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Nano-TechnologicalInterventioninAgriculturalProductivity

Nano-TechnologicalInterventioninAgricultural Productivity

JavidA.Parray

DepartmentofHigherEducation GovernmentDegreeCollegeEidgah Srinagar,India

MohammadYaseenMir DepartmentofSchoolEducation UniversityofKashmir Srinagar,India

NowsheenShameem DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience ClusterUniversitySrinagar JammuandKashmir,India

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataappliedfor HardbackISBN:9781119714859

CoverDesign:Wiley

AbouttheAuthors vii

AbouttheBook ix

1NanotechnologyandNanoparticles 1

2ImplicationsofNanotechnologyandEnvironment 21

3NanotechnologyandDiseaseManagement 37

4NanotechnologyinAgri-FoodProduction 59

5Nanotechnology:ImprovementinAgriculturalProductivity 73

6LigninNanoparticles:SynthesisandApplication 97

7ContemporaryApplicationofNanotechnologyinAgriculture 109

8Nanotechnology:AdvancesinPlantandMicrobialScience 131

9FoodApplicationandProcessing:NanotechniquesandBioactiveDelivery Systems 161

Index 197

AbouttheAuthors

Dr.JavidA.Parray,PhD,isanAssistant ProfessorintheHigherEducationDepartment attheGovernmentDegreeCollegeEidgah,Srinagar,India,whereheteachesthesubjectof environmentalscience.Hehaspublishedmany researcharticlesinreputablerefereedinternationalandnationaljournals.Hehadauthored booksondifferentthemes,includingApproaches toHeavyMetalToleranceinPlants;SustainableAgriculture:BiotechniquesinPlantBiology; andSustainableAgriculture:AdvancesinPlant MetabolomeandMicrobiome,soilbioremediation,climatechangeandmicrobes,etc.Hewas awardedthe‘ScientistoftheYearAward’bythe IndianAcademyofEnvironmentalSciencefortheyear2015inadditiontobeingawarded withaninternationaltravelgrantforparticipatingininternationalconferences.Heiscurrentlytheeditorandreviewerofmanyreputedjournals.HeisalsothefounderofAcademy ofEcoscience.Dr.Parraycompletedafast-trackprojectentitled‘Molecularcharacterization andmetabolicpotentialofrhizosphericbacteriafrom Arnebiabenthamii acrossNorthWesternHimalaya’atCORD,UniversityofKashmir,India.Hefinishedhispostdoctoralresearch associateshiponaDBT-fundedprojectentitled‘Tissueculture-basednetworkprogramme onsaffron’.HeearnedaPhDdegreeinenvironmentalsciencewithaspecializationinplant microbeinteractionsonthetopic‘Evaluatingroleofrhizosphericbacteriainsaffronculture’ fromtheUniversityofKashmir,India.Dr.Parrayisalsothesubjectcoursecoordinatorfor EnvironmentalScienceApprovedCEC-MoocsbyMHRD,GovernmentofIndia,NewDelhi.

Dr.MohammadYaseenMir wasworkingas aseniorresearcherinResearchprojectfunded byMinistryofEnvironment,Forest&Climate Change(MoEF&CC),GovernmentofIndiaalong withG.B.PantNationalInstituteofHimalayan Environment&SustainableDevelopmentunder NationalMissiononHimalayanStudies(NMHS) andhasrecentlyjoinedDepartmentofEducationJ&Kasateacher.HedidhisM.Philand Ph.DProgrammesfromtheUniversityofKashmir. Hepublishedmanyresearcharticlesinreputed, referredinternationalandnationaljournalslike Springer/Elsevier/Hindwaii.Hehasalsoauthored bookSustainableAgriculture:Biotechniquesin PlantBiologywithspringer.

Dr.NowsheenShameem(M.Phil,Ph.D) is currentlyworkingasanAssistantProfessor(CL) intheDepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceat ClusterUniversitySrinagar,JammuandKashmir, India.Shedidherdoctorate(PhD)fromthe UniversityofKashmironnutraceuticalvalueof wildmushroomsgrowinginKashmirvalleyinthe year2017.Shehasresearchexpertiseinmicrobial biotechnology,plantbioactivityandbiotechnology,medicinalchemistry,andplantmicrobe interactions.Shepublishedmanyresearcharticles inreputed,referredinternationalandnational journalssuchasSpringer,Elsevier,andHindawi. Shehasalsoauthoredmanybooksonthemessuch asfreshwatermicrobiology,plantbiotechniques, advancesinplantmetabolomeandmicrobiome,andclimatechangesandmicrobes.Sheis alsotherecipientoftheJuniorScientistoftheYearawardbytheInternationalFoundation forEnvironment&Ecology.

