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BriefContentsv

Prefacexiii Introduction1 Traditions:Great,Little,Counterfeit,Hidden2 ReligionsandWorldviews4 TheSeven‘‘Dimensions’’5 ExperientialandEmotionalDimension7 SocialandInstitutionalDimension9 NarrativeorMythicDimension11 DoctrinalandPhilosophicalDimension13

PracticalandRitualDimension14 EthicalandLegalDimension16 MaterialandArtisticDimension17 TwoDangers22

IsStudyingOtherReligionsHarmfultoOne’sOwnFaith?23 Complexities23 DoReligionsCauseViolence?CanTheyPromotePeace?24 WhatLiesAhead26 Summary27 KeyTerms27 DiscussionQuestions27 SuggestionsforFurtherReading28 1 HinduWorldviews29 ExperientialandEmotionalDimension29 HistoricalPeriods30 NarrativeorMythicDimensionIncludingSacredWritings32 DoctrinalandPhilosophicalDimension32 PracticalandRitualDimension34 SocialandInstitutionalDimension37

DoctrinalandPhilosophicalDimension114

PracticalandRitualDimension121

EthicalandLegalDimension123

SocialandInstitutionalDimension126 IssuesforJusticeandPeace129 SpokespersonsforJusticeandPeace136 Summary138

KeyTerms139 DiscussionQuestions139 SuggestionsforFurtherReading140

5 MuslimWorldviews141

ExperientialandEmotionalDimension142 HistoricalPeriods143

SacredWritings144

NarrativeorMythicDimension145

DoctrinalandPhilosophicalDimension148

PracticalandRitualDimension150

SocialandInstitutionalDimension153

EthicalandLegalDimension155 IssuesforJusticeandPeace155 SpokespersonsforJusticeandPeace164 Summary167 KeyTerms168 DiscussionQuestions168 SuggestionsforFurtherReading169

6 NativeAmericanWorldviews171

ExperientialandEmotionalDimension171 HistoricalPeriods172

SacredWritings177

NarrativeorMythicDimension178

DoctrinalandPhilosophicalDimension178

PracticalandRitualDimension178

EthicalandLegalDimension179

SocialandInstitutionalDimension182 IssuesforJusticeandPeace183

SpokespersonsforJusticeandPeace190 Summary190

KeyTerms191 DiscussionQuestions191 SuggestionsforFurtherReading192

7 MarxistWorldviews193 ExperientialandEmotionalDimension193 HistoricalPeriods193

Preface

In1987,theUniversityofSt.Thomasinauguratedaminorinjusticeandpeace studies.Wedecidedthatitwouldbeimportanttostudyhowpeople’sworldviews affectthechoicestheymakethatpromoteorinhibitjusticeandpeace.Atthetime, ourprogramwasunusual.Notmanypeopleinthiscountryunderstoodwhyit wouldbenotonlyusefulbutevenessentialtounderstandotherpeople’sworldviews.AftertheSeptember11,2001,attacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthe Pentagon,thecountrystartedcomingaroundtoourpointofview.In1987,there wasnotextbookavailabletointroducewhatwewantedtotalkabout,soDavid Smithstartedtowriteoneandshareditwithhisstudentsinduplicatedformover histwentyyearsofteachingthecourses.ElizabethBurrbecamethebook’ssecondarycoauthorfortheﬁrstRowman&Littleﬁeldedition(2007),andtogetherwehave co-revisedthetextforthesecondedition(2015).Manyotherpeoplehavehelped alongtheway.Thisbook,nowinitssecondedition,istheresult.

InthecourseTheologiesofJusticeandPeace,forwhichthisbookwasoriginally designed,inadditiontoreadinganddiscussingthisbook,eachstudentwasasked toresearchoneworldviewthatdiffersfromherown,usingaseriesofstepstoorganizeherstudy.Attheendofthesemester,studentsreadanddiscussedeachother’s projects.Whenweduplicatedthisbookinitsearlierformsfortheiruse,weincluded inthebookextensiveinstructionsandotheraidsforthatstudyproject.Sincewe couldnotpredicthowmanypeoplewouldbeinterestedbothinthecontentofthis bookandintheinstructionsforsuchaproject,wedecidedtoputtheinstructions ontheWorldWideWebathttp://courseweb.stthomas.edu/justpeace/Rowman .html.Herewewillbrieﬂydescribewhatisavailablethere.

DETAILEDPROJECTINSTRUCTIONS FORSTUDENTSANDFACULTY

Studentsareinstructedhowtostudyaworldviewaccordingtothefollowingeleven steps:

1.Describeyourownworldviewandpresuppositionsbyansweringtheninesets ofquestionsgiven.(Thosestepsaresummarizedintheintroductiontothis book.)Thisstepwillhelpyou(a)tothinkaboutmanythingsyouhavetaken forgranted,(b)tobecomeawareofthevarietyinourownclass,and(c)to acceptandvalueourdifferences.Thestepisgradedpass-fail.

2.Describewhatyouknowasyoubeginyourstudy:theworldviewyouhave chosentostudy,whatyouknowordon’tknowaboutitasyoustart,what youwanttoﬁndout.

3.Selectalocalresourcetohelpyouwithyourstudy,preferablysomeonewho livestheworldviewyouarestudying.

4.Experiencetheworldviewthroughavicariousexperience—anarrativesuch asanovel,memoir,autobiography,ﬁlm,play,interview,orforeigntravel. Wearelookinghereforstories,notyetforacademicinformationoranalysis.

5.Fromacademicresearch,describethemainideasandpracticesoftheworldview,especiallywithregardtojustice,peace,prosperity,andsecurity.

6.Listanddescribebrieﬂythemainsacredbooks,classics,andtraditions (includingoraltraditions)oftheworldview.Readpartsmeditativelyand reportontheexperience.

7.Describehowsomerealpersonhasbeeninﬂuencedbytheworldviewintheir workonbehalfofjusticeandpeace,orhowsomecommunitylivingthe worldviewhasrespondedinsomerealconﬂict.Thisstepwillconsiderwhat happenswhenonepersonoragroupattemptstoliveouttheworldview’s idealsintheactual,messyworld.

8.Rewriteyourresponsestothequestionsofsteponeasifyoupersonallyheld theworldviewyouhavebeenstudying.

9.Writeautopiathatwouldmakesensetosomeoneholdingtheworldview. Whatwouldaperfectworldbelike,whyisn’ttheworldlikethat,whatisthe bestsituationwemighthopeforintherealworld(a‘‘possi-topia’’),andhow mightwemovetowardthatbetterfuture?

10.Reﬂectonyourstudy.Comparewhatyouknowandbelievenowwithwhat youdidinstep2whenyoustarted.Didyourstudyconﬁrmyourexpectations,challenge,orsurpriseyou?Howhelpfulwasyourlocalresourceofstep 3?Howcouldthiscoursebeimproved?

11.Giveusalistoftheresourcesyouusedwithcommentsforfuturestudies indicatinghowusefuleachitemwas,andforwhatstepsitwasuseful.

Extensiveresourcelistsfortheproject:Forthelasttwentyyears,wehavebeen assemblingtheannotatedresourceliststhatour students haveproduced(step11 above)—youcansee their commentsonbooks,periodicalarticles,websites,and more.

OTHERTREASURESONOURWEBSITE

Spacelimitationshavepreventedusfrompublishingeverythingwewouldliketo share.Someofwhatdidn’tﬁtisalreadyorwillbeavailableatourwebsite.

• TwosetsofmapsshowingNativeAmericanandPalestinianlossofland.

• Footnotelistsforeachchapterandabibliographylist,allwithactivehotlinks, sothatonecanreadthebookinfrontofthecomputerornotepadandjump quicklytomaterialsmentionedinthefootnotesandbibliographywithaclick ofthemouseorataponthescreen.

• Overﬂowtopicsthatdidn’tﬁtandarementionedinthetextasavailableon ourwebsite.

• Expandedsuggestionsforfurtherreading.

• Additionalspokespersonsforeachworldview.

