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Reservoir Characterization: Fundamentals and Applications. Volume 2 Fred Aminzadeh
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
USA
2
S. Malani, Vijayanand S. Moholkar, Nimir O. Elbashir and Hanif A. Choudhury
2.3
4.4
3.2.3
5
5.3
Martínez-Narro
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
6.1
6.2
6.6
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.5
6.6.6
6.6.7
6.6.8
6.7
Soumya Sasmal and Kaustubha Mohanty
7.6.3
8.4.4
8.4.5
8.4.6
8.5.4
9.2.2
9.3.5.1
10
Vikranth Volli, Randeep Singh, Krushna Prasad Shadangi and Chi-Min Shu
Abhishek Walia, Chayanika Putatunda, Preeti Solanki, Shruti Pathania and Ravi Kant
11.3.3.4
13.5.3 Organosolvent Pretreatment
14 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Biofuel
Trinath Biswal and Krushna Prasad Shadangi
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Various Nanoparticles Used for Production of Biofuel
14.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles
14.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
14.2.3 Graphene and Graphene Derived Nanomaterial for Biofuel
14.2.4 Other Nanoparticles Applied in Heterogeneous Catalysis for Biofuel Production 495
14.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Nanoparticles in the Manufacturing Process of Biofuel 495
14.3.1 Nanoparticle Synthesis Temperature 496
14.3.2 Pressure During Synthesis of Nanoparticle 496
14.3.3 pH Influencing Synthesis of Nanoparticles 496
14.3.4 Size of Nanoparticles 496
14.4 Role of Nanomaterials in the Synthesis of Biofuels 496
14.5 Utilization of Nanomaterials for the Production of Biofuel 497
14.5.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Nanocatalysts 497
14.5.2 Application of Nanomaterials for the Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 500
14.5.3 Application of Nanomaterials in Synthesis of Cellulase and Stability 501
14.5.4 Application of Nano-Materials in the Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass 501
14.5.5 Bio-Ethanol Production by Using Nanotechnology 502
14.5.6 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Bio-Ethanol or Cellulosic Ethanol 506
14.5.7 Up-Gradation of Biofuel by Using Nanotechnology 508
14.5.8 Use of Nanoparticles in Biorefinery 509
14.6 Conclusion 510 References 511
15 Experimental Investigation of Long Run Viability of Engine Oil Properties in DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Diesel, Bioethanol and Biodiesel Blend
Dulari Hansdah and S. Murugan
15.1 Introduction
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.2.1
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.4.2.1
15.4.3
15.4.3.1
15.4.3.2 Analysis
16 Studies on the Diesel Blends Oxidative Stability in Mixture with TBHQ Antioxidant and Soft Computation Approach Using
16.3
16.2.5
16.2.6
16.2.7
16.2.8
16.3.1
16.3.9 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends + TBHQ
16.4 Response Surface Methodology for Performance Parameter
16.4.1 Non-Linear Regression Model for Performance Parameter
16.4.2
16.4.4 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BSFC 571
16.4.5 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BTE 576
16.4.6 Non-Linear Regression Model for Emission Parameter
16.4.8 ANOVA for Emission Parameters
16.4.9 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO 586
16.4.10 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for HC 591
16.4.11 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for NOx 591
16.4.12 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO2 592
16.5 Modelling of ANN 593
16.5.1 Prediction of Performance Characteristics 596
16.5.2 Prediction of Emission Characteristics 597
16.6 Validation of RSM and ANN 599
16.7 Conclusion 606 References 608
17
V.Dhana Raju, S.Rami Reddy, Harish Venu, Lingesan Subramani and Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar
18
Sakthivel R, Mohanraj T, Abbhijith H and Ganesh Kumar P
18.6
K. Adithya, C.M Jagadesh Kumar, C.G. Mohan, R. Prakash and N. Gunasekar
Preface
The goal of this book is to provide a profound contribution to the research about liquid biofuel technologies from fundamental to applications for engineers and scientists.