AbouttheBook

Contemporaryagriculturesharestheimportantportionofglobaleconomyforany sought-aftergrowth,especiallyforitsmajorcontributiontohumanupliftmentthrough povertyeradication,fastindustrialization,financialchangeandinvestment,sustainable resourceusage,andenvironmentalmanagement.Theminiatureaspectofnanotechnology controlsmajoragriculturalprocessesbecauseofitsdiminutivedimensions.Inaddition, theuseofnanotechnologiescanberesonantobstruction,thankstothemanypotential advantagessuchasenhancingthequalityandsafetyoffood,decreasingagriculturalinputs, andenhancingsoilabsorptionofnanoscalenutrients.Thisbookwillbeimmenselyhelpful tothestudentsofplantbiotechnology,agriculturalsciences,andagriculturalengineering studentsofbothundergraduateandpostgraduatelevelsinuniversities,colleges,and researchinstitutes.Thebookwillsupportresearcherswhoworkinthefieldofplant biotechnologyandagriculturalsciences.Itishopedthisbookwillbeanothersteptowards thebeneficialapproachinplantbiotechnologyandsettingofanewarenainshapingthe newbiotechniquestowardsthesustainablecause.

Keyfeatures:

1.Nanotechnologicalinnovationsinplantbiology

2.Nanotechnologyandtransgenicviagenomeeditingtowardssustainableagricultural systems

3.Nanofertilizersandnanopesticides

4.Nanoparticleprotectioninplants.

NanotechnologyandNanoparticles

CHAPTERMENU

NanoparticlesandTheirFunctions,1 ClassiﬁcationofNPs,2 Carbon-BasedNPs,2 MetalNanoparticles,2 CeramicNPs,3 SemiconductorNPs,3 PolymericNPs,3 NPsBasedonLipids,4 SynthesisofNanoparticles,4 Top-DownSynthesis,4 Bottom-UpSynthesis,5 NPsandCharacterization,6 MorphologicalCharacterization,6 StructuralCharacteristics,7 ParticleSizeandSurfaceAreaCharacterization,8 OpticalCharacterizations,8 PhysicochemicalPropertiesofNPs,9 MechanicalandOpticalProperties,9 MagneticProperties,9 MechanicalProperties,10 ThermalProperties,10 FunctionsofNPs,10 DrugsandMedications,11 MaterialsandManufacturing,11 Environment,12 Electronics,12 EnergyHarvesting,12 References,13

1.1NanoparticlesandTheirFunctions

Sincethepastcentury,nanotechnologyhasbeenanadvancedresearcharea.RPFeynman coinedtheterm‘nanotechnology’duringhisfamousspeech[1].Nanotechnologydevelopeddifferenttypesofnanoscalematerials.Alimitedclassofone-dimensionalmaterials <100nm[2]arenanoparticles(NPs).Dependingontheform[3],suchmaterialsmaybe 0D,1D,2D,or3D.Theimportanceofthesematerialsshowedthatthephysicochemical Nano-TechnologicalInterventioninAgriculturalProductivity, FirstEdition. JavidA.Parray,MohammadYaseenMirandNowsheenShameem. ©2021JohnWiley&SonsLtd.Published2021byJohnWiley&SonsLtd.