• AnarticleDavidwrotethatappliesmanyofthethingswetalkaboutinthe book;itiscalled‘‘InspiredAuthorsandSaintlyInterpretersinConﬂict:The NewTestamentonWarandPeace.’’

• AnarticleElizabethwroteaboutPalestinianChristians,whichsupplementsthe contentofchapter8;itiscalled‘‘OutofPalestine:SolidaritywithaDisplaced People.’’

• Furtherweblinks,studyquestions,additionaldiagramsandtables,photographs,andmaybeevenaPowerPointpresentationortwo.

Wewillcontinueupdatingthesecondeditiononthewebsite.

WHATISNEWINTHISEDITION?

Aswerevisedthebookforitssecondedition,weconsideredfeedbackfromreviews submittedtothepublisherplusothersources.Wewantedtobroadentheframeworkwherepossible,forexample,inchapter9,whichisnolongerstrictlylimited toaChristianperspective.Intheintroduction,weexpandedtreatmentofnonreligiousmoralnorms,andaddedasectiononthecounterfeittraditionsdeceitfully advocatedbypsychopaths.Inchapter5,weaddedsectionsonmodernismand Islamophobia.Inchapter6,wediscusshowindigenousculturesreacttocolonial evangelization,withspecialattentiontotheLakota,BlackElk,whobecamea RomanCatholiccatechist,andtoYorubaslavesintheAmericaswhocombined theirAfricanbeliefswithRomanCatholicismtocreatethesyncretisticreligionsof Santerıá,Umbanda,Candomble ´ ,andVodou.Inchapter7,weaddedmaterialon howChinesereligionhasadaptedtoMarxismandsurvived.Inchapter8,we broughttheIsraeli-Palestinianstruggleuptodate.WeaddedmoreJewishandMuslimmaterialtochapters9through12.Inparticular,inchapter12weclarifiedhow JudaismandIslamrelatetothetenprinciplesofcommunalforce.Apartfromthese specificadditions,thebookhasbeenthoroughlyrevisedthroughout.

AFEWADMISSIONS

Thisbookisnotneutral;itdoesnottreatwar,peace,injustice,andjustice‘‘impartially.’’AsJohanGaltungpointsout,1 peacestudiesaresimilartohealthstudies— bothgobeyondimpartialunderstanding.Doctorsdon’tstudymedicinejustbecause

theyﬁnddiseasesintriguing;theywanttocurepeople.Wedon’tstudyworldviews justbecausetheyinterestus;wehopethatunderstandingthemwillhelpusfurther ourworkforjusticeandpeace.Finally,wehavetriedtomakethebookinteresting ratherthancomprehensive.Wesincerelyhopethatyouwillﬁndourwork(eventhe secondtime)compellingbutincomplete,sothatyouwillbemovedtoexploreon yourownsomeoftheareasweintroduce.

Thetwoofuscomefromdifferentbackgroundswithsomewhatdifferentperspectives,althoughwesharesigniﬁcantcommonground.DavidisaRomanCatholicpriestwithadoctorateintheologyandalicentiateinsacredscripture.Acovenant memberofServantBranchofthePeopleofPraise(aChristianecumenicalcharismaticcommunity),hehasstudiedinRomeandJerusalem,andhastraveledextensivelytoresearchsacredscriptures,religions,andmovementsforjusticeandpeace throughEurope,theMiddleEast,SouthAsia,Africa,theCaribbean,andCentral andSouthAmerica.Hehasservedonapeaceteamintheoccupiedterritoriesof GazaandtheWestBank.Elizabeth’sformalreligiousbackgroundisProtestantEpiscopal.Herdoctorateisinthestudyofreligion.InadditiontointroductoryuniversitycoursesinChristianity,especiallytheNewTestament,shehastaught‘‘The WorldofIslam’’numeroustimes,aswellasseveraljusticeandpeacecourses.Since 1970,shehasvisitedIsrael-Palestineanumberoftimesandisinvolvedwithothers inseekingajustresolutiontothisconﬂict.SheisalsoatrainedJungiananalyst. Furtherbackgroundinformationforbothwillbeavailableonourwebsite.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Manypeoplehavehelpedthisbooktakeitscurrentshape.WeexpresssinceregratitudetoTathaWiley,whooriginallyintroducedustoRowman&Littlefield.Weare alsoespeciallygratefultoAnneKing,whowrotealargepartofchapter7onMarxist worldviews,toJackNelson-Pallmeyerforhiscontributiontochapter4onChristian worldviews,andtheninpreparationforthebook’ssecondedition,toEdward(Ted) Ulrichforreviewingchapters1–2,SusanStabileforreviewingchapter2,DavidPenchanskyforreviewingchapters3–4,andSamirSaikaliforreviewingchapter5.We areequallygratefultoRossMiller,ourfirsteditioneditoratRowman&Littlefield, forhiseditorialguidance,andnowtoSarahStantonforherexpertoversightand patienceduringtheprocessofrevisingthebookaswellastoJehanneSchweitzer forherfineworkasproductioneditor.Weappreciatethehelpfulcommentsof reviewersofthefirstedition:PrathibaNagabhushanforthe InternationalJournalon WorldPeace,CarloFiliceforthe JournalforPeaceandJusticeStudies,andAndrea WislerandBethanyHaworthforthe JournalofReligion,Conflict,andPeace.Others whohavereadandofferedhelpfulcommentsonvariouschapters,whohavetaught thecoursethebookwasdesignedfor,whohavehelpedDavidoutwithhisvarious studytrips,orwhoinotherwayshavehelpedusgathersignificantmaterialand experiencecontainedinthisbook,includeZevAeloni,D.C.Ahir,Fr.Antonio d’Agostino,A.T.Ariyaratne,Rev.NaimAteekandothersatSabeelinJerusalem,

MubarakAwad,KedarBahadurBasnet,Fr.TissaBalasuriya,JeffCarlson,Dennis Carroll,SorayaCastro,WilliamCavanaugh,MichaelCullen,thelateDavidDellinger,LornaDewaraja,Rev.NoelDias,Fr.PeterDougherty,RabbiAmyEilberg,Jay Erstling,H.R.H.ChiefFonkemAchankengI,ArunGandhi,GiselleGarciaCastro, thelateFr.RafaelGarcı´a-Herreros,thelateIraGordon,thelateNedHanauer,Linda Hulbert,thelateAbp.DennisHurley,Fr.DiegoJaramillo,JamesJennings,Michael Klein,JonathanKuttab,CarolScherstenLaHurd,JohnLandgraf,MarthaLarsen, RamuManivannan,OrlandoMarquez,PatrickMawaya,AshokMehrotra,Jose ´ Mı ´ guezBonino,Fr.HugoMontero,FredNairn,MichaelNaughton,Leuben Njinya-Mujinya,MichaelNovak,thelateArshamOhanessian,AdilOzdemir,Rev. GeorgePalackapilly,AgapitosPapagapitos,SantiagoPe ´ rezBenitez,Fr.Aloysius Pieris,VivekPinto,CalvinRoetzel,thelateFr.GregSchaeffer,GeraldSchlabach, SylviaSchwarz,JuanLuisSegundo,Dr.SunitiSolomon,PadreDagobertoSotelo, Sr.FlorenceSteichen,AhmedTharwat,CrisToffolo,HeidiTousignant,Dr.SolomonVictor,GeraldVizenor,Sr.LizWalters,IraWeiss,SusanWindley-Daoust,Fr. AlexZanotelli,andFredZimmerman.WearegratefultocolleaguesintheAmerican AcademyofReligion,theCatholicBiblicalAssociation,theInternationalPeace ResearchAssociation,thePeaceandJusticeStudiesAssociation,andtheSocietyof BiblicalLiteratureattheUniversityofSt.Thomas,theotherUniversityofSt. ThomasinRome(the‘‘Angelicum’’),theCatholicUniversityofAmerica,theE ´ cole BibliqueetArche ´ ologiqueFranc ¸ aise(Jerusalem),andtheEuropeanPeaceUniversity(Stadtschlaining,Austria).

ElizabethexpressessincerethankstotheTheologyDepartmentandtheJustice andPeaceStudiesDepartmentattheUniversityofSt.Thomasforagrantthat enabledhertodevotesigniﬁcanttimetopreparingthebook’ssecondedition.