This book is an advanced assemblage of twenty chapters including “Introduction to Biomass to Biofuels Technologies”, “Advancements of Cavitation Technology in Biodiesel Production – from Fundamental Concept to Commercial Scale-up”, “Heterogeneous Catalyst for Pyrolysis and Biodiesel Production”, “Algal biofuel: Emergent applications in next generation Biofuel Technology”, “Co-liquefaction of Biomass to Biofuels”, “Biomass to Bio Jet Fuels: A Take Off to the Aviation Industry”, “Advance in Bio-ethanol Technology: Production and Characterization”, “Effect of Process Parameters on the Production of Pyrolytic Products from Biomass Through Pyrolysis”, “Thermo-Catalytic Conversion of Non-Edible Seeds (Extractive-Rich Biomass) to Fuel Oil”, “Suitability of Oil Seed Residues as a Potential Source of Bio-Fuels and Bioenergy”, “Co-Conversion of Algal Biomass to Biofuel”, “Pyrolysis of Caryota Urens Seeds: Fuel Properties and Compositional Analysis”, “Bio-Butanol as Biofuels: The Present and Future Scope”, “Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Biofuel”, “Experimental Investigation of Long Run Viability of Engine Oil Properties in DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Diesel, Bioethanol and Biodiesel Blend”, “Studies on the Diesel Blends Oxidative Stability in Mixture with TBHQ Antioxidant and Soft Computation Approach Using ANN and RSM at Varying Blend Ratio”, “Effect of Nanoparticles in Bio-Oil on the Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine”, “Use of Optimization Techniques to Study the Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine”, “Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Biodiesel-Diesel and Biomass Pyrolytic Oil-Diesel Blended Oil: A Comparative Study”, and “Agro-Waste for Second-Generation Biofuels”.
I take the prospect to express my honest thanks to all the proficient authors from India, Turkey, Qatar, United Kingdom, and Taiwan who have imparted their enthusiastic efforts in contributing such beautiful and very
xxii Preface
informative chapters with the most recent literature and case studies on fundamentals and applications of liquid biofuels.
Copious support and encouragement from my parents, elder brother, sister-in-law, and my sweet wife has provided me the confidence and strength to technically manage and complete this book.
I also thank Wiley-Scrivener for the cooperation in developing this comprehensive book.
Dr. Krushna Prasad Shadangi
Assistant Professor Department of Chemical Engineering
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha, India
1
Introduction to Biomass to Biofuels Technologies
Ezgi Rojda Taymaz, Mehmet Emin Uslu and Irem Deniz*
Bioengineering
Department, Faculty of Engineering, Manisa Celal Bayar
University, Muradiye-Manisa, Turkey
Abstract
Biofuels are renewable, environmentally friendly, alternative fuels suitable for use as heat, power and alternative engine fuel, important for the socioeconomic development of countries, resource diversity and supply security. Applications of liquid-solid-gas biofuels obtained from biomass in energy sources are increasing rapidly. The bioenergy sector has a rather complex structure due to the diversity of potential raw materials and technical ways to convert biomass into energy. Sixty percent of the biomass is derived from agricultural waste, and various conversion techniques are applied to these organic wastes for bioenergy production. The most important alternative biofuels based on biomass can be classified as bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, bio-methanol, bio-methyl ether and bio-oil. The most common biofuels are bioethanol and biodiesel. Biofuels have been found to increase its usability due to being based on renewable biological resources and non-toxic, having a good biodegradability, causing very low emissions when burned and being environmentally friendly. This chapter investigates biomass resources and biofuel technologies in a bio-refinery concept.
the sun by plants. Its principle is to use the energy stored in the plant in its transformed form when needed. Biomass energy is examined in two groups as classical and modern. Classical biomass energy consists of firewood, plant and animal residues obtained from conventional forests. The main character of the use of classical biomass energy is that the energy from the biomass material is obtained through various combustion tools and direct combustion techniques from primitive to developed ones. Modern biomass resources are listed as energy forestry products, forest and wood industry wastes, energy agriculture, vegetable and animal wastes in the agricultural sector, urban wastes, and agriculture-based industrial wastes [1].
Biomass materials are transformed into biofuels after pre-preparation and conversion. Biofuels can be used for heat and electricity production. Biofuel use ranges from large central power station to vehicles. Modern biomass energy techniques are based on transforming the material so that the physical condition remains constant and/or changed. Biomass is divided into low biomass techniques and high biomass techniques. Low biomass techniques are direct combustion, anaerobic decomposition, fermentation-distillation processes. High biomass techniques consist of pyrolysis, hydrogasification, acid hydrolysis, and biological hydrogen production processes. Modern biomass energy is a sustainable energy source, in full compliance with the environment. Biofuels are the general names of gas, liquid and solid products obtained by passing agricultural products, wood, animal, plant and urban waste through various biochemical and/or thermochemical conversion processes. Gas biofuels; bio-hydrogen, biogas, synthetic gases, solid biofuels; wood coal, bio-char, bio-pellet, bio-bricket, liquid biofuels; bioethanol, biodiesel, bio-methanol, bio-methyletheter and vegetable oils [1, 2].
It is possible to produce both energy and new chemicals using different methods from biomass. Biogas and ethanol can be produced by fermentation in anaerobic environment [3]. Gas fuel and activated carbon are produced by pyrolysis from wastes with a high percentage of solid with thermal decomposition. Synthetic fuel (syngas) production can be made by hydrogasification and hydrogenation. Heat energy and electricity are produced by burning garbage and solid wastes directly with air. Organic fertilizer is produced as a result of composting of garbage and animal feces [1].
1.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass and Its Composition
Various agricultural by-products and vegetal wastes that are released to the environment as solid wastes can be considered as biomass sources. Such substances show similarities with wood in terms of their general
properties and chemical structures and are called lignocellulosic biomass. Lignocellulosic biomass has a rather complex polymeric structure. The plant cell (from outside to inside) consists of pectin, cellulose, ligninhemicellulose, and soluble stoplasmic compounds. Intracellular components are mainly sugars, starch, proteins, pectin and lipids. Lignocellulosic materials are an important source of raw materials because these components can be separated by hydrolysis and extraction [4, 5].
The lignocellulosic materials that make up 50% of the total biomass in the world are not suitable for consumption as direct food and are made up of plant sources. Basically, there are three basic polymers: hemicellulose (C5H8O4)n, cellulose (C6H10O5)n and lignin [C9H10O3) (OCH3)0.9-1.7]n [4]. Typically, biomass contains 40-60% cellulose, 20-40% hemicellulose and 10-25% lignin. Extracts and minerals in lignocellulose are up to 10% of the weight of dry biomass. Other substances in the lignocellulose (extractives) are organic solutions or water-soluble substances, which make up a very small part (1-5%) of the lignocellulosic substance [6].
The cell walls of plants contain lignocellulose. If the lignin is removed, the polysaccharide derivative remains. Polysaccharides in the plant cell are also called halocellulose. Halocelluloses consist of celluloses and hemicelluloses. If halocellulose is hydrolyzed, C6 and C5 sugars, uronic acids and acetyl groups are obtained. C6 sugars are glucose, mannose and galactose. C5 sugars are mainly xylose and arabinose. The ratio of each compound varies depending on the plant source [7].
The main components of lignocellulosic natural sources are cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, extractives and inorganics [8]. Cellulose in nature is polysaccharides such as various starch, pectin, and hemicellulose. Hemicelluloses are galactose, mannose, xylose, arabinose and other sugars; they contain polymers and heteropolymers of uronic acids. In addition cellulose in nature exists as a mixture of cellulose-lignin [9, 10].
1.2.1 Cellulose
In the biosphere, which we call the world of living things, approximately 27x1010 tons of carbon is attached to living organisms and more than 99% of it is found in vegetable material. Approximately 40% of the carbon in plants comes from cellulose. In this regard, cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer on earth, and it has a wide spread from primitive plants (algae, moss, etc.) to highly organized plants (woods) and some bacteria [11, 12]. Cellulose is one of the most important structural polysaccharides that are found in the plant world and have the simplest structure and also located in the cell wall structure [13].
Cellulose is the most common polymer on earth which is a linear syndiotactic (alternative spatial arrangement) of the glucose polymer bonded by Β-(1 → 4)-glycosidic bonds. The size (degree of polymerization) of the cellulose molecule varies depending on the presence of less than 500 glucose units in each molecule in the secondary wall located on the wall of the plant cell [9]. Cellulose chains are formed by combining thousands of glucose units and these chains have hydrogen and Van der Waals bonds [14].
Cellulose is in the basic structure of all plants, and the most important task of cellulose is to provide strength, uprightness and support to plants. Cellulose does not exist in its pure form in nature. Cellulose, which is the main structure element of the cell wall, constitutes 40-50% of lignocellulosic biomass [15]. Cellulose is almost never found alone in nature. It is often found with other herbal ingredients. This affects the breakdown of cellulose in the natural environment [9].
There are several types of cellulose in nature. All of these are used for different purposes [16]. Cellulose types are distinguished from each other by the letters a, b, d. A-cellulose is the most important of all species. B-cellulose and d-cellulose, which take the name “hemicellulose”, are less resistant to acids and bases and have the ability to break easily [13].
1.2.2 Hemicellulose
Hemicelluloses are the most important component of lignocellulosic substances after cellulose. Hemicelluloses are formed by bounding simple sugars in different ways and found in plants at a rate of approximately 20-30%. Their polymeric structure is quite open (amorphous) and irregular (branching) compared to cellulose, and they are more sensitive to reactions than cellulose, which is arranged in the form of flat chains. Hemicellulose can be dissolved and swollen in water due to its amorphous structure [17].