1NanotechnologyandNanoparticles

propertiesofasubstance,e.g.theopticalproperties,canbeinfluencedbysize.Theredwine, yellowish-grey,black,anddeepgreenarethedistinctivecoloursofthe20nmgold(Au), platinum(Pt),silver(Ag),andpalladium(Pd)NPs.TheseNPsexhibitdistinctivecolours andpropertiesofvarioussizesandshapesthatcanbeusedinbioimagingapplications.[4]. Owingtodifferencesinaspectratio,nanoshellthickness,andAuconcentration,thesolution’scolourvaries.Changingeachoftheelementsmentionedaboveaffectstheabsorption characteristicsoftheNPsandisthereforeobservedindifferentabsorptioncolours.Usually, NPsconsistofthreelayers:(i)alayer-functionalizedsurfacewithseveraltinymolecules, metalions,surfactants,andpolymers;(ii)ashelllayer–achemicallyseparatecoresubstance;and(iii)acentre–anintegralpartoftheNPandtypicallyreferstotheNPitself[5]. Researchersgainedimmenseinterestinmultidisciplinaryfieldsbecauseoftheseexceptionalfeatures.NPsmaybeusedforthedeliveryofdrugs[6],chemicalandbiological sensing[7],gassensing[8],CO2 capture[9],andrelateduses[10].

1.2ClassiﬁcationofNPs

NPsarecommonlyclassifiedaccordingtomorphology,size,andchemicalpropertiesin differentclasses.NPsareclassifiedaccordingtophysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsas follows.

1.2.1Carbon-BasedNPs

TwokeyNPgroupsbasedoncarbonarefullerenesandcarbonnanotubes(CNTs). Fullerenescontainglobularhollowcagenanomaterials,similartoallotropiccarbon forms.Theirelectricalconductivity,highpower,structure,electronaffinity,andflexibility havecreatedconsiderablecommercialinterest[11].PentagonalandhexagonalC-units werearrangedinthesematerialswhileeachcarbonwashybridized.Theillustrationin Figure1.1showssomeofthewell-known7.114and7.648nmC60 andC70 fullerenes.The long,tubularCNTshaveadiameterof1–2nm[12].Thiscanbepredictedasmetallicor semiconductingbasedontheirtelicitydiameter[13].Single,double,ormultiplewalls mayberollingsheetslabelledsingle-wallednanotubes(SWNTs),double-wallednanotubes (DWNTs),ormulti-walledcarbonnanotubes(MWNTs),respectively.Theyarecommonly synthesizedbycarbonprecursordeposition,particularlyatomiccarbons,whichare vaporizedbyalaserorelectricarcthroughmetalparticles.Recently,theyhavebeen synthesizedusingthechemicalvapourdeposition(CVD)technique[14].Becauseoftheir specificphysical,chemical,andmechanicalcharacteristics,thesematerialsarewidely usedinindustrialapplications,notonlyinpristineformbutalsoinnanocompositessuch asfillers[15],activegasadsorbentsfortheremediationoftheenvironment[16],and,in general,forvariousinorganicandorganiccatalysts[17].

1.2.2MetalNanoparticles

MetalNPscomprisemetal-madeprecursors.Becauseofthewell-localizedsurfaceplasma resonance(LSPR)characteristics,suchNPshavedistinctoptoelectronicproperties.Inthe visibleregionofthesolarelectromagneticspectrum,theNPsofalkaliandnoblemetals

suchasCu,Ag,andAuhavebroadbandabsorption.Intoday’scutting-edgematerials,the facet,size,andshape-controlledsynthesisofmetalNPsarecritical[4].MetalNPsarefindingapplicationsinmanyresearchfieldsbecauseoftheiradvancedopticalproperties.The coatingofgoldNPsiswidelyusedtoenhanceelectronicstreamingforscanningelectron microscopy(SEM)sampling,thushelpingtoaccomplishgoodSEMimages.

1.2.3CeramicNPs

NPsfromceramicsareinorganicnon-metallicsolidssynthesizedbyheatandcooling.They areusedinamorphous,polycrystalline,solid,porous,orhollow[18]forms.Becauseoftheir useincatalysis,photocatalysis,colourphotodegradation,andimaging,theseNPsoffersubstantialinterestfromresearchers[19].

1.2.4SemiconductorNPs

Semiconductormaterialshavepropertiesbetweenmetalsandnon-metals,andbecauseof thisproperty,theyfinddifferentapplicationsintheliterature[20].SemiconductorNPshave largebandgaps,demonstratingsignificantmodificationstotheirpropertieswithbandgap tuning.Itemsofgreatsignificancealsoincludephotocatalysis,photo-optics,andelectronic devices[21].Becauseoftheirappropriatebandgapandbandedgepositions,therangeof semiconductorNPsisconsideredexceptionallyefficientinwatersplittingapplications[22].