Andnowthebookisinyourhands.WepraythatGodwillhelpyoutounderstand,appreciate,andputintopracticewhateverwehavesaidthatistrueandhelpful,andtooverlookorignorewhateverwehavesaidthatisnot.

DavidWhittenSmith

ElizabethGeraldineBurr

Introduction

TheStudyofWorldviews

[Humans]expectfromthevariousreligionsanswerstotheunsolvedriddlesof thehumancondition,whichtoday,evenasinformertimes,deeplystir [human]hearts:Whatis[ahuman]?Whatisthemeaning,theaimofourlife? Whatismoralgood,whatsin?Whencesufferingandwhatpurposedoesit serve?Whichistheroadtotruehappiness?Whataredeath,judgmentandretributionafterdeath?What,ﬁnally,isthatultimateinexpressiblemysterywhich encompassesourexistence:whencedowecome,andwherearewegoing?

—NostraAetate1

Talkaboutjusticeandpeacecanbefrustratingwhenmyworldview(setofpresuppositions)differsradicallyfromyours.Yourcommentsmaynotevenmake sensetome.Thisisespeciallytrueforpeoplefromdifferentpartsoftheworldor fromgroupsholdingradicallydifferentreligiousorideologicalbeliefs.Butmanyof themostdifficultworldconflictsseemtotakeplacebetweensuchgroups:Jews, Muslims,Christians,andMarxistsinIsrael-Palestine;Hindus,Muslims,andSikhs inIndiaandPakistan;HindusandBuddhistsinSriLanka;MarxistsandChristians inNorthKoreaandCuba;andsoforth.Conflictsalsooccurbetweensubgroups withinamajorworldview,forexample,ProtestantsandCatholicsinNorthernIreland,orSunniandShiaMuslimsinIraq.

A worldview isanoverallwayofseeingandrelatingtotheworldweliveinand anylargerworldthatmaybebeyondourworld.Itasksaboutthemeaningofwhat weexperienceandhowweshouldrespondtothepeople,forces,andthingsthat surroundus.Thisbookseeks(a)tohelpyoudecidewhetheritistruethatunderstandingotherworldviewspromotesjusticeandpeace,(b)tohelpyoulearnthe mostbasicelementsofsomeworldviewsyouarelikelytoencounterasyoupursue justiceandpeace,and(c)toteachyouhowtostudyotherworldviewsinasympatheticwaysothatyoucanunderstandwhyothersthink,feel,andactthewaythey do,anticipatetheiractions,andperhapsenrichyourownworldview.

Wehopethisbookwillreduceyourfearofpeoplewhoseviewsoftheworlddiffer fromyours.Wealsohopeitwillencourageyoutoexamineyourownworldview moredeeplysoastoembracethoseofitsdynamicsthatpromotejusticeandpeace, andtoresistorreshapethosethatpromoteself-interestedprivilegeandviolence. Youmayﬁndthatmuchofwhatyouhavepresumedtobecommonsenseheldby allreasonablepeopleisratherpartofyourownparticularworldviewandopento criticalchallenge.Inmulticulturalsocieties,peopledisagreeaboutwhatconstitutes ‘‘commonsense.’’

Noneoftheworldviewsfeaturedherewillbepresentedcompletely,butyoucan becomeawareofhowworldviewsinﬂuenceotherpeople’svisionandjudgmentso thatyouwillbelesssurprisedbyhowtheyreact.Youwilllearnwhatneedstobe investigatedtoclarifypositions:whatimplicitclaimsandquestionslieconcealed beneaththesurfaceofanargument,andwhatvaluesareatstakeintheanswersto thosequestions.

Thisbookwillbrieflyexplainseveninfluentialworldviews:Hinduism,Buddhism, Judaism,Christianity,Islam,indigenous(mostlyNativeAmericanwithsomeattentiontotheYoruba)religions,andMarxism(withsomeattentiontoChinesereligions).Inchapter8wepresenttheIsraeli-Palestinianissueasacasestudyof worldviewsinconflict.WealsogivespecialattentiontoChristianandotherreligioussocialteaching,liberationtheologies,activenonviolence,andjustwartheories becausetheyillustratehowreligiousbeliefsinfluenceattitudesandactionstoward justiceandpeace.

TRADITIONS:GREAT,LITTLE,COUNTERFEIT,HIDDEN

Whatinﬂuencesone’sattitudesandactionsisnotnecessarilytheworldviewthat one claims tohold,butrathertheworldviewthatone actually holds.Peopleare oftenunawareofthedifferencebetweentheirallegedworldviewandtheactualprinciplesthatgoverntheiractions.Inaddition,somepeopledeliberatelylieabouttheir worldviewandprinciples.

The greattradition denotesthewayaparticulartraditionis taught byitsmost enthusiasticleadersandpractitioners, developed bymajorwritersandapologists (propagandists),and expressed initssacredandclassictexts. Incontrast,the little tradition denotesthewaymanypeople—oftenonlyvaguelycommittedtotheprinciplesofaclassictradition—are actuallylivingout theworldview.Littletraditions tendtofocusonimmediate,short-term,individualdesiresandpleasures;greattraditionsencouragepeopletosacriﬁcethosedesiresandpleasuresinfavorofdeferred, long-term,sociallysharedgoals.

Inthisbook,the counterfeittradition denotesthedeceptivevaluesandprinciples falsely claimedbysomepeopletojustifytheiractions—theydon’tactually believeinthemoractonthem;andthe hiddentradition denotesthe actual values, principles,andgoalsthatmotivatethesedeceptiveactors.Thelasttwotermsare

notcommonlyused,buttheirrealityisenormouslyimportantforunderstanding worldinjustice.

Psychologicalresearchhaschallengedthepopularnotionthatallhumanshavea conscience—abasicunderstandingofrightandwrong—despitethedifferentforms itmighttakeindifferentpeople.2 Butjustassomehumansarebornphysicallycrippledorbecomecrippledthroughanaccident,somehumansarebornwithout any capacitytosenseorunderstandwhatotherpeoplearefeeling;otherslosethiscapacitythroughaccident,disease,orearlytraumaticlifeexperience.Theyareasincapableofunderstandingwhatotherpeoplemeanby‘‘compassion’’or‘‘empathy’’asa colorblindpersonisincapableofunderstandingwhatotherpeoplemeanby‘‘red’’ or‘‘green.’’Normalpeopleareusuallyunawareofthesepeople’shiddentradition: thelatterexperiencenodoubts,noregrets,andnoshameforanythingtheydo. Theylieconstantlywithnorestraintandnoemotion.Theybelievethattheyare exceptionallytalented,althoughtheyseldomare.Theystillmakechoicesonthe basisoftheir(hidden)worldview,butthatworldviewtakesnoaccountofother people’sfeelings.Likeanewborninfant,theysimplyseekwhateverfeelsgoodto themwithnoattentiontoanyoneelseexceptinsofarasotherscanmeettheir desires.Earlyintheirlives,theybecomeawarethatmostpeoplearedifferent,and theybecomeadeptat pretending tohavecompassion.Butthecontrastbetweenwhat theysayandwhattheydoeventuallyrevealstoperceptivepeoplethattheynotonly don’t have compassion,theydon’tevenknowwhatcompassion means.Themost dangerousofthesehandicappedpeoplearecalled psychopaths.

Somepsychopathsbecomeserialkillersorothertypesofcriminals.However, manysucceedinhidingtheirhandicapandgainingpositionsthatpromisewealth orpower—especiallyinpoliticsandbusiness.Theyhidetheirhandicapbyusingthe morallanguageofacceptedworldviews,buttheydistortthemeaningofthewords theyuse—wordslike freedom or democracy—creatingacounterfeittradition,and theydonotactaccordingtothevaluestheyclaimtohold.Rather,theyactaccordingtotheirhiddentraditiontogainwhattheywantwithoutregardforanyoneelse.

Itwouldbecomfortingtothinkthatthesepeoplearerare,butresearchreveals that0.5percentto1percentofhumansare‘‘essentialpsychopaths’’byheredity, andaboutanother5percentlosetheircapacityforconsciencethroughbraininjury, disease,toxicpharmaceuticals,orearlychildhoodtrauma.3

Sometimesthesepeoplesucceedintakingcontrolofanationorculture,ashappenedinNaziGermanyandStalinistRussia.4 Theircounterfeitappealstowidely heldvaluescanconfuseordinarypeopleandleadthemtocooperatewithdisastrous andcriminalpolicies—aggressivewar,repression,genocide.Another12percentof peoplecan suppress theirconscience(atleastforatime)andcooperatewiththe psychopaths,believingthatthisistheonlywayto‘‘getahead’’orhaveaninﬂuence ontheactualworld.5 Onceaculturehasbeencapturedbythis18percent,alarge shareoftheremainingpopulationislikelytogoalongwiththeleadershipbecause theyacceptastruethecounterfeittraditionpreachedbytheleaders,areconfused bythedistortedwaythattraditionispresented,andlacktheself-conﬁdencetoresist theleaders.AfamousseriesofpsychologicalexperimentsbyStanleyMilgraminthe

UnitedStatesintheearly1960sshowsthatmostpeoplewilldefertopeoplein authority,evenagainsttheirownconscience,toanastonishingandfrightening degree.6 Likewise,thebook TheyThoughtTheyWereFree documentshowGermans underNazirulefailedtoconfronttheirleaders,whomtheysawas‘‘bigpeople,’’ whereaseventheprofessionalsamongthemsawthemselvesas‘‘littlepeople’’who werenotqualiﬁedtogetinvolvedinpolitics.7

Moraloutrageatthetruepsychopathsiscounterproductive,sincethey reallyare incapable ofunderstandinghowtheiractionsaffectotherpeople.Whatasociety needstodoisto recognize thesituation(thefalsityofthecounterfeittraditionthese leadersappealto,andtheinﬂuenceofthehiddentraditionthatexplainswhatis actuallyhappening)and refusetocooperate withtheirplans.

Full-blownpsychopathscannotbetreatedpsychologically,sincetheydon’t believethatthereisanythingwrongwiththem.Treatmenteffortsjustteachthem newwaystomanipulateordinarypeople.

Fortunatelymostpeoplestillhaveafunctioningconscience.Eventually,often aftergreatsuffering,theyrealizewhatisgoingon.Somethenrefusetocooperate withthecorruptedleadership,orevenopposeitactively—atgreatpersonalcost. Othersﬁndsaferwaystoactinefﬁcientlyorinterferesecretly,thusweakeningthe powerofpsychopathicevil.

Whilethisbookwillmakesomereferencetocounterfeitandhiddentraditions, itwillprimarilyseektounderstandthegreattraditionsofmajorworldviewsandto encouragepeopletoact‘‘creatively,compassionately,andnonviolently’’8 inline withthemostpositivecharacteristicsofthesetraditions.

Whenonebelievesinagreattradition,onetruststhedoctrinalteachingsofthat religionorworldviewandactsonthem.Butmanymembersofareligion,evensome ofthosewhocarefullythinkthroughitsimplications,arenotsosurethatthegreat traditionisright.Theyactonwhattheythinkis really true—theirlittletradition ratherthanonwhatthey aresupposedto thinkistrue. Psychopaths cannotunderstandtherulesatall—therulesseemlikenaı¨venonsensetothem—buttheymay appealtotherulesdeceitfullytogainthesupportofordinarypeoplewhileviolating thoserulesbytheirownactions.

RELIGIONSANDWORLDVIEWS

Someworldviewsarecalled religions. Others,likeMarxismandsecularhumanism, arenot.Still,secularworldviewsactlikereligionsinmanyways.

MostWesternerspresumethattheyknowwhatareligionis:itissomethinglike Christianity,orJudaism,orIslam;itbelievesinsomethingbeyondthe‘‘ordinary’’—inGodorgods,someunseenPowerorpowers,somethingbeyondcommon,everydayexperience.YetwhenWesternscholarsbeganstudying‘‘world religions,’’theyfoundthatmanypeoplesdon’tevenhaveawordforreligion.

HowmuchdoesaworldviewlikeHinduismhavetobe‘‘like’’Christianityto qualifyasa‘‘religion’’?Isthereanysingle‘‘thing’’thatwemightcallHinduism?

(Eventheword‘‘Hinduism’’wasinventedbyWesterners.)Forthatmatter,isthere asinglethingwecancallChristianity?Ratherthandecidethesequestions,wewill study‘‘worldviews’’asamoregenericreality.Wewillconsiderseveral‘‘dimensions’’ thatarewidely,ifnotuniversally,sharedbyworldviews,andwewillpresumethat everyoneintheworldhas(1) atleastsomeexperienceofsomething,(2) atleasta shadowysenseofwhattheyareexperiencing,and(3) apreferredorhabitualwayof understandingandrelatingtowhateverthatis.

Aswecarryoutthisstudy,wewillkeepinmindseveralquestionsthathelpfocus ourattentiononhowourworldviewsaffecthowweactforjusticeandpeace.More detailregardingthequestionsisavailableonourwebsite.9 Worldviewsdisagreeover howtoanswerthesequestions:

1.Istheresomethingabouthumanityasitactuallyexiststhatmighthelp explain thepersistenceofwar,oppression,torture,criminalactivity,corruption,quarrels,andbrokenrelationships?Ifso,whatisitabouthumanitythathasthese effects,andwhatisthecauseofthissituation?

2.Dependingonyouranswertoquestion1, whatmightbedone torespondto therealsituationofhumans?Canwemakethesechangesforourselveswithoutoutsideaid?Whatkindofaidmightweneed?

3.Doesan invisibleworld interactwithourworldofexperience?Dospiritual powerscareaboutusoranswerprayers?Dowesurvivedeath?

4.Howdowe decidewhatactionsaregood? Through‘‘secular’’experienceand study,divinecommand,theexampleofareligiousleader,apersonalrelationshipwithGodorotherspiritualpower,ourownintuition,or‘‘common sense’’?

5.Whydoes suffering exist?Doesithaveanypositivepurpose?Whatshouldwe doaboutit?

6.Whatisthe purposeofhumanlife? Whatissuccess?Whatbringshappiness? Howdoesthisliferelatetoapossiblefuturelife?

7.Whatdoes justice mean?Equality?Thefreedomtokeepwhatonehasearned? Isjusticeforothersasimportantasjusticeforoneself?

8.Whatcanwebe secure aboutorconﬁdentlycontrol?Howdowehandlefeelingsofinsecurityorpowerlessness?Isitallrighttomaintainoursecurityat thecostofsomeoneelse’swell-being?

9.Areweprimarilypromotingordefending goodness,justice,peace,freedom, security, or prosperity?Forwhom? Whatshouldwebedefending? Can wedo soeffectively,withoutcausingmoreharmthangood?Can forceorviolence be justiﬁedintheirdefense?Can nonviolence beequallyormoreeffective?

THESEVEN‘‘DIMENSIONS’’

Inhisbook TheWorld’sReligions, 10 NinianSmartproposessevendimensionsthat arecommontoallormostreligions.11 Theyarenot‘‘pieces’’ofareligionorworldviewasmuchas‘‘viewpoints’’or‘‘aspects.’’Asamaterialobjecthasthree‘‘dimensions,’’andallthreearedimensionsofthesamething,soareligionorworldview

hasseven‘‘dimensions.’’RearrangingSmart’sordertomakethemeasiertorememberandtoshowconnectionsbetweenthem,thesesevendimensionsare:

1. Experientialandemotional—peoplegainexperienceoflife;somepeoplehave life-changingexperiences.

2. Socialandinstitutional —theyseekoutotherswithsimilarexperiencesand formgroupsforsupport;graduallythesegroupsgrowinsizeandcomplexity.

3. Narrativeormythic—withinthegroup,theypassontheirexperiencesinthe formofstories.

4. Doctrinalandphilosophical—aspeopleaskquestionsabouttheexperiences andthestories,theyexplainthemrationallyasbesttheycan—someofthe meaningcannotbeexpressedrationally,butmustremainasexpressedinthe storiesthemselves.

