liberty and property must be upheld absolutely. Law should exist purely to ensure that individuals respect the rights of others. The state and government are potentially a danger to individual freedom. Libertarians believe that a free market, consisting of free individuals, unconstrained by government, will prosper.
Key thinkers and their ideas
Ayn Rand (1905–82)
A novelist whose bestsellers included The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), Ayn Rand focused on the importance of individual liberty In recent years she has been rediscovered and recently Donald Trump announced he is a huge fan� In her novels and writings, selfishness, rather than being seen as a character fault, is seen as a virtue and the key to personal happiness� Altruism is interpreted as sacrificing yourself for the interests and lives of others and therefore is irrational� Self-seeking individuals will naturally support free-market capitalism as they will want to earn and trade as they choose In The Fountainhead, architect Howard Roark argues that altruism creates dependence and ideas of the common good lead to dictatorships He refuses to alter or simplify the designs of his buildings�
Knowledge check 4
What did Disraeli mean by describing England as ‘two nations’ and what was his solution?
Rand was an atheist, calling for a ‘complete separation’ similar to that of church and state in France She also believed in a very limited government, whose only role would be to protect the individual by using threats of force In that way Rand was not an anarchist as she did see a role for the state in terms of police, army and legal systems� The government itself, however, has no rights and status ‘except the right delegated to it by the citizens’� Rand developed the idea she called ‘objectivism’, which is the highly individualistic belief that ‘man exists for his own sake’, an idea many entrepreneurs have found very exciting and which may explain why Trump is such a fan
Differing views and tensions within conservatism
Traditional conservatism
Unlike most modern conservatism, traditional conservatism is authoritarian. Developing as a response to fears about the radical change and belief in human equality and improvement espoused by supporters of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, this form of conservatism can also be linked to the rise of fascism in twentieth-century Europe. Traditional conservatism was opposed to any of the new reformist ideas of the eighteenth century, such as democracy and individual rights, and is reactionary and backward looking. Its main focus is the protection of social order and it originally represented the interest of landowners and the gentry.
Traditional conservatives uphold core values such as a belief in the importance of tradition and custom, highlighting the bonds that hold together past, present and future generations. Edmund Burke argued that by abandoning traditions and ‘the accumulated wisdom of the ages’ and advocating new and abstract ideas, postrevolutionary France would inevitably end up as more oppressive than it was before. Often taking a rather romantic view of the past and rejecting ‘new’ ideas such as industrialisation, traditional conservatives believe strongly in the idea of organic society. This leads to nationalism and can also lead to regionalism or even localism.
Hierarchy is seen as the essence and core of all successful human societies and as essential for our survival, regardless of where one sits within it. Obedience to authority is seen as natural. French philosopher Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821), a fervent critic of the French Revolution, argued that absolute monarchy must be restored in France, with no changes at all to the ancien régime. Traditional conservatism takes a very particular view of human nature, seeing humans as sinful and greedy, motivated by selfishness and unable to comprehend the world around them. This belief means that in order to create social stability, a strong government must be created and people need to come together as an organic community.
In the nineteenth century, traditional conservatives opposed new ideas such as democracy. In the twentieth century, traditional conservatism was linked to populist regimes which moulded their policies according to the wishes of the people, such as that of Juan Perón, leader of Argentina from 1946 to 1955.
Exam tip
Reactionary does not mean reacting, it means backward looking, or wishing to return to an imagined past�
One-nation conservatism
Sometimes known as paternalist conservatism, this form of conservatism is often linked to Benjamin Disraeli. A pragmatist, like most conservatives, he was prime minister at a time when socialism was becoming more popular throughout Europe and as a result he was keen to attract the vote of the newly enfranchised working classes in order to prevent this. In his novels Disraeli wrote about the growing divisions between rich and poor as a result of industrialisation and capitalism. Much more recently, David Cameron’s ‘Big Society’ speech and some of his attempts to change the image of the Conservative Party can also be linked to one-nation conservatism. This form of conservatism can be seen as an attempt to bring together individualism and collectivism and as an updated form of conservatism responding to the rise of capitalism. It shows the pragmatism of conservatism, reacting to the new forces of democracy and capitalism by adapting its programme.
One key belief of a one-nation conservative is the idea of organic society and a rejection of the laissez-faire approach to capitalism and individualism linked to liberal ideas. Instead of focusing on individual rights, this approach is more collectivist in some ways, seeing us as having duties and responsibilities to others, as part of a larger whole. One-nation conservatives see the social inequalities and poverty created by capitalism as the problem of all citizens, not just the poor. However, they are not opposed to the class structure, seeing it as part of our organic society. Disraeli had been an opponent of capitalism and was shocked by the poverty that resulted from the industrial revolution. He saw that this could lead the working classes into the hands of dangerous revolutionaries and socialists, so social reform was needed to protect the hierarchy. So, reform was carried out to alleviate poverty, in order to ensure the poor were not a threat to social order.