1.2.5PolymericNPs

Thesesubstancesareusedforawiderangeofcommercialapplications,suchasfillers[15], effectiveadsorbentsofenvironmentalremedialgases[16],andasasupportmediumfor variousinorganicandorganiccalculatorsbecausetheygivespecificphysical,chemical,and mechanicalcharacteristics[23].

1.2.6NPsBasedonLipids

Inmanybiomedicalapplications,theyareused,andtheycontainlipidmolecules.Usually, thelipidNPisspherical,10–1000nmindiameter.SimilartopolymericNPs,lipidNPshave asolidlipidcoreandlipophilicmoleculeswithinthematrix.Theexternalcentreofthese NPshasbeenstabilizedbysurfactantsoremulsifiers[24].Lipidnanotechnology[25]isa specificfieldthatfocusesonthedesignandsynthesisoflipidNPsforvariousapplications, suchasdrugcarriersanddelivery[26]andthereleaseofRNAcancertherapy[27].

1.3SynthesisofNanoparticles

VarioustechniquescanbeusedforthesynthesisofNPs.Nevertheless,theseapproachesare generallydividedintotwomaincategories,i.e.(i)top-downapproachand(ii)bottom-up approach[28,29](Figure1.2).Thesemethodsarefurtherdividedintodifferentsubclasses basedonprocess,reactionstate,andadoptedprotocols.

1.3.1Top-DownSynthesis

Thelargermoleculesaredisintegratedintosmallerunitsbyadestructiveprocess,and theseunitsaretransformedintousefulNPs,forexample,grinding/milling,CVDs,physical vapourdeposition,etc.[29].ThisapproachisgenerallyusedtosynthesizeNPsfrom coconutshells(CSs).Themillingmethodisused,wherebyrawCSpowderswerefinely milledusingceramicballsandawell-knownplanetarymillatdifferenttimeintervals.Via othercharacterizationtechniques,theinfluenceofthemillingperiodontheoverallsizeof theNPsisshown.

Furthermore,astimeincreases,thesizeoftheNPcrystallite(Scherrerequation) decreases.Inthisprocess,itwasalsofoundthatthebrownishcolourfadedaway withtheincrementofeachhourbecauseofthereducedsizeoftheNPs[30].Various

i. Spinning

ii. Template support

iii. Plasma or flame synthesis

iv. Laser pyrolysis

v. CVD

vi. Atomic or molecular condensation

Top-down process

i. Chemical etching

iii. Sputtering

iv. Laser ablation

ii. Mechanical milling

v. Electro-explosion

Figure1.2 ThesyntheticmodelsofNPs:top-downandbottom-upapproach.Source:Modiﬁed fromIravani[29].

characterizationtechniquesdemonstratedtheeffectofmillingtimeontheoverallsizeof theNPs.ThesynthesisofsphericalmagnetiteNPsfromnaturalironoxide(Fe2 O3 )ore wasshowninthepresenceoforganicoleicacidbyadestructivetop-downmethodwitha particlesizerangingfrom20to50nm[31].Tosynthesizesphericalparticlesofcolloidal carbonusingacontrolscale,aprimarytop-downroutewasused.Thesynthesistechnique wasbasedonthecontinuouschemicaladsorptionofpolyoxometalatesonthecarbon interfacialsurface.Adsorptionhastransformedblackcarbonaggregatesintorelatively smallersphericalparticleswithahighdispersioncapacityandanarrowdistributionof size[32].Microstructureshavefoundthatthequantityofcarbonparticlesislowerduring thesonicationperiod.Combinedgrindingandtop-downsonicationtechniquessynthesizedasequenceoftransitionmetaldichalcogenidenanodots(TMD-NDs)fromtheir crystallites.EveryTMD-NDwithasizeoflessthan10nmshowsexcellentdispersionand isdemonstratedbythenarrowdistributionofthemeasure[33].HighlyphotoactiveCo3 O4 NPshaverecentlybeenproducedbytop-downlaserfragmentation,i.e.atop-downprocess withanaveragesizeof5.8 ± 1.1nm.Powerfullaserirradiationsproducewell-uniformed NPswithadequateoxygenvacancy[34].