5. Practicalandritual—iftheyunderstandtheirexperiencestorelatetopowers orbeingsbeyondvisible,everydayexperience,theyworkoutconcretewaysof relatingtothosepowersorbeings(forexample,throughliturgyorworship); theyalsoworkoutformalizedwaysofrelatingtoordinarypeopleandthings (forexample,socialetiquette).

6. Ethicalandlegal—theydecidewhatactionsandwayoflifeareappropriateto theirexperiencesandtheirunderstandingofthoseexperiences;theyalso developlawstogovernthecommunitiestheyhaveformed.

7. Materialandartistic—inlivingouttheprecedingsixdimensions,theyproduce materialthings(buildingsliketemples,songslikehymns,visualarts,literature likedramaandpoems)thatareappropriatetotheirexperiencesandtheir understanding.

Inbrief,people haveexperiences (1); cometogether withothers(2); trytoshare andunderstand theirexperiencesinstory(3)andreasoneddiscourse(4);andseek to liveout theirexperiencesinsolemnorsacredacts(5),ordinaryacts(6),andthe materialfacilitiestheycreate(7).

Thisorderhasacertainlogicalattractivenessandwasprobablytheorderinwhich thefoundersoftheworldviewandearlyconvertstotheworldviewexperienced thesedimensions,butitisnottheorderinwhichmanylaterfollowersexperience them.Mostpeopleare‘‘borninto’’aparticularreligionorworldview—socialized intoitwithintheirfamily.Whiletheybeginlifewithindividualexperiences,these arenottheexperiencesmostcentraltotheirparents’worldview.Perhapstheﬁrst dimensiontheyexperienceis(6):‘‘Johnny,don’tdothat!’’Whentheyaskwhynot, theyaremorelikelytogetanarrative(3)thandoctrine(4),sincetheyaretooyoung fordoctrine.Theyalsoexperiencethesocial(2),ritual(5),andmaterial(7)dimensionsbeforetheyunderstandthereasonsforthem.Astheygrowolder,theymay getagooddoseofthedoctrinaldimension(4)throughsomeformofreligiouseducationbeforetheyﬁnally(ifever)sharethecoreexperiences(1)thatarethebasis foralltherest.

Whenpeoplewhowerebornintoaworldviewdoﬁnallysharethecoreexperiencesthatunderlieit,theyﬁndthateverythinghasdeepermeaningthantheyhad realized—therest‘‘comestolife.’’Oftentheyhavetorethinkitall.Thisiscalled ‘‘adultconversion’’—notconversionfromoneworldviewtoanother,butconversionofapersonfromamerelytheoreticalknowledgeofaworldviewtoadeeply personalrelationshipwithit.

Nowletuslookateachdimensioninmoredetail.

EXPERIENTIALANDEMOTIONALDIMENSION

ManyWesternersﬁrstencounter‘‘mysticism’’inacontextofFarEasternreligious thought,perhapsthroughtheNewAgeMovement,HareKrishna,orTranscendentalMeditation.Conceptslikeyogis,reincarnation,theillusorynatureofeveryday reality,‘‘mindovermatter,’’andastralprojectionareforeignideastotheWestern mind.Somearethensurprisedtohearthatthereisalong-standingandwidely developed Christian mysticaltradition12 that describes experiencesoftensimilarto thoserecountedinFarEasterntraditions,whileit understandsandexplains them differently.Youcanreadaboutavarietyofmysticalexperiencesfrommanydifferenttraditionsin TheVarietiesofReligiousExperience bytheAmericanpsychologist andphilosopherWilliamJames.

SociologicalSupport

ImpressedbyJames’sbook,theAmericansociologist-priestAndrewGreeley,ina nationalsurveyof1,500averageAmericans,addedafewquestionslookingformystics.Heasked,‘‘Haveyoueverhadthefeelingofbeingveryclosetoapowerful spiritualforcethatseemedtoliftyououtofyourself?’’Hewasastonishedtoﬁnd that40percentofhissamplesaid‘‘yes,atleastonce’’;20percentsaid‘‘several times’’;and5percentsaid‘‘often.’’Heaskedthemhowintensetheexperiencewas. Two-thirdsofthemputitatthetopofaseven-pointscale.Hegavethemasimple psychologicaltesttoseewhethertheywereall‘‘crazy.’’Theycameouthealthier psychologicallythananyothergroupwhohadevertakenthattest.

Hewasdisappointedwhensomeofhiscolleaguesdismissedhisresultswithout discussionandhecouldn’tattractmoneyforfurtherresearch.Hethoughtthata groupshowingsuperiorpsychologicalhealthwhoreportedhavingmysticalexperienceswasworthinvestigating. Other colleagues—professionalsociologists— approachedhimquietlytoaskwhetherhemightbeinterestedin their mystical experiences.13

MysticalExperience

Mysticalexperiencesarehardtoputintocategories,buttherearesomecharacteristictypes.

NuminousExperiences

Onetypehasbeencalled numinous experiences.ThenamecomesfromtheLatin word numen,whichreferstoalocalspiritbelievedtoinhabitabrook,groveoftrees, mountain,orothernaturalfeature.Experiencesofthissortbringusintocontact with apresencethat(a)attractsuswhile,atthesametime,(b)sendingathrillofawe orfeardownourspines.Pictureyourselfwalkingthroughagraveyardattwoo’clock inthemorningjustasashadowyshaperisesfromtheground.AnumberofJewish prophetsdescribetheirvisionsinwaysthatseemtoﬁtthistype.SeeingGod,Isaiah fallsﬂatonhisfacecrying,‘‘Woeisme’’(Isaiah6:5).Paulfallstothegroundwhen heseesabrightlightandhearsthevoiceoftherisenJesus,hisexpectationsofarrestingChristiansinDamascusshattered(Acts9:4;22:7;26:13f).Fearisnotalwaysthe dominantelement.Somenuminousexperiencesaredominatedbythefeelingof loveandjoy.Still,thereisasenseofcontactwithsomeoneorsomething‘‘different’’ or‘‘Other’’—somethingpowerfulthatwedon’tcontrol.

Pan-en-henicExperiences

QuitedifferentisamysticalexperiencemoretypicalofHinduism,thoughnot unknownamongChristians.14 Inthisexperience,technicallytermed pan-en-henic (literally:‘‘all-in-one’’),themysticfeelsherselfunitedwithallofreality.Farfrom feelingfearoraweinthepresenceofan Other,themysticfeelsalmostalossofthe senseof self,whichcanalsobefrightening.Manyyogicexercisesaredesignedto leadapersonintoapan-en-henicexperience.Theyogisbelievethatsuchanexperienceshowsuswhattheworldisreallylike.

ShamanicExperiences

Athirdtypeofmysticalexperienceiscommonamong shamans.Thesearereligious leaderswho,eitherwithoutwillingitorthroughadeliberatevisionquest,passfrom thisworldtoanother,haveexperiencestherethatendowthemwithpower,and thenreturntothisworld—oftencarryingthemarksofthejourneyinchronicillness orwoundedness.Havingmadethatjourney,theycanusetheirpowertohelpothers. Youwillﬁndaccountsofshamans’visionsinNativeAmericanliterature,forexample,theclassicbook BlackElkSpeaks 15

‘‘BornAgain’’Experiences

Afourthtypeisthe‘‘bornagain’’experienceofadultreligiousconversion,either intoone’sownreligionorworldview,nowseeninanewway,orintoacompletely newworldview.Typically,asurrenderoffaithleadstointenseexperiencesofconvictionandjoyandtoanewclarityaboutthemeaningofdoctrinesthatwerepreviously‘‘acceptedonfaith’’withoutunderstanding.TherearenumerousChristian accountsofthe‘‘bornagain’’experience,especiallyinEvangelicalandPentecostal

literature.Anexampleofthe‘‘bornagain’’typeoutsideofconfessionalchurchcontextsistheAlcoholicsAnonymousexperienceofsurrenderfollowedbygroup explorationofthe‘‘twelvesteps,’’whichsuddenlytakeonnewlifeandnewpower.