However, this is not socialism, and redistribution of wealth to create equality is in no way the aim of one-nation conservatives. Instead they advocate paternalism, seeing those at the top of the hierarchy as having a duty of care to those below. This social obligation is sometimes referred to as noblesse oblige and could include passing laws, such as limits to working hours, or expanding primary education. A concern for the unemployed and the poor is a central aspect of one-nation conservatism and led to divisions in Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Party in the 1980s. She described those attacking her hard-line policies as ‘wets’.
Another aspect of one-nation conservatism that is closely linked to the organic society is a belief in patriotism and tradition. In order to prevent the division of a country into haves and have nots, Disraeli argued that institutions such as the monarchy could be used to unite the nations and create a sense of shared experiences.
One-nation conservatism was strong during the twentieth century. In the UK, the Conservative Party was part of the post-war consensus, accepting the need for a mixed economy and presenting itself as a sensible and pragmatic alternative to the ideological far left and the classical liberal free market. This led conservatives such as prime minister Harold Macmillan to accept the welfare state and support ‘planned capitalism’.
check 5 What did ‘Big Society’ mean?
Exam tip
Some essay questions will ask students to examine all the strands of conservatism, while others may focus just on the New Right
New Right
Sometimes described as the combination of neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism, the New Right is contradictory as it contains both radical, forward-looking and reactionary ideas and is linked to two contrasting political traditions. On the one hand, neo-liberals believe in rolling back the state to free individuals from constraints, while on the other hand neo-conservatives believe firmly in the importance of social order and hierarchy. At the heart, New Right conservatives believe that the individual must be free from state interference but that human behaviour must be restricted by family, nation and morality. The two strands are also united by a desire to return to a past where the state did not interfere with the economy and where people followed strict moral codes that regulated social behaviour. Some also argue that as neo-liberal economics will result in higher unemployment and inequality, crime and social problems will inevitably be the consequence, therefore requiring a tougher stance on law and order.
New Right thinking came to prominence in the UK and the USA in the 1980s as a response to what supporters saw as the failings of Keynesian mixed-economy post-war economic policies, the electoral failure of paternalistic conservative parties, and the belief in a radical change in social and moral values. It is profoundly different from other forms of conservatism for a range of reasons, one significant one being that it is clearly ideological rather than pragmatic, believing in human rationality and abstract theories such as the free market.
Neo-liberalism
In terms of the economy, New Right thinkers such as Robert Nozick reject one-nation ideas of preventing the excesses of capitalism in order to help the poor. New Right ideas developed as a reaction to the economic failings of the 1970s. In the UK, the election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 signalled the end of the post-war consensus, where both major parties had broadly agreed to follow Keynesian economic policies of intervention, progressive taxation and a mixed economy. American economist Milton Friedman (1912–2006) argued that governments were to blame for the economic problems of the 1970s. He argued that it was necessary to accept a level of unemployment, and that a successful economic policy would instead focus on inflation, which can be managed only through control of money supply. Government’s role should be to encourage production and the way to do that would be to cut regulation and taxes and to support entrepreneurship.
Neo-liberal economists follow the liberal ideas of the eighteenth-century Scottish economist Adam Smith, who argued that the ‘invisible hand of the market’ should guide economic policy. They seek a return to what they see as a golden age of entrepreneurialism and self-help, where voluntary organisations, rather than the state, supported the poor. This led them to support a mass programme of privatisation in the UK in the 1980s. Neo-liberals, like classical liberals, believe that the state is coercive and infantilising and operates in a collectivist way. They therefore have a contrasting view of human nature to traditional and paternalistic conservatives, believing in more liberal views of the autonomous rational individual who can manage their Knowledge check 6 What is meant by ‘rolling back the state’?
own affairs. The state should therefore be a minimal one, allowing free individuals the liberty to make choices. This is also reflected in a belief that the welfare state has created a dependency culture, and that this state must be drastically reduced to allow individuals to manage their own affairs and stand on their own two feet. Nozick argued that welfare itself was a violation of property rights. Thatcher famously suggested that there was ‘no such thing as society’. Neo-liberals argue in favour of tax cuts or even flat taxes. Neo-liberal economists argue that their policies will result in a ‘trickle-down’ effect. If the wealthy are allowed to keep more of their money, they will make more money, employ more people and pay them better. Therefore the wealth will ‘trickle down’ through all levels of society. This approach is also very different to the other forms of conservatism in accepting abstract ideas like the free market and believing in radical change, such as mass privatisation.
Neo-conservatism
Neo-conservatism, also known as conservative New Right, is a political movement responding to the radical social changes of the 1960s and 1970s that saw the development of what neo-conservatives would describe as permissiveness. This movement was and still is particularly influential in the USA. Neo-conservatives are anti-permissiveness as they see it as individuals doing whatever they like, for example getting divorced or having children outside of marriage. This therefore poses a challenge to authority and hierarchy, which are central to conservative thought. Permissiveness, linked to the changing social norms of the 1960s, is blamed for rising crime, divorce rates and increased rates of sexually transmitted diseases. For example, the rise in the number of single-parent families is considered responsible for what is seen as a decline of deference, leading to anti-social behaviour.