1.3.2Bottom-UpSynthesis

ThisreverseapproachisusedtosynthesizeNPsfromrelativelymorestraightforward substancesandisalsocalledanapproachtobuildingup.Examplesincludesedimentation andreductiontechniques.Itencompassessun-freezing,greensynthesis,spinning,and biochemicalsynthesis[29].Mogilevskyetal.[35]usedthistechniquetosynthesizeTiO2 anataseNPstothegraphenedomains.Alizarinandtitaniumisopropoxideprecursors havebeenusedtosynthesizethephotoactivecompositeformethylenebluephotocatalyticdegradation.TheX-raydiffraction(XRD)frameworkhasverifiedtheanatase form[35].Well-uniformsphericalshapedAunanosphereshavebeensynthesizedwith monocrystallineusingtop-downlaserirradiationtechnique[36,37].Recently,thesolvent exchangemethodhasbeenusedtodelivermedicalcancerdrugstoachievelimited-size low-densitylipoprotein(LDL)NPs.Thestandardapproachfollowedbygrowth,i.e.up process,isnucleationinthistechnique.TheLDLNPswereobtainedwithoutphospholipiduseandhadhighhydrophobicity,whichisaprerequisitefordrugdelivery implementation.[38].Themonodispersedsphericalbismuth(Bi)NPs,withtop-down andbottom-upapproaches,aresynthesizedwithexcellentcolloidalproperties[39].In bottom-upethyleneglycol,bismuthacetatewasmelted,althoughbismuthwasconverted intoamoltenstateinthetop-downprocess.Inboileddiethyleneglycol,themoltendrop thenhasbeenemulsifiedforNPs.BothmethodsgenerateddifferentNPsinsizefrom100 to500nm[39](Figure1.3a,b).Greenandbiogenicbottom-upprocessingiscost-effective andenvironmentallysustainable,wherebiologicalprocesses,suchasusingplantextracts, achievethesynthesisofNPs.ForthesynthesisofNPs,bacteria,yeast,fungi, Aloevera, tamarind,andevenhumancellsareused.Au-NPsweresynthesizedfromwheatbiomass andoat[40]andusedasareductionagentbymicroorganismsandplantextracts[41,42]. Figure1.3demonstratedthebottom-up(Figure1.3a)method:decomposingamolecular precursorintosimplemetalatoms,whichtransformintocolloidsandthetop-down (Figure1.3b)method.

1.4NPsandCharacterization

FortheanalysisofotherphysicochemicalpropertiesofNPs,differentmethodsofcharacterizationhavebeenused,suchasXRD,X-rayphotoelectronspectroscopy(XPS),infrared (IR),SEM,transmissionelectronmicroscopy(TEM),andBrunauer–Emmett–Teller(BET). Advancedmethodsareappliedfortheanalysisoftheparticles.

1.4.1MorphologicalCharacterization

ThemorphologicalcharacteristicsofNPsarestillofgreatimportanceasmorphologystill affectsmostoftheNPproperties.Variouscharacterizationtechniquesexistformorphologicalresearch,butmicroscopicmethodsexist,suchaspolarizedopticalmicroscopy(POM), SEM,andTEM.

1.4.1.1SEMTechnique

TheSEMtechniqueisbasedontheelectronscanningprincipleandprovidesallthe nanoscaleNPdataavailable.Thistechniqueisusedtostudythemorphologyoftheir nanomaterialsandthedispersionofNPsinthebulkormatrix.Thistechnique[15]showed thedistributionofSWNTsinpolymermatrixpoly(butylene)terephthalate(PBT)and nylon-6.ThemorphologicalcharacteristicsofZnO-modifiedmetal–organicframeworks (MOFs)werestudiedusingtheSEMtechnique,whichindicatesthedispersionofZnO-NPs andMOFs’morphologiesunderdifferentreactionconditions[43].

1.4.1.2TEMTechnique

Itisbasedontheelectrontransferprinciple,sothatitcanprovidedescriptionsofthebulk contentfromverylowtogreatermagnification.Inaddition,itiscommonlyusedforthe analysisofdifferentmorphologiesoftheAu-NPs[44].TEMalsoprovidesessentialinformationabouttwo-ormorelayermaterials;thequadruplehollowshellstructureofCo3 O4

NPsisobservedbyTEM,forinstance.InLi-ionbatteriessuchastheanode,theseNPshave proventhemselvestobeexceptionallyefficient.Theporousmulti-shellstructureinduces shorterLi+ diffusionpathlengthswithampleannulledspaceforbuffervolumeexpansion, goodcyclingefficiency,higherspeedcapacity,andessentialcapacity[45].

1.4.2StructuralCharacteristics

Thestructuralcharacteristicsofthestructureandfunctionofthebondingmaterialsareof primaryimportanceforstudying.Itgivesdetailsaboutthebulkpropertiesofthesubject material.XRD,energy-dispersiveX-ray(EDX)spectroscopy,XPS,IR,Ramanspectroscopy, BET,andZietasizeanalyserarethetechniquesusedtostudythestructuralproperties ofNPs.

1.4.2.1XRD

Oneoftheessentialcharacterizationtechniquesistorevealthestructuralpropertiesof NPs.ThecrystallinephaseofNPsisprovidedwithsufficientdata.Italsoprovidesarough imageoftheparticlesizethroughtheDebye–Scherrer[8]formula.Intheidentificationof singleandmultiphaseNP[46]schemes,thisapproachworkedwell.However,insmaller NPswithasizesmallerthanhundredsofatoms,theacquisitionandaccuratemeasurement ofstructuralandotherparametersmaybedifficult.Besides,theXRDdiffractogramcanbe affectedbyNPswithdifferentinteratomiclengthshavingmoreamorphouscharacteristics. Toobtainaccuratedata,thediffractogramsofbimetallicNPsmustbecontrastedwiththose ofthecorrespondingmonometallicNPsandtheirphysicalmixturesinthiscase.Thebest waytomakeasubstantialdifferenceistomeasurethesimulatedbimetallicNPstructural modelwiththespectraofXRD[47]observed.

1.4.2.2Energy-DispersiveX-ray(EDX)

Tounderstandtheelementarycompositionwitharoughideaofpercentweight,ausually fixedfieldemissionscanningelectronmicroscopy(FE-SEM)orTEMsystemiscommonly used.TheelectronbeamcentredonasingleNPthroughSEMorTEMthroughthesoftwarefunctionstoobtaintheinsightknowledgeunderobservationfromtheNP.NPconsists ofconstituentelementsand,byirradiatingelectronbeams,eachofthesereleasesX-ray energycharacteristics.TherealX-rayintensityisdirectlyproportionaltotheexplicitpart oftheparticle’sconcentration.Researchersinpreparatorymaterialscommonlyusethis techniquetohelpSEMandotherprocessestovalidatetheircomponents[48].Theelementalcompositionofultra–sonochemicallysynthesizedBiVO4 NPsinpseudo-flowerform [49]wascalculatedusingtheEDXtechnique.Similarly,asimilarapproachwasusedto performtheindispensableconfirmationandgrapheneimpregnationofLn2 O3 /graphene heterostructureNPs,whichshowedC,Ln,andOascontributingelementssynthesizedby thetraditionalhydrothermalmethod[50].

1.4.2.3XPS

Itisasurface-sensitivetoolandcanbeusedtoconsidertheoverallcompositionandthe compositionalvariancewithin-depthprofilingstudies.XPSisbasedonthebasicprinciples ofspectroscopy.ThetypicalXPSspectrumconsistsofthenumberofelectronsonthe Y -axis

plotversusthe X -axiselectrons’bindingenergy(eV).Eachelementhasitsfingerprintvalue forenergybindingandthusgivesaparticularsetofXPSpeaks.Correspondingpeaks,such as1s,2s,2p,and3s,comefromtheelectronicconfiguration[51].Toresearchthedispersion ofBoronNPs(10nmsize)duringfunctionalizationwithpolyethyleneglycol(PEG),adepth profileanalysiswasgivenwithAr+ ionsat1.4keVand20nm.Ithasbeenshownthatthe concentrationofNPsincreasesfrom2%to5%withdepth.Thisofferedstrongevidencethat withinthebulkoffunctionalizedPEG,boronNPsareeffectivelydissolved[52].Inarelated analysis,core–shellAu/AgshowedsimilarbehaviourthroughXPSscopeprofiling[53].

1.4.2.4FT-IRandRamanSpectroscