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Chapter 1. Project Characteristics, Methodologies, and Frameworks
This chapter covers the following topics:
• Characteristics of a Project: Covers project characteristics, including start and finish, unique, reason/purpose, project as part of a program, and project as part of a portfolio.
• Methodologies and Frameworks Used in IT Projects: Covers methodologies and frameworks, including Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Waterfall, PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2), DevOps, DevSecOps, Agile, Kanban, scrum, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe), and Extreme Programming (XP). Also compares Agile to Waterfall, including the criteria for selecting a method and composing a team.
Every industry has projects. Contractors build buildings. IT companies launch new services. Hospitals revise processes to conform with new standards or regulations. Retail businesses launch new mobile apps for their customers. All of these activities are projects, even if the organization does not expressly call them “projects” or complete the formal project management phases.
A project is temporary in that it has a defined beginning and end, scope, budget, and resources. If all of these parameters are not defined at the beginning of the project, you have no way of measuring the success or failure of the project. For this reason, all
types of organizations should employ professionals with project management knowledge.
Project management knowledge involves understanding the properties of all projects and understanding projects as part of an organization’s overall program and portfolio.
Projects are completed based on project management methodologies and frameworks. Project managers must understand the types of development approaches and the specific IT project methodologies and frameworks that are available. This allows project managers to guide organizations in developing an approach that works both for the organization and for the type of project being undertaken.
This chapter covers the following objectives for the CompTIA Project+ exam:
1.1 Explain the basic characteristics of a project and various methodologies and frameworks used in IT projects.
1.2 Compare and contrast Agile vs. Waterfall concepts.
“Do
I Know This Already?” Quiz
The “Do I Know This Already?” quiz allows you to assess whether you should read this entire chapter thoroughly or jump to the “Exam Preparation Tasks” section. If you are in doubt about your answers to these questions or your own assessment of your knowledge of the topics, read the entire chapter. Table 1-1 lists the major headings in this chapter and their corresponding “Do I Know This Already?” quiz questions. You can find the answers in Appendix A, “Answers to the ‘Do I Know This Already?’ Questions and Review Quizzes.”
Table 1-1 “Do I Know This Already?” Section-to-Question Mapping
Caution
The goal of self-assessment is to gauge your mastery of the topics in this chapter. If you do not know the answer to a question or are only partially sure of the answer, you should mark that question as wrong for purposes of the self-assessment. Giving yourself credit for an answer you correctly guess skews your selfassessment results and might provide you with a false sense of security.
1. Which of the following is nota quality of a project?
a. Start and finish
b. Permanent
c. Unique
d. Reason
2. Which of the following statements regarding programs and portfolios is true?
a. All projects are part of the portfolio.
b. Only certain programs are part of the portfolio.
c. Each project must be part of a program.
d. Each program within a project is managed in a coordinated method.
3. Which quality of Agile projects allows a project to meet changing conditions?
a. Incremental
b. Predictive
c. Iterative
d. Adaptive
4. Which of the following statements describes the iterative quality of an Agile project?
a. It breaks the project into smaller components.
b. It provides a linear development plan that is structured around the desired result.
c. Each incomplete area is refined until the result is satisfactory.
d. Completed work is delivered throughout the project life cycle.
5. What tool is used in Agile planning to help with requirements gathering?
a. Burndown charts
b. User stories
c. Scrum retrospectives
d. Questionnaires
6. What key component is required for an Agile project to succeed?
a. Burndown charts
b. Continuous feedback
c. Scrum master
d. Scrum retrospective
7. Which of the following is notone of the questions answered in the daily scrum meeting?
a. What did the team member do yesterday?
b. What will the team member do today?
c. Are any obstacles in the way?
d. What went wrong during this sprint?
8. Which description best fits Agile teams?
a. Centrally organized and directed
b. Self-organized and self-directed
c. Centrally organized but self-directed
d. Self-organized but centrally directed
9. Which of the following is a predictive model?
a. SDLC
b. XP
c. Scrum
d. Kanban
10. Which four steps of the DevOps model are the responsibility of the operations team?
a. Plan, Code, Build, and Test
b. Release, Deploy, Operate, and Monitor
c. Plan, Code, Operate, and Monitor
d. Build, Test, Release, and Deploy
Foundation Topics Characteristics of a Project
The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines a projectas “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.” A project is based on the needs of the project sponsor or customer and may be terminated by the same entity. Every project creates a unique product, service, or result. Once the project is complete, the project’s product, service, or result may continue to affect society, the economy, the sponsor, and the environment.
Projects are undertaken at all levels and in all departments of an organization. No matter which levels or departments are involved, the project team will be responsible for completing the project within budget and on schedule.
EXAMPLE: Upper management has a project to analyze the organization for Lean practices. The human resources (HR) department has a project to deploy a new employment application. All departments are involved in a project to redesign the network infrastructure, with the IT department heading the project.
Projects happen all around us every day and involve every industry. To ensure project success, organizations should employ personnel who understand project management and grasp the difference between projects and day-to-day operations. To fully comprehend the distinction, compare the examples in the two columns in Table 12.
Table 1-2 Projects Versus Day-to-Day Operations
Projects may produce tangible and/or intangible outcomes. Tangible outcomesare physical assets that can be measured, such as land, vehicles, equipment, machinery, furniture, inventory, and cash. Intangibleoutcomesare nonphysical assets such as patents, trademarks, franchises, good will, and copyrights.
All projects are temporary, have a defined start and finish, have a unique outcome, and have a reason or purpose. The following sections describe these project characteristics.
Start and Finish
The temporary nature of projects indicates that a project is undertaken for a set time period and will finish at some point. Being temporary has nothing to do with the length of the project—just that it has initiation and completion dates. The result of the project is not necessarily temporary—only the project itself.
Defined start and finish dates for a project are critical. Without defined start and finish dates, a project is not constrained by time and can become part of the day-to-day operations. Defining start and finish dates helps personnel to ensure that the project is completed. Project management professionals must be able to analyze the scope of the project to determine the amount of time needed to complete the project. To complete a project within a set time limit, you may also need to trim back other aspects of the project, such as its scope or budget. Setting the start and finish dates should be completed during the early phases of the project.
Unique
The result of the project should be unique. Although some projects may contain repetitive elements, each project remains unique, with different design, location, circumstance, stakeholders, or other elements. Most projects result in a lasting outcome. Outcomes from the projects in Table 1-2 include a web server, a backup process and
procedure, a help desk process, a new building, a new jewelry line, video recorders in a fleet of automobiles, and a training program.
EXAMPLE: A construction company builds many types of buildings. Most of the buildings have the same elements, such as the foundation, framing, plumbing, electrical, and so on. However, no two buildings are exactly alike. Even if two buildings follow the same building plan, the buildings will not be built in exactly the same location with exactly the same team members and supplies.
Reason/Purpose
The project’s reason or purpose should be stated clearly to ensure that the project sponsor and all other stakeholders understand it. Projects should provide business value to the sponsoring organization. Value may be created by a new physical asset or process. It can even be created through effective redesign of ongoing operations. However, the project must have a reason or purpose to ensure that this business value is provided. The outcome of the project is intended to provide value to the project sponsor or customer until the result is no longer needed or no longer meets the sponsor’s or customer’s needs.
Project as Part of a Program
A programis a grouping of related projects or activities that are managed in coordination to obtain benefits not available if they were managed individually. The projects within a program are related because they have a common outcome.
EXAMPLE: An organization’s program includes several projects that involve the renovation of multiple facilities. Each facility renovation
or each facet of renovation (plumbing, electrical, and so on) is a project, with all the projects together comprising the program.
Tip
A project does not have to be part of a program, but a program always includes projects.
Because the primary benefit from a program is coordination, a program should be used to ensure that each project’s resources, conflicts, goals, objectives, and changes are managed from a program perspective. Projects within a program must focus on the interdependence between the projects.
Tip
If projects do not share an outcome but are related through a shared client, seller, technology, or resource, they are part of the same portfolio—not the same program.
Project as Part of a Portfolio
A portfolioincludes all of the projects, programs, and operations managed by an organization to allow it to reach strategic objectives. The projects and programs included in a portfolio do not necessarily depend on each other.
To fully understand the relationship between projects, programs, and the portfolio, keep these points in mind:
• All projects are part of the portfolio.
• All programs are part of the portfolio.
• Each project may be part of a program or be independent.
• Each project within a program is managed in a coordinated method.
• All projects and programs within the portfolio are linked to the organization’s strategic plan.
Methodologies and Frameworks
Used in IT Projects
Methodologies and frameworks are often used by organizations to guide the way a project is completed. Often these terms are used interchangeably in the real world, but they are actually two different but closely related terms. A project manager should understand the differences between the two terms and why both are important to projects.
Note
A methodologyis prescriptive and defines steps to be completed. Methodologies explain why the steps are essential and how each step should be accomplished. A framework is much more flexible and is intended to be adapted to fit the problem. Frameworksare more skeletal in nature and act more as guidelines. In some circles both methodologies and frameworks may be referred to as development approaches. It does not really matter which term you use—it is important that you understand the basic tenets and conditions under which each may be chosen.
No matter which term is used, there are some basic facets of project development methodologies and frameworks that project managers need to understand. Terms used to describe methodologies and frameworks include predictive, adaptive, hybrid, iterative, and incremental.
Predictiveapproaches provide a linear development plan with a known outcome. A structured process is used for producing a predetermined result within a specific time frame. Predictive approaches have very little uncertainty and are often used when there is a significant investment being made or a high level of risk. Predictive projects strive to reduce uncertainty.
Predictive planning uses historical data to provide a linear development plan structured around the desired result. For example, the process to build most homes is generally the same: ground preparation, foundation, framing, and so on. Predictive planning works well for these types of projects.
Adaptiveapproaches break a project into small components over an undetermined timeline, thereby allowing flexibility throughout the project. Adaptive projects produce an end result that is not very clear at product initiation and can have surprising outcomes. Each component that is produced can be referred to as a sprint, iteration, or increment. Adaptive approaches are used when requirements may change over the project life cycle because of uncertainty and volatility. Requirements and project scope are refined or changed as the project progresses. Adaptive approaches use iterative and incremental methods, which are explained later in this chapter.
Adaptive planning allows a project to evolve as needed to face changing conditions. By breaking the project into small components created over an undetermined timeline, adaptive planning gives the
project flexibility. Results from one project task can cause the project to be changed to adapt to the changing environment.
A hybridapproach combines both predictive and adaptive methods within the same project. This approach is often used when certain features or functions can be easily defined during project planning, while other features and functions are not fully understood.
An iterativemethod is an adaptive method wherein the product team builds up the features and functions of the product over time. Each feature or function is usually released separately without waiting on other features or functions. These features or functions are referred to as iterations. When each iteration starts, the scope, approach, and requirements of that iteration are defined, with each iteration adding functionality to the previous iterations.
EXAMPLE: To understand an iterative approach, think of a sculpture. The sculptor starts with the raw material and carves it into a general shape. The earliest tasks are roughing out the form and removing excess material from all areas of the piece. During the next stages, the sculptor refines the work, adding details to each area that was previously roughed out. However, the sculpture is not finished until the entire work is complete. The sculptor may need to return to certain areas to refine and revise the work before the final product reflects the sculptor’s intended design.
An incrementalmethod is one wherein the product team divides the product into fully operational features or functions. Like the iterative method, each feature or function is released separately without
waiting on others. The features or functions are referred to as increments. Each increment completes the plan/design/build process until the project is complete.
EXAMPLE: To understand an incremental approach, think of a suburban housing development. The developer hires an architect to produce concept drawings of the homes and plan the lot lines, roads, and utilities for the new community. Once the concept is approved, the architect creates blueprints that can be used to estimate costs and construct the buildings. After the blueprints are final, the developer builds a model home that home buyers can tour during the sales process. When the lots are sold to buyers, the developer constructs the final homes.
An incremental approach does not revisit previous steps in the process. In this example, once the utility lines are installed, the developer would not return to the first step to redraw the lot lines or move the home sites.
To be able to better understand the difference between iterative and incremental, consider the following example:
EXAMPLE: You are managing a project that is tasked with producing a new application. This application includes four basic parts. In an iterative method, an early edition of all four parts would be developed and released. Then each part would be refined over time to improve or enhance the capabilities of the part. In an incremental method, each part is built and released. Then each of the other parts are added to the application as they are ready.
With an iterative project, the application may initially have all the parts of the application but not all the functionality of each part. With an incremental project, the application may initially have a single part of the application but not all the parts.
Figure 1-1 is a graphical representation of how an iterative approach versus an incremental approach works.
Figure 1-1 Iterative Versus Incremental
All methodologies or frameworks based on Agile are iterative and incremental, while most predictive approaches such as Waterfall are not.
The methodology or framework implemented may vary based on your organization’s needs, project type, and even industry. As a project manager, it is important that you understand the different methodologies and frameworks available to help your organization determine the approach the organization will use.
For the Project+ exam, project managers need to understand the following methodologies and frameworks: Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2), Waterfall, Agile, scrum, Kanban, DevOps and DevSecOps, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe), and Extreme Programming (XP). In addition, project managers will need to be able to compare and contrast Agile versus Waterfall qualities, including criteria for selecting a method and team composition.
Software Development Life Cycle
The SoftwareDevelopmentLifeCycle(SDLC)is more of a process framework than a methodology. The specific methodology chosen to
execute the software development process can be an Agile model, a Waterfall model, or a hybrid approach. The goal of the SDLC is to provide predictable procedures to identify all requirements with regard to functionality, cost, reliability, and delivery schedule and ensure that each is met in the final solution. As a result, the SDLC is considered to be a predictive model. However, some companies alter the SDLC process to make it adaptive. The steps in the SDLC can vary based on the provider, and this section covers one popular example.
The steps in the Software Development Life Cycle are as follows:
1. Plan/Initiate Project
2. Gather Requirements
3. Design
4. Develop
5. Test/Validate
6. Release/Maintain
7. Certify/Accredit
8. Change Management and Configuration Management/Replacement
In the Plan/Initiate Project phase of the SDLC, the organization decides to initiate a new software development project and formally plans the project. In the Gather Requirements phase, both the functionality and the security requirements of the solution are identified. These requirements could be derived from a variety of sources, such as evaluating competitor products or surveying the needs of users for an internal solution. In some cases, these