Hemicellulose includes ether-bound pentoses, hexoses, sugar acids and ester-bound acetyl and feruloyl groups. It is a heterogeneous polymer consisting of 5C pentose sugars (such as xylose arabinose) and 6C hexose sugars (such as mannose, glucose and galactose) and sugar acids. Hemicellulose does not have a crystalline structure and therefore has a lower degree of polymerization than cellulose (mostly about 200) [18]. Unlike cellulose, hemicellulose is not chemically homogeneous. Hemicelluloses in hardwoods contain large amounts of xylan, hemicelulloses in softwoods contain more glucomannan [19]. In most plants, xylanes are a type of heteropolisaccharide. These include 1.4 linked homopolymeric chains of
β-D-xylopyranose units. Unlike xylose, xylanes contain arabinose, glucronic acid or 4-O-methyl ether of glycronic acid and acetic, ferulic and p-coumaric acid. Branching contents and frequencies depend on the xylan source [20]. The xylan spine (skeleton) contains O-acetyl, α-L-arabinofranosyl, α-1.2 bound glucronic or 4-0-methyl glucronic acid. Hence, xylanes can be categorized as linear homoxylanes, arabinoxylanes, glucuronoxylanes and gluronoarabinoxylanes [21].
1.2.3 Lignin
Lignin is the most common natural polymer in the plant world after cellulose. Its main task in the cell wall is to hold cellulose fibers together due to its adhesive properties [15]. It is also known as the substance that forms the woody structure of the root and stem in the plant [16].
Lignin is a glycoside and can be easily decomposed into glucose and aromatic alcohol. This glycoside is called coniferin. Alcohol derived from this compound was also called coniferyl alcohol. Most of the polymeric structure of lignin contains three types of alcohols; synapyl, p-coumaryl and coniferyl alcohols [22].
It is understood from the fragmentation products that the main structure block of lignin consists of an aromatic core and a propane chain [23]. There are several functional groups in some parts of the molecule. The basic unit of lignin is called phenyl propane. Phenyl propane types produce lignin by connecting to each other in various styles [24]. The general structure of lignin can be explained by dehydrogenating polymerization of coniferyl, sinapil and coumaryl alcohols. The complex structure of the lignin and the formation of various bonds occur when the phenoxy radicals of these monomers are matched in different ways [25].
The structural duties of lignin in the plant cell are to give rigidity to the cell wall, to ensure the adhesion of different cells in the wood tissue, to make the cell wall hydrophobic, to protect the wood from microbial disintegration. The structure of the lignin is very suitable for performing these functions. Aromatic rings and hydroxyl groups provide non-covalent dipole aromatic interactions and hydrogen bonds between cellulose and hemicellulose. Bending of the structure is prevented due to the branches in the structure of the lignin [26].
Lignin can be used in many industrial areas: as water processors in heating-cooling systems, cement industry, road construction, oil well drilling mud, agglomeration of animal feed, ceramic production, paint production, pesticide drugs, pipelines, casting molding rods, plywood production [27].
1.3 Types and Category of the Biomass
Biomass is defined as any mass or residue of any natural or organic (decaying) substance obtained from existing plants or animals, of which biological origin is non-fossil and renewable. Biomass is the common name given to all organic materials including land and water-growing plants, forest and agricultural plants, animal waste, herbaceous and woody energy plants, organic wastes of cities, and industries and municipalities, which can be renewed in less than 100 years [28]. Biomasses which are carbohydrate compounds are transformed into solid, liquid and gaseous bioenergy. Bioenergy is passed through various physical, chemical and biological methods. It has commercial properties whose basic and specific properties are standardized [29].
There are four basic biomass resources: marine residue, forestry residue and crops, animal manure and industrial waste. Marine biomass – sea weeds, algae, reed plants and some microorganisms found in the seas and lakes – have high moisture content and growth rate, while forestry residues and crops are wood industry residues and wood residues consisting of woody and herbaceous plants [30, 31].
Biomass sources can be also classified as classic and modern. Classical biomass sources consist of wood obtained from forests, plant and animal residues (stalk, straw, straw, etc.) used as fuel. Modern biomass resources include energy forestry, wood and forest industry wastes, animal wastes and urban wastes. Modern biomass resources can be considered as biomass from plant, animal and industry. The raw use of classical biomass resources without any transformation creates adverse effects on the biomass energy potential and the environment. Modern biomass sources have an important biomass energy potential and with the development of these sources, it is estimated that more traditional biomass resources can be used [29, 31].
1.3.1 Marine Biomass
Marine biomass consists of microalgae, sea plants with little or no lignin content and fast-growing photosynthetic species. In the past decade, there has been an increase in the focus of research on alternative fuel production from marine biomass [32]. In addition to marine biomass, marine microorganisms have unique properties such as high osmotic tolerance, utilization of certain sugars and the production of special enzymes [33]. Seawater is a potentially important marine resource. Microalgae (seaweed) are great resources for biomass production due to their fast growing and their high lipid content in certain species. Macroalgae (seaweed) can be divided into