MoreSubtleExperiences

Manymysticalexperiencesdon’tfitneatlyintoanyofthesecategories.Eventhe 60percentofpeoplewhoanswered‘‘no’’toAndrewGreeley’squestionmaywell experiencefeelingsofamoresubtleintensitythatgivemeaningandjustificationto theworldviewstheyhold.Ourdeepconvictionscanbesupportedbyemotionsfelt atthebirthofachild,atthedeathofafriend,whilewalkinginnature,duringa religiousritualsuchasCommunionatMassorthesingingofhymns,orwhensittingquietlyinprayer,perhapsinaholyplace.Evensuchasimplefeelingasthe thrillofhearingournationalanthemplayedduringtheOlympicGamesgrowsout ofandgivessupporttoourcommitmenttoeachotherascitizensofournation. Ifonehassuchexperiences,andif—asissometimesthecase—theydon’tfollow theusualrulesoftimeandspace,theymaybedifficulttodescribetoothers.One usuallybeginsbytellinganarrativeormyth,ourthirdcategorybelow.Butfirst,one mayseekoutotherswhohavehadsimilarexperiences,leadingthemtocreatesocietiesandinstitutionsoflike-mindedpeople.Thisbringsustothesocialdimension.

SOCIALANDINSTITUTIONALDIMENSION

Whenpeoplesharealife-changingexperience,theycometogethertosupport, encourage,anddiscussitwithoneanother.Theirassociationeventuallytakeson concrete,institutionalforms.Differentworldviewsproducedifferenttypesofcommunities.Islamhasbeenparticularlywellorganizedsocially.Itgivescentralimportancetothe umma,orreligiouscommunity.SinceforMuslimseveryaspectoflife shouldbemarkedbysubmissiontoAllah,theyseenoreasontoseparatereligion andstate.

InstitutionalFormswithinaReligionorWorldview

Religiousgroupsorganizethemselvessociallyinaself-consciousway,sincetheir senseofbeingincontactwithaspiritualrealitygivesthemadeepawarenessof sharedexperienceandmovesthemtocometogetherforcommonworship.Differentreligiousgroupspreferdifferentinstitutionalforms.ManyProtestantchurches haveafairlydemocraticstructure.TheRomanCatholicChurchhasamonarchical internationalstructure,althoughitisbecomingmoredemocraticatthelocal,parish level.Butthesearebroadgeneralizations.Majorchurcheschangetheirstructures overtime,adaptingthemtolocalconditions.

Institutionalleadershipisnottheonly,orperhapseventhemostimportant,kind ofleadershipinchurches.Thereisalsotheleadershipofsanctityandspiritualexperience.Sufis,prophets,andsaintsmayelicitmorereverencethancaliphs,chiefrabbis,andbishops.Respectedlocalchurchgoersandactivistsmaybemoreinfluential thanimams,preachers,andpastors.Reflectonthesocialstructuresinwhatever churchoranalogousgroupyoubelongto.Whatsortsofthingsaredoneincommon?Whomakesthe decisions?Dothedecisionmakersrepresentoneparticular group,age,sex,orracetotheexclusionofothers?Whohasthemost influence on others?Inwhatwaysdomembersdependoneachotherandrelatetoeachother?

RelationbetweenReligionandSociety

Typically,inprimitivesocietiestheentiretribesharesthesameworldview.Noone askshowthetribalsocietyrelatestothelargersociety,becausethereisnolarger societyotherthanexternaltribes,whichareseenasforeign.

Morecomplexsocietiesmayhaveanofﬁcialreligion,albeitchallengedbyalternativeworldviews;thesocietymayseeitselfasreligiousbutnotcommittedtoaparticularreligion;oritmaythinkofitselfasindifferenttoreligion—leavingreligionto the‘‘privatesphere.’’Butsocietiesareneverindifferenttoworldviewsassuch:even societiesthattreasureseparationofchurchandstatehavewidelyacceptedprinciples oridealsthatderivefromaworldview,althoughthatworldviewmaybeunexpressed andunconscious.Theconvictionthatseparationofchurchandstateisvaluableand necessaryisitselfavaluejudgmentderivingfromaparticularwayofseeingthe world.Soistheconvictionthatcitizensshouldbereadytoﬁghttodefendthestate.

Aworldvieworreligionmayseeitselfasthedominantfaithinonegeographic area,asoneamongmanyinanotherarea,andasanembattledoutsiderinathird. IslamisdominantinMuslim-majoritycountriessuchasEgyptandSaudiArabia, influentialinIndia,andmarginalintheUnitedStates,thoughlessmarginalthanit usedtobe.Somereligionsorgroupsarenotlargeenoughtobedominantoreven majoractorsanywhere.ThesearegroupssuchastheAmish,oftencalled‘‘sects’’or (bythosewhoarehostiletothem)‘‘cults.’’Theyrelatetosocietydefensively,doubt thattheycanhavemuchinfluenceonthelargersociety,andfeartheinfluencethe largersocietymayhaveonthem.Majorreligionsaresoextensivethattheydominatelargeareasoftheworld.Thesearetheso-calledworldreligions,mostofwhich wearestudyinginthisbook.LiberalProtestantsareanexampleofasubgroup withinamajorreligionthatactivelytriestoinfluencethelargersocietywithout fearingthatthesocietywilloverwhelmthem.

Ingeneral,religionsandothervoluntaryassociations(suchasAlcoholicsAnonymous,theFreemasons,Marxistparties,justiceandpeacegroups)bothinfluencethe largersocietyandareinfluencedbyit.Thequestionofwhethersuchgroupsare more‘‘democratic’’ormore‘‘monarchical’’illustrateshowchurchstructuresare influencedbysecularstructures.Reflectonyourownexperienceandconsiderto whatextentyourchurchorsimilargrouphasfeltself-confidentorthreatenedin relationtothelargersociety.Doesyourchurchtryto conform tothelargersociety—

‘‘toﬁtin’’?Doesittryto inﬂuence orchangethelargersociety?Doesitpreferto separate fromthelargersociety?

InﬂuenceofReligiousStructureonMembers

Religiousandanalogousgroupsaim consciously toencourageandinfluencetheir members.Theyalsoinfluencetheirmembers unconsciously bythestructuresthey adopt.Sometimesthesestructuresactagainsttheirconsciousefforts:exhortations tolovecanbeineffectiveinastructureofdominanceandspecialprivilege,aswas trueofcolonialchurchesinAfrica.Itisimportanttoexaminewhetherthe structures ofaparticulargroupreflectandencouragethe ideals preachedbythatgroup.

NARRATIVEORMYTHICDIMENSION

NarrativeofanExperience

Afteramysticalexperience,howdoesonedescribewhathappened?Inhisbook Life afterLife,RaymondA.Moodytellsaboutawomanwhobecamefrustratedbecause shehadonly‘‘three-dimensionalwords’’withwhichtodescribehernear-death experienceeventhoughtheexperiencewasmorethanthree-dimensional.16 In I HaveMetHim:GodExists,Andre ´ Frossardwrites,‘‘AlltheseimpressionswhichI finditsohardtotranslateintothedeficientlanguageofideasandimagesoccurred simultaneouslyandweresotelescopedtheoneintotheotherthataftermanyyears Ihavenotyetbeenabletodigestalltheycontained.’’17 Afterhisfinalvision,Thomas Aquinasquitwritingentirely.Still,peoplenarrateaswellastheycan.People’sstumblingnarrativesareunderstoodbestbythosewhohavehadsimilarexperiences.

Myth

Beyonddescribingthe experiences,peoplewanttodescribethe kindofworldthat mightexplain suchexperiences.Oftennarrativeandpoetryarebettersuitedto describetheindescribablethanacademicdiscourseis.

ModernWesternerstendtouse‘‘myth’’tomean‘‘false,’’forexample,the‘‘six myths’’ofgoodhealth,orthe‘‘fivemyths’’ofweightloss.Inthisbookweareusing theterminadifferentsense.Theologically,mythsintendtoexpresstruth.Some mythssucceedandsomefail,justassomescientifictheoriessucceedandsomefail. In Worldviews,NinianSmartdefinesa‘‘myth’’as‘‘astoryofdivineorsacredsignificance.’’18 ScholarsofreligionlikeErnstCassirerorMirceaEliadepointoutthat mythsarenotjust literary products,althoughweoftenmeetmyths,likethoseof GreeceandRome,inwrittenformfromthepast.NativeAmericantribalsocieties actout mythsinsacredpoetry,song,anddrama.ThroughtheMassortheLord’s Supper,Christiansactout,insacredreadings,song,anddrama,themythofthe deathandresurrectionofJesus,amyththattheybelieveisgroundedinhistoryand yettranscendshistory.

Committedparticipantsbelievetheycomeintocontactwithsacredpower throughtheritualcelebrationofamyth.Theyovercomethenormallimitationsof timeandspacetoencounterpersonallytheprimalenergyofanancientevent,or ofarealitythatcanonlybeexpressedbynonhistoricalnarratives.ThusChristians encounterthepowerofJesus’resurrectionattheLord’sSupper,thepowerofcreationintheEastervigil,thepowerofGodtotransformhumansinbaptism.Other mythstrytoexplainhowthephysicalandspiritualrealityweliveincametobe (creation),wherehumansinandevilcamefrom(‘‘originalsin’’),andhowhistory asweknowitwillend(eschatology).

Inhisbook MythsandRealities,JohnMcKenziediscussesmythsinrelationto biblicalnarrativessuchasthecreationandﬂoodstories.Speakingofmythsand mythmakingingeneral,hepointsoutthat mythintendstoexpresstruth,butthrough symbolicformsofexpression.Ittriestorepresentaninsightintoarealitythatcannot beexpressedlogically.Mythdealswithbasicquestionsofimportancetoallhumans thatliedeeperthanthethingswecantouchandsee:questionslikethenatureof Godorspiritualforces;thepurpose,direction,andgoalofhumanexistence;the originsoftheworld,ofhumans,ofsinandevil,ofhumaninstitutions;howhumans relatetospiritualbeing,tophysicalnature,toeachother.Mythdoesnot‘‘solve’’ theseproblems.Ratheritsuggeststohumanswhat attitude theyshouldtakeinthe presenceofsuchmysteries.

FourCharacteristicsofMyth

McKenzieoutlinesfourcharacteristicsofmythiclanguageandthought:

1.Mythdoesnotexpectto understand whatisunknowable.Insteaditexpresses theunknowableinsymbolstakenfromexperience.Whatisexpressedisan intuitionratherthana‘‘fact.’’

2.Mythbelievesthattheeventsweseearecontrolledandenergizedbyadivine orspiritualbackgroundthatispersonal.Believersinthemythdonotseeitas a‘‘personiﬁcation’’ofnaturalforces.Thatis,theydonotspeakofit asifit were personalbecausetheeventswesee look personal;rathertheybelievethat theeventswesee are thewaytheyare becausethebackgroundis personal.

3.Mythdoesnotdealwithnormalhistoricalevents(eventsthathappenina certaintimeandplace),butratherwithtimelessrealitiesinthe‘‘eternalNow’’ ofthespiritworld,whichisthesourceoftherecurrenteventsweobserve. EventhedeathandresurrectionofJesus,whichinonerespectcanbeﬁxedin history,inanotherrespectisseenbyChristiansastimelessandeternallyeffectivebecauseitisanactionofGod,whoisoutsidetime.

4.Sometimesdifferentmythsseemcontradictory,notbecauseoneofthemis wrong,butbecausenosinglemythcanexpressthefullreality.Severalmyths areusedtotrytoembracethereality.Theymaycontradicteachotheronthe surfacelevelofsigniﬁer,butnotontheunderlyinglevelofwhatisbeingsigniﬁed.19

ModernAmericanSecularExamples

Allofthismayseemremotetosecularpeoplewhodon’tbelieveinaspiritworld. Butbeforesuchpeopledecidetheyaresuperiorto‘‘primitive’’mythmakers,they mightaskthemselveswhatstoriestheytelleachother,andwhatthosestoriesmean tothem.WhydoAmericansrepeatstoriesaboutGeorgeWashington‘‘unableto tellalie,’’‘‘honestAbe’’Lincoln,andvictoriousGeneralEisenhower?DothesestoriesexpresswhatAmericansarelike?Andbywhatsortof‘‘causality’’mightAmericansshareintheabilitiesandvirtuesoftheirheroes?

Similarly,whenwespeakofsuccessandthepurposeoflife,whatmessagedowe giveandreceivefromtheprogramswewatchontelevision—dramaslikepoliceand spyshows,‘‘reality’’shows,andconfrontationaltalkshows?Whatattitudedowe takeinthefaceofopposition?Thatevilisatemporarymistakecausedbyafew stupidorevilpeople,andthatstrengthandcunningwillenableustorestoregood bydestroyingthoseevilpeople?Ifso,weareillustratingwhatthetheologianWalter Winkcallsthe‘‘mythofredemptiveviolence.’’20

Inshort,narrativesandmythsareonewayacommunitypassesonitscombined experiencetothenextgenerationandreinforcesitscommonunderstandingofwhat realityislike.Ifapersongivesnoattentionorauthoritytothemythsandnarratives ofhertradition(inpsychologicalterms,totheunconscious),shereducesherunderstandingofrealitytothenarrowrangeofexperiencethatsheherselfcanhave.At thesametime,weneedtobecriticalofthemythsofourownsocietyandculture, recognizingthattheyarebutonesetofmyths,differentfromthoseofotherpeoples thoughsharingarchetypalfeatures,andequallylikelytomisleadiftakenliterally. Prophetschallengemythsoftheirownsocietiesinthenameofwhatseemstothem tobeahigherauthority.

RitualEnactmentofMyths

Finally,howdoweactoutourmyths?Thinkofpubliceventsmarkingnational holidays,majorpoliticaldemonstrations,memorialremembrancesofnationalfigureslikeMartinLutherKingJr.,ticker-tapeparadesfortriumphantgenerals,postagestampsshowingnationalsymbolsliketheStatueofLiberty,anniversariesof historicallysignificantevents,andOlympicvictoriesthatreinforceoursenseof superiority.Theactingoutcangobeyondmereceremony.Itcanbringusintocontactwithapowercapableofblessingusorsavingusfromdanger.Thisaspectof mythleadsustothepracticalandritualdimension,whichwewilldiscussshortly. Butfirst,consideranotherresponsetoreligiousexperience.Suchexperiencegives risetomanyquestions,towhichpeopleseekrationalanswersasfaraspossible.The responsetothatquestisthedoctrinaldimension.

DOCTRINALANDPHILOSOPHICALDIMENSION

Doctrineisashorthandwayofexpressingthemeaningofreligiousexperiencesand narratives.Ithasseveralfunctions:(a)itattemptstoexplainasclearlyaspossible

whatourexperiencesandournarrativesmean;(b)byexpressingtheworldviewin asbriefandclearaformaspossible,ithelpsustoarticulateandpassontoothers ournewvisionoftheworld;(c)ithelpsustoseehowthedifferentpartsofour worldviewrelatetoeachotherandtriestoresolveapparentinconsistencies;(d)it helpsustojudgewhichnewideasandwhichnewexplanationsoftheworldview succeedinexpressing,oratleastdonotdoviolenceto,thecentralexperiencesand insightsoftheworldview;(e)ithelpsustorelatetheworldviewtonewquestions andnewideasinthelargersocietyaroundus;(f)ithelpsustoknowwhoisa memberofthecommunityandwhoisnot.

Whenoneunderstandsthedoctrineofaparticularworldview,oneisinaposition tounderstandwhyitsmembersactinthewaystheydo.Thatis,doctrineinﬂuences ritual,ethics,andthesocialandmaterialshapeoftheculturethattheworldview generates.Thereisaclassicsayinginmedievaltheology: lexorandi,lexcredendi.It meansthatthewaywepray(ritual)revealswhatwebelieve(doctrine).Thisistrue evenofpsychopaths,ifonerealizesthattheyareactingonthedoctrinesoftheir hidden traditionratherthanonthoseofthecounterfeittraditionwhichtheypurporttofollow.Soletusconsiderhowdoctrineshapesritual.

PRACTICALANDRITUALDIMENSION

Ritualdealswithactionsthatareinsomewayparticulartoaworldview;theyare notjustgenerichumanactionslikesleeping,waking,eating,andsoon.Theyare generichumanactionsthataredone inaparticularway asaresultofaparticular worldview.Forexample,theZenBuddhistteaceremony,whichdiffersfromasuburbancareerwoman’smicrowavedmorningtea,assumesthecharacterofaritual. Themeaningofaparticularritualdependsontheworldviewwithinwhichitis performed.Whenwethinkofrituals,wearemostlikelytothinkofprayerorpublic liturgicalworship,whichareformsofritualcommontoJewish,Christian,and Muslimworldviews.Inthesereligions,prayerandliturgicalritualsenactconversationswithGodorotherspiritualbeings.

Sacriﬁce

Animalandvegetablesacriﬁceis—orwas—awidespreadritualpracticeamong humans.Sinceitseemsforeigntomanyofustoday,itisusefultoexamineitsmeaning.SacriﬁceisusuallyconsideredtobeagiftgiventoGodorotherspiritualbeings. Theprimitiveviewisthatvaluablethingscanbetransferredoverfromthisworld tothespiritworldinavarietyofways.Fireseemsadivinemediumforsuch exchange,sinceitiscapableofturningsolid,materialthingsintospiritualsubstance.Killingananimalisanotherwaytotransfervalueovertothespiritworld, sincedeathfreesthesoul,consideredtobethemostvaluablepartoftheanimal, frommatter.

Worshiperstransfergiftstothespiritworldinordertodevelopandmaintaina relationshipwithGodandspiritualbeings.Whiletosomepeoplesuchgiftgiving maylooklikebribery,atitsbestitisanattempttobuildarelationshipofcaring andtrust:IshowmygooddispositiontoGodbyofferingthingsofvalueinthe confidencethatGod,nowwelldisposedtomeandbynaturegood,willmeetmy needsordesires.Tocreatesucharelationship,Imustnotbecheapordeceitfulin mygifts.Theofferingsmustbe‘‘spotless,’’ofgoodquality,suchasImightofferto peopleofinfluenceinhumanaffairs.‘‘First’’thingsareespeciallyvaluable(firstbornanimals,thefirstarmfulofharvestedgrain)becausethefirstsymbolizesand standsforthewhole.WhenIofferthe‘‘first,’’Iamsymbolicallyofferingeverything toGod.Moregenerally,ritualswithinmanyworldviewsalsoofferGod nonmaterial gifts:praise,obedience,service,time,andattentioninprayer.

FestivalsandSacredTimes

Ritualsalsocelebratesacredtimes:annualorrecurrentcelebrationscommemoratingkeyeventswhosepowercontinuestoreverberateinthecommunity.Examples includeJewscelebratingtheirrescuefrombondageinEgyptatPassoverandtheir receptionoftheLawofMosesat Shavuot (JewishPentecost);Christianscelebrating thebirthofJesusatChristmas,hisresurrectionatEaster,andthedescentofthe HolySpiritatChristianPentecost;Muslimscelebratingtheinitialrevelationto MuhammadduringRamadan,etc.

Thesigniﬁcanceofaneventdependsontheparticularmeaningthateventhas forthecommunitycelebratingit.Theoriginalhistoricaleventtakesonamythical aura,whichcarriesitssymbolicpowerdownintothepresenttime.Forexample, JewscelebratetheestablishmentofthestateofIsraelin1948;Palestiniansrecallthe sameeventas al-Nakba—thecatastrophe—becauseforatleast750,000Palestinians itmeantthelossoftheirhomes,farmlands,andcountry.Similarly,Protestantsof NorthernIrelandannuallycelebratetheirvictoryintheBattleoftheBoyne(1690) bymarchingthroughCatholicneighborhoods;theCatholicsexperiencethesevictoryparadesashumiliating.

RitualsandPower

Ifritualscanreenacthistoricalevents,theycanalsoactoutahistoricalmyths.Native Americantribalsocietiesactoutmythsinsacredpoetry,song,anddrama.Through theMassortheLord’sSupper,Christiansactout,insacredreadings,song,and drama,themythofthedeathandresurrectionofJesus,amyththattheybelieveis groundedinhistoryandyettranscendshistory.

Committedparticipantsbelievetheycomeintocontactwith sacredpower capable ofblessingthemorsavingthemfromdangerwhentheycelebrateamyth.Through ritual,theyovercomethenormallimitationsoftimeandspacetoencounterpersonallytheprimalenergyofahistoricallyancientevent,orofarealitythatcanonlybe expressedthroughnonhistoricalnarratives.ThusChristiansbelievetheyencounter

thepowerof Jesus’resurrection attheLord’sSupper,thepowerof creation inthe Eastervigil,thepowerofGodto transformhumans inbaptism.

ETHICALANDLEGALDIMENSION

Howwechoosetoactdependsonwhatwethinktheworldislike,thatis,onour doctrine.Weunderstandthatouractionshaveconsequences.Ifwethink,assome spiritualHindusdo,thattheworldisanillusionthatperpetuatessuffering,we chooseactionsthatseparateusfromtheworld.Ifwethink,assomemonotheists do,thatapunitiveGodiswatchingoureverymoveandcomparingitwithalistof rules,wechoosetofollowtherules.Religiouspeoplethinkthroughtheimplications oftheirbeliefsforactionandexpresstheresultsinmoraljudgmentsandlaws.

Somereligionsbasetheirlawsandmoraljudgmentscloselyontheoriginalmysticalexperiencesofthegroup.Theyspeakof‘‘divinelyrevealedlaws.’’Muslimsmake thisclaimfortheQuran,JewsmakeitfortheLawofMoses(especiallythecoreof thelawasexpressedinthe‘‘TenCommandments’’),andChristiansmakeitforthe teachingsofJesusofNazarethasrepresentedintheNewTestamentGospels.

‘‘Divinelyrevealed’’lawsmayormaynotseemreasonable.Ifweactagainstthe lawofgravitybysteppingoutofaskyscraperwindow,therearerapidandobvious consequences.Ifweactagainstthearbitraryrulesofsomeonebiggerthanweare, theconsequencesdependonwhetherthatpersoniswatching.Yetthedivinitythat isrevealingthelawsmaybewarningusofnaturalconsequencesthatwecannotsee withourlimitedvision.

Ingeneral,wearemorelikelytofollowlawswillinglyiftheymakesensetous.If allweperceiveisthelawandtheauthoritythatpunisheslawbreakers,wemayfollow thelawbutdosoresentfully.Intheformercase,ourmotivationis intrinsic;inthe lattercase,itis extrinsic.Socialresearchshowsthatextrinsicmotivation reduces a person’seagernesstodowhatthemotivatorisencouraging,evenwhenthataction isintrinsicallyattractive.Lowgradesandridiculediscouragestudents,buthigh gradesandgoldstars alsoreduce students’eagernesstoread,question,andlearn incomparisonwiththosewhoarenotbeing extrinsically motivated—extrinsically motivatedstudentsforgettheexcitementoflearningandinsteadstudymainlyfor grades.Youngchildrenarealwaysasking,‘‘Why?’’Bythetimetheyareincollege, theyask,‘‘Willthatbeonthetest?’’21 Religiousfounders,leaders,andsacredtexts oftensaywewillberewardedandpunishedforouractions,butthefoundersthemselvesandtheirimmediatefollowersweren’tprimarilymotivatedbyrewardsand punishments.TheyjustfellinlovewithGod,goodness,beauty,compassion,and truthfortheirownsake.SaintAugustineexpressedhisconvictionthatGod’scommandsmakesensewhenhesaid,‘‘LoveGod,anddowhatyouwant.’’Hedidnot meanthatbylovingGodyoucangetawaywithanything,butthatwhenyoulove GodyouendupwantingwhatGodwants.