Linked concept
Anti-permissiveness is linked to human imperfection If humans are weak and selfish, permissiveness is inappropriate We are unable to make moral choices and do not understand morality (See page 8 )
Neo-conservatives can be described as social authoritarians, believing that due to the frailty and insecurity of human nature, we need strong discipline from above. Inequality is seen as natural and desirable, a belief held by all conservatives. In contrast to neo-liberalism’s reduced role of state, neo-conservatives believe that there needs to be a limited but strong state in relation to law and order, with increased numbers of police, for example. They are also supporters of traditional family values, favouring the nuclear family as the best way to bring up children, for example, with some arguing that this family type should be protected through the tax system, therefore using the state to encourage a particular set of moral views.
Neo-conservatives also oppose multiculturalism and immigration, seeing these as weakening national unity and patriotism. As a result, they are sometimes also xenophobic and can support aggressive foreign policy.
Anti-permissiveness
The rejection of the view that individuals should be able to make their own moral choices, e g to choose to have as many sexual partners as they would like
Key thinkers and their ideas
Michael Oakeshott (1901–90)
Oakeshott, like Burke, rejected ideology and the idea that there are ‘correct’ answers to practical questions� He criticised the idea that politics can be organised on a rational basis based on abstract principles such as equality due to the limits of human understanding He attacked rationalism as an idea that placed theory above knowledge, culture and tradition Instead, Oakeshott argued that politics should be about practical knowledge and pragmatism, rather than ideas and theories that ignore the complexities of human society and tradition� He saw reform as tending to consist of a break with the past, when it was always better to try to create continuity� Creating something ‘new’ was usually a mistake and a failure� Oakeshott blamed the Enlightenment for the rise of the belief in rationality as the method of making political decisions He argued that politics should be a ‘conversation, not an argument’, therefore rejecting the idea of absolutes
In ‘On Being Conservative’ (1962, in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays) Oakeshott compared a society with too much personal freedom to a ship lost at sea — restless and without direction and order� Politicians can be seen as the officers on the deck, guided by experts but heading for disaster�
Robert Nozick (1938–2002)
Nozick was a free-market libertarian who argued in Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974) that humans own themselves� By self-ownership (Nozick referred to individuals as ‘self-owners’) he meant that individuals have the moral right to keep what they produce and should not be obligated or forced to give those resources to others� They also have the right to act in any way they choose, even if that means harming themselves, e g by smoking Nozick was strongly opposed to egalitarianism, arguing that individuals must be free to do what they wish with their own resources Whatever the outcome of this is, regardless of inequalities, it is a just one A belief in equality of outcome will always result in unjust state interference in people’s lives and is always collectivist rather than individualist, focusing on common goals and seeing the individual as unimportant�
The state’s role should therefore be limited to that of police, defence and the administration of courts Other tasks traditionally undertaken by governments could be carried out more effectively by voluntary organisations or religious bodies on a free-market/competitive basis This would be less wasteful and would prevent the growth of unnecessary bureaucracy� This very minimal state is similar to that favoured by some classical liberals, and Nozick is sometimes characterised as such� Progressive taxation and other forms of state interference are rejected as they use the individual to achieve a higher moral outcome, when individuals are ends in themselves
Summary
Conservatism is a mixture of pragmatism and principle, but arguably it does have a set of shared values which means that it is clearly a single ideology The key areas of agreement and disagreement are:
■ Human nature All conservatives argue that human nature is imperfect, limited intellectually and security-seeking� Therefore, authority is more important than individual freedom� Pragmatism is favoured rather than abstract ideas, which are difficult for us to comprehend� However, neoliberals have a more positive view as they see human nature as rational and therefore people are more able to manage their own affairs
■ Society Most conservatives agree that society is organic and naturally hierarchical We all have a role to play within society, and we need traditional structures to create a sense of belonging and safety� Inequality is both desirable and natural, and rapid change should be avoided� However, New Right conservatives take a more atomistic view and individualistic approach and see humans as self-reliant� They also believe that change in society is desirable
■ State Conservatives favour a strong state and hierarchy and see this as naturally arising There are born leaders in society, and we need moral guidance from them with clear rules and punishments for breaking them New Right conservatives have a more classical liberal viewpoint and favour limited government and individual freedom in some, but not all, areas of life (they favour strong law and order for example)�
■ Economy All conservatives believe in the importance of private property� It creates identity, pride, respect, hierarchy and security However, while traditional and one-nation conservatives favour some intervention to protect the poor and needy (and to prevent upset to the status quo), New Right conservatives prefer a self-help and laissez-faire approach and do not wish to intervene in the free market�
Conservatism is an incredibly adaptable and successful ideology� In the UK, the Conservative Party has arguably dominated British politics for the past 100 years and looks set to continue to do so�
■ Liberalism
Core ideas and principles
Liberalism developed in the eighteenth century as a result of the revolutions in America and France that overthrew autocratic monarchies and the development of the capitalist system. It can also be linked to the nineteenth-century development of the nation-state.
Individualism
Individualism is at the core of liberal theory. It suggests that the individual should be at the centre of political thought and must always take priority over any group. Individualism stands in opposition to collectivist theories such as socialism. This belief leads liberals to be very concerned to limit the power of the state and is also linked to the idea of foundational equality — that every person is born of equal value and therefore, regardless of ability, should receive equal rights. This is the Enlightenment idea of foundational equality, which challenges the conservative idea of natural hierarchy.
Liberals believe that human nature is essentially rational and that individuals are capable of making their own moral judgements and controlling their own destiny. Although selfish, rationality means that we understand that reason, rather than force, should be used to resolve conflicts. This should result in peace and progress in society. The liberal view of human nature is a much less negative and pessimistic one than that of conservatism.
However, liberals have two differing interpretations of individualism. Classical liberals favour the idea of egoistical individualism, the selfish individual who seeks only his or her own pleasure. This suggests a self-sufficient sovereign individual, who owes nothing to anyone else. Modern liberals developed the theory of developmental individualism, which focuses on the ability to flourish and achieve your potential. This may involve some form of state intervention to ensure that you are able to do this. Modern liberals such as T. H. Green have argued that individuals can also have common goals with others in order to achieve self-realisation.
Linked concept
A belief in individualism and the idea that society should be focused around the needs of the sovereign individual clearly leads to the view that each individual should be free and without restraint to make life choices (See page 19 )
Freedom/liberty
Freedom is the core liberal belief and central to liberals’ arguments over the role of the state. It is also closely linked to individualism and the aim for each human to have control over their own destiny.
Egoistical individualism
Connected to classical liberalism, this suggests that humans are egoistical and self-seeking and put themselves before others
Developmental individualism
Connected to modern liberalism, this suggests that true freedom is the ability to achieve goals and potential and that this connects humans, so that if some people are not free, no one is�
Knowledge check 7
What is the difference between egoistical and developmental individualism?
Knowledge check 8
What is meant by the term ‘atomism’?
Liberals believe that individuals, by right, must have as much liberty as is possible. However, there are divisions over what freedom actually means. For classical liberals such as J. S. Mill, freedom means simply the absence of restraint, the ability to do whatever you wish as long as it does not interfere with the freedom of someone else, without being prevented by another person or by the state. This interpretation is now described using the term suggested by philosopher Isaiah Berlin, negative freedom Many of the early supporters of the idea of freedom, such as John Locke, were focused on the issue of property rights and economic freedom — free trade.
Positive freedom is not completely in contrast to negative freedom. More accurately, it goes beyond negative freedom to argue that to be truly free does not mean just the absence of restraint but the ability to achieve goals and potential. This can also be used to suggest that our personal freedom should not be seen in isolation but is linked to the freedom and opportunities of others. Linked to the development of modern liberalism, supporters of the idea of positive freedom can argue that without resources, some individuals will never be free. There cannot be progress in society unless everyone has the chance to advance, and this will involve a role for the state. Reforms linked to an extension of freedom could include the provision of housing, healthcare and education.
Exam tip
Negative freedom and positive freedom are not contradictory Supporters of positive freedom believe in negative freedom too — positive freedom is an extension of it�
Linked concepts
Negative freedom is linked to the minimal state, as this allows people to be left to manage their own affairs in most areas of their life� (See page 25�)
Positive freedom is linked to the enabling state, as in order to achieve personal goals, many people need the support of the state to create the equal opportunities for them to do this (See page 21 )
Tolerance is a key liberal principle that suggests that society must tolerate a range of views and lifestyles as long as they are not restrictive of personal freedom. Toleration is justified by liberals as it is rational, linked to individual freedom and choice, and benefits society as well as the individual. In the nineteenth century, J. S. Mill developed this theory as a way to protect religious freedom and to create a free marketplace of ideas that would allow humans to progress morally and intellectually. Today liberals support the idea of diversity in society and believe that there are many ways to live the ‘good life’. Tolerance also means defending freedom of speech, even if you do not like the views that are being portrayed. This is a highly topical area today, with many arguing that there are limits to what should be tolerated and that the right to offend those of different faiths, for example, is not acceptable.
Negative freedom
The absence of external constraints on actions and the individual’s total control over the private sphere of the home and personal life
Positive freedom The ability to achieve one’s potential and to achieve personal goals Not only the absence of external constraint but the ability to be fulfilled and not have one’s talents wasted
Tolerance The acceptance of a wide range of lifestyles, beliefs, cultures and religions
Key thinkers and their ideas
John Stuart Mill (1806–73)
John Stuart Mill’s harm principle suggests that intervention by the state is needed and justified only when an action restricts the freedom of others� It is therefore acceptable to harm oneself but not anyone else (for example, a liberal should not ban smoking outright, but smoking in cars or in bars and restaurants should be banned) Causing oneself serious harm may well affect others such as family members, so this should also be prevented The role of government must be restricted to allow individual liberty and to prevent tyranny, but government should be able to interfere when necessary to protect society�
Mill argued in favour of tolerance, that society should accept and celebrate a range of lifestyles, religions, beliefs and cultures This would lead to a range of ideas competing against each other, which would result in human progress, development and improvement There is no one true way or right way to live In On Liberty (1859), Mill argues in favour of free speech as a way to create a free market of arguments and to allow for open criticism of beliefs that are false�
He also explored utilitarianism, the human pursuit of pleasure, and argued that there were higher and lower forms of pleasure Higher pleasures he associated with middle-class values and included music and theatre These, he claimed, were superior to and more progressive than lower forms of pleasure as enjoyed by the working classes
Mill was concerned that universal suffrage would lead to the tyranny of the majority and in On Liberty he explored how individual freedom could be protected� He argued that the franchise should be based on an educational qualification, but he also supported the vote for women As well as being a philosopher, Mill was a liberal MP and a civil servant
In his later years he changed his view about the limited role of the state and argued that liberalism should tackle social problems rather than blaming the working classes for disadvantages for which they were not responsible�
State
For liberals, the state is a threat to the individual’s freedom and liberty and therefore there must always be limited government. However, unlike anarchists, liberals understand that the state is always necessary and without it we would live in unsafe, lawless conditions. Liberals believe that human nature is corruptible by power and therefore those in power need strict limits or they will seek to increase and abuse their powers. Liberals have developed a wide range of methods to put such limits in place and those methods can be seen used in political systems around the world, such as in the USA. The ideas and practices of constitutionalism, consent, checks and balances, bicameralism and separation of powers are some examples of these that will be discussed later. Classical liberals also believe that the state should not interfere with the workings of the free market, and in the nineteenth century they were strongly opposed to protectionism, for example.
Harm principle Mill’s theory that individuals should be their own masters in every way There should be no intervention in their activities unless it can be seen that they will harm others
Knowledge check 9
What is meant by the term ‘utilitarianism’?
Limited government
A system of checks and balances such as separation of powers in order to prevent the concentration of power and the tendency of those in authority to attempt to increase their power
Linked concepts
Limited government is linked to laissez-faire capitalism — in order to restrict the size of the government it is also necessary to restrict the role of the state within the economy Both of these principles also allow for more individual freedom (See page 26 )
In order to be free in the negative sense, and for egoistical individualism to flourish, it is clearly necessary for government to have a very limited involvement in people’s lives� (See page 18�)
There is division within liberalism over the role of state. Classical liberals argue that the state should act as a ‘nightwatchman’, its role being to protect individual freedom through law. However, modern liberals go beyond this to call for an enabling state Linked to their belief in positive freedom, modern liberals argue that the limited state leaves capitalism free to create huge inequalities. This results in many people being unable to achieve their personal goals and potential as they are held back by poverty and debt. The state needs to intervene, to ensure that all individuals have equality of opportunity and positive freedom, and this may require the creation of a welfare state and intervention in the economy to protect the vulnerable from exploitation.
Key thinkers and their ideas
John Locke (1632–1704)
Although he trained as a medical doctor, John Locke went on to become one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment and is sometimes considered to be the father of liberalism Locke argued that government must be limited and based on consent The right to govern must come from the people themselves, rather than because of traditions or religious authority� Governments must be limited and respect individual rights� These rights are liberty, life and property�
Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke did not believe that the state of nature was chaotic and violent However, he argued that the state was needed as an arbiter to judge disputes A supporter of mechanistic theory, Locke developed social contract theory to argue that the citizens and the government would make a hypothetical contract� The government would promise to respect and preserve the freedoms of the people and in return the citizens would give up some of their freedom and would promise to follow the rule of law� However, if the government abused its powers by taking away property, for example, the citizens had the right to break this contract Locke’s ideal government would not be fully democratic, but he did argue that there must be separation of powers between the executive, legislature and judiciary in order to prevent tyranny and ensure the rule of law�
List five ways to make sure the power of government is limited�
Enabling state
Associated with modern liberalism, this offers a ‘hand up not a handout’ to ensure that individuals are helped to achieve their ambitions and aims and can be free in a positive state
Exam tip
Remember that all liberals see a role for the state, even if it is a limited one This differentiates them from anarchists
Mechanistic theory In opposition to the idea of organic society, this suggests that the state is an artificial creation that was devised by man to protect individual freedom�
Social contract theory Government is based on a contract between the citizens and the state in which the citizens agree to give up a limited part of their freedom in return for the protection of the law�
Rationalism
Human rationality is the belief that humans have an innate understanding of right and wrong and can make logical decisions based on facts and evidence rather than making emotional decisions. Liberals view humans as capable of reason and rationality. Unlike conservatives, they see the individual as the best judge of their own actions and capable of making decisions and deciding what is right and wrong. This leads logically to a mistrust of authority and governments. Liberals see humans as selfish but capable of controlling their own destiny. This leads liberals to have an optimistic view of human progress, in which society will improve and develop over time. Rational individuals realise that cooperation and compromise are more sensible than conflict and war. This will lead to tolerance and harmony in society. It also links to the liberal belief in the value of education and the capacity for humans to learn. The idea of human reason and rationality dates back to the Enlightenment and is a response to early ideas that humans were flawed, weak characters, controlled by emotion and needing the strong guidance of a monarch with traditional authority. A belief that humans are rational and reasonable implies that there is no need for strong government and that instead individuals should be given as much freedom as possible.
Key thinkers and their ideas
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97)
Mary Wollstonecraft studied the liberal ideas of rights, liberty and reason inspired by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution and asked, logically, why women did not have any of these rights and why these new ideas were seen as being for men only Wollstonecraft was writing at a time when women were effectively the property of either their father or their husband and had no independent legal status Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), arguing that legal and formal rights should apply to both men and women rather than just to men, as women were clearly rational individuals, just like men�
A key figure in the development of the idea of human rights, Wollstonecraft suggested that women could contribute a great deal to society if they were properly educated With education, women could be independent and autonomous and could contribute a great deal more to society than most of her idle and vacuous (in her opinion) middle-class contemporaries� She described these women as being trapped in a ‘gilt cage’� In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, her criticism of Rousseau’s Emile, Wollstonecraft attacked Rousseau’s desire for girls’ education to focus on making them supportive companions to men
Like later liberal feminists, Wollstonecraft emphasised the importance of motherhood to women ‘I do not wish (women) to have power over men, but over themselves,’ she wrote� As a supporter of freedom, Wollstonecraft believed women should be able to have careers and education and should also be able to own property, but she saw this as a matter of personal choice�
Wollstonecraft lived an unconventional life and was seen as a scandalous figure at the time� Tragically, she died at the age of 38 while giving birth to her second child, Mary, who went on to write Frankenstein� Wollstonecraft’s ideas are also highly relevant to the study of feminism, if you are covering that topic� However, you cannot use her as one of the key thinkers for that topic�
Equality/social justice
Liberals are supporters of foundational equality, believing that we are all born equal and are of equal value. Therefore we should all be judged by the ‘content of our character’ (Martin Luther King) and should be governed by the rule of law. However, as individualists, liberals argue that the implication of this is that governments must ensure the rule of law, so that all are equal in the eyes of the law. This equality under law is called formal equality and means that liberals are opposed to any form of discrimination. Linked to this is a belief in political equality, that one person is entitled to one vote only and all of these votes should have equal value. Note that this does not mean that liberals believe in universal suffrage.
Liberals also very much favour equality of opportunity. However, the outcome of this will not be full social equality as humans have different talents and abilities and are personally responsible for the amount of effort they put in. This view of equality is clearly in contrast to that of socialists. Liberals argue that the socialist commitment to equality of outcome means that everyone will be treated the same, which is unfair, collectivist and will prevent individual liberty. There is some difference of opinion between classical and modern liberals over what equality of opportunity means, with classicals seeing it as a chance for the unfettered individual to sink or swim and modern liberals believing that the state must step in to create a meritocracy or level playing field.
Linked concept
In order to create a meritocratic society, it is essential that everyone has equal opportunities and that all are treated equally regardless of background, so those with talents and abilities are able to rise to the top (See above )
Key thinkers and their ideas
Betty Friedan (1921–2006)
Betty Friedan, a key figure in the development of liberal feminism, examined the role of the public and private spheres which are central to liberal thought
These spheres are used to keep government limited in the sense that liberals believe that the private sphere is not a realm for state interference, and that tyranny and authoritarianism will result from a government that interferes in the personal relationships of the home�
Foundational equality
The idea that we are all born equal with natural rights and that these are therefore inalienable and it is impossible to take them away from us
Formal equality
Equality before law — the theory that equality must be ensured by the law and it must treat everyone as the same, regardless of background, gender, etc�
Knowledge check 11
What is the liberal view of equality?
Equality of opportunity Everyone should have the same chances to get on in life and to achieve goals and ambitions, regardless of social background and other factors
Meritocracy A society in which everyone has the chance to better themselves, based on equal opportunity�
Friedan agreed with this limited role for government but argued that women were often trapped in domestic life and needed to be able to leave the private sphere if they wished and enter the public world of politics, education and work� However, what makes Friedan a staunch liberal is that she believed this firmly to be a matter of choice and individual freedom�
Her bestseller, The Feminine Mystique (1963), inspired the development of second-wave feminism It was hugely influential, changing the lives of many American women, and is regarded as one of the most important books of the twentieth century� Written while Friedan was a suburban housewife, and based on interviews with similar women, it examined the false belief or myth that women are satisfied by domestic life� Friedan argued that many were bored and unsatisfied but were too ashamed to admit this� These women had sacrificed their desires (and positive freedom) for family life, and they had no choice in this matter due to social expectations This clearly goes against core liberal values
Another key liberal trait in Friedan’s work is her commitment to reform via legislation and through pressure groups� As well as being a writer she was an activist and feminist who set up the National Organization for Women in 1966 and campaigned for legal equality and abortion rights� Her ideas should be used in your study of feminism, if you are covering that too
In The Second Stage (1981), Friedan angered many feminists by criticising feminism for becoming too radical and alienating the many women who wanted and were satisfied by a domestic, family-based life� This highlights her commitment to liberal values of freedom, choice, equality of opportunity and individualism�
Liberal democracy
Liberalism and democracy are not necessarily natural partners. Many, particularly classical liberals such as J. S. Mill, were concerned that democracy was a collectivist concept that would lead to the tyranny of the majority. A threat to private property would result, thereby leading to a threat to individual freedom. The majority could also persecute the minority and this was particularly concerning if the majority were uneducated and resented the more educated. Some liberals believed that there should not be universal suffrage and that the franchise should be based on some sort of property qualification. There was also a fear that property rights would not be protected in a democratic state, as the majority of voters would be without property and jealous of those who were not.
In contrast, modern liberals are in favour of democracy as they see it as the best and only way to limit the power of the state. In order to govern, rulers must seek the agreement and consent of the population, and this consent can be withdrawn at election time. It is also linked to the liberal belief in pluralism — the spreading of
power away from the centre — as in a democracy there will be free speech and media and competition between parties. Education of the public and political participation itself have a positive impact on the personal development of the rational individual, enhancing their freedom.
Liberal democracy is a form of democracy that attempts to reconcile democracy — universal suffrage and representation of the people — with liberal principles such as the protection of individual rights and a belief in pluralism. This form of government is seen across the Western world today, although it may now be in decline. Central to this form of democracy is the idea of limited government, in order to prevent concentrations of power and authoritarianism. This limited government can be protected by universal suffrage, a free press, a wide range of pressure groups and regular elections with a wide choice. A codified constitution, such as that of the USA, separates and divides power between an executive, legislature and independent judiciary. Modern liberals also tend to favour proportional representation as a way of ensuring minority voices are heard.
Differing views and tensions within liberalism
Classical liberalism
Classical liberals believe in negative freedom or freedom from, the idea that freedom means the lack of restraint and restriction, based on the idea that humans are the best judges of their own actions. A dominant area of thought in the nineteenth century, its legacy can also be seen in 1970s’ neo-liberal thought, strongly influencing Thatcher, for example.
Individualism, for classical liberals, means atomism and the idea that human nature is egoistical and self-serving. Individuals should be free to do as they wish, not just in economics but in all spheres, as long as this does not intrude on the freedom (in the negative sense) of any others. This is based on the idea that as humans are rational, they will tend to make the best decisions when left alone to do so. English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed the idea of utilitarianism — the greatest happiness of the greatest number. He argued that people are motivated by the desire for enjoyment and happiness, and if something increases this then it is right. This could lead to the suppression of a minority group, for example, in order to improve the well-being of the majority.
For classical liberals with their firm belief in negative freedom, the state should act only as a ‘nightwatchman’, preventing citizens from harming each other and restricting individual freedom. At best, the state is a necessary nuisance. At worst, it is oppressive and coercive. This minimal state therefore has a role relating to law and order — courts, police and justice — and under no circumstances should be involved in the running of the free market or interfering in the personal lives of private individuals. Governments should confine themselves to creating and enforcing the law, mainly to protect private property and life and to safeguard natural rights (particularly those of property owners). Liberals see individual rights as natural and
Knowledge
check 12
Name two recent UK laws that would be supported by a liberal�
Minimal state The idea that the state should be as small and limited as possible in order for the citizens to be free to do whatever they choose�
this is linked to their belief in formal equality. Locke talked about ‘life, liberty and property’ and Thomas Jefferson, third president of the USA, about ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’. Equality in legal terms would be enough to create equality of opportunity. Government must be limited and the state and society itself are just areas where we pursue our self-interest as individuals rather than entities in themselves.
Linked concept
A belief in the minimal state suggests a belief in human rationality, i e that we are able to make our own decisions and judgements and manage our own life affairs (See page 18 )
Classical liberals are very concerned about interference in the economy, supporting free trade and laissez-faire capitalism in the nineteenth century, for example. They argue that government intervention will prevent the freedom of business to create profits and lead innovation. The aim is to create profit and the economy is in the hands of private individuals. Adam Smith argued that the market could and would regulate itself with its ‘invisible hand’, based on the idea of supply or demand. A free individual can choose to enter any contract they like.
Classical liberals strongly reject any ideas of a welfare state. This, they argue, will destroy wealth through taxation, depriving the enterprising of the fruits of their success. The welfare system itself will restrict individual freedom by encouraging a dependency culture and idleness. Only if someone is physically or mentally incapable of work should they be supported. You can see from this that classical liberals were influenced by the nineteenth-century idea of Social Darwinism — inequality is seen as natural, life is competitive, and the stronger will prevail through natural selection.
Unlike anarchists, classical liberals do not reject the state completely. Their view of human nature — that it is selfish and uninterested in the welfare of others — leads logically to a belief that the state is needed to protect us from each other. However, due to their belief in negative freedom, this state must be very restricted.
Finally, classical liberals are suspicious of democracy, seeing it as a form of ‘mob rule’ in which the masses will oppress minorities and steal property. Therefore democracy is an affront to individual freedom. Classical liberals believe that equality and freedom are contradictory terms. With their pessimistic view of human nature, they fear that all politicians, even those voted in by the majority, will become corrupt and greedy.
Modern liberalism
Classical liberalism was widely accepted in the pre-democratic Victorian age, among the political classes at least. However, its appeal began to fade as the impact of the industrial revolution became clear. Poverty, sickness and ignorance were commonplace. Liberal thought developed with the work of writers such as English
Laissez-faire capitalism
The free market without state regulation of any sort Individuals are free to enter contracts and trade with whoever they please Knowledge check 13
What is the core economic belief of a classical liberal?
philosopher T. H. Green (1836–82), who argued that classical liberalism would not lead to the freedom it aimed to, apart from for a successful few. The formal equality, based on law, had not led to equality of opportunity in any way. Developmental equality — self-realisation — required state intervention. When people spent most of their lives working in unhealthy conditions and without rights, they were in no position to develop as rational individuals. Capitalism and an inactive state had increased poverty and created division.
At the start of the twentieth century, the 1906–14 Liberal government, led by Asquith and Lloyd George, introduced a range of welfare measures, leading to a huge clash with the House of Lords in 1911. A belief in positive freedom, the ability to achieve goals, leads to a very different view of the role of the state. The Beveridge Report (1942) argued that beginning life disadvantaged meant that opportunities to prosper were unequal, and formal equality would do nothing to change this. Positive freedom requires freedom from social evils such as poverty and ignorance in order to ensure the greatest opportunity for individual development and self-fulfilment. Modern liberalism is therefore less individualistic and the idea that all should be free to achieve goals suggests some belief in the idea of the common good, that individuals are not truly free if some of their contemporaries are not.
J. S. Mill explored the idea of individuality and argued that some people will fail to thrive through no fault of their own, e.g. lack of educational provision. Therefore the state has a role to ensure that all individuals have a real chance to achieve success in life and therefore true liberty. This can be called developmental individualism, rather than egoistical individualism where a human has no interest in the fulfilment of others.
Modern liberals therefore see the state as a source of empowerment rather than oppression. Keynesianism, developed by John Maynard Keynes in the mid-twentieth century, involves economic management, such as progressive taxation or regulations on working rights, universal free education and welfare, and measures such as unemployment and sickness benefits. It is seen as enabling individual freedom rather than being coercive. Keynes believed in the mixed economy and argued that full employment should be the aim of every government. The aim of the intervening state is to create a level playing field and therefore true equality of opportunity.
Linked concept
Keynesianism advocates an active economic policy and rejects the free market� This is an example of the enabling state, which helps citizens so that they can be employed and can then be free in the positive sense to achieve goals (See page 21 )
Keynesianism
This theory rejected laissez-faire capitalism and advocated state intervention and investment in the economy in order to protect workers and maintain stability
Exam tip
Liberalism has had a huge impact on New Right thinking This can be confusing as it is an aspect of conservatism� It has also influenced socialism, particularly through Keynesian economics Don’t forget that Keynes was actually a liberal
Do not make the mistake of seeing modern liberals as having the same ideas and principles as socialists. Although there is clearly a link between them and revisionist socialists such as Blair, the focus is always on the individual and enabling the individual to fulfil goals, rather than on a ‘cradle to grave’ collectivist vision. Although liberal reforms did lead to the foundations of the welfare state, they were always limited and aimed at preventing dependency culture.
In contrast to classical liberals, modern liberals support democracy, particularly in its liberal form, seeing it as the only way to spread power away from the centre and prevent dangerous concentrations and tyranny. Democracy should lead to greater participation, improving education and encouraging individual self-development.
Some argue that modern liberalism represents an almost complete break from classical liberalism. However, the focus is very much on the rational, self-interested individual rather than on any group or collective body. Individual needs and interests are the starting point and society should be based on giving individuals the greatest opportunity to satisfy their talents and interests.
Key thinkers and their ideas
John Rawls (1921–2002)
John Rawls, a modern liberal, invites us to imagine that we are behind a hypothetical ‘veil of ignorance’, in that we don’t know how and where we will end up in society For example, we don’t know our gender, ethnicity or class, nor do we know our character and talents, for example whether we are hardworking or lazy� He argues that if we didn’t know any of this, we would opt for a much fairer system, just in case we ended up at the bottom� This system would be based on freedom and equal opportunities, and it would also be one in which there was not a large gap between the rich and the poor Be cause we would come to this decision from a neutral perspective, it should be accepted by all as correct and truly fair
A The ory of Justice (1971) is one of the most important works of post-war political philosophy� In it, Rawls argues that the aim of government should be to achieve liberty for all� This must be accompanied by equality of opportunity, which would lead to the creation of a truly free society� This society would include inequality only if this would help the poorest to improve their positions Rawls argued that the role of liberalism is to create the social conditions in which people can flourish and live the life they choose to It should not tell people how they should live in terms of morality�
Exam tip
Questions on liberalism come down to exploring the differences between different types of liberalism — all essays should include mention of both classical and modern but you must compare them rather than describe them
What is the difference between social liberalism and economic liberalism?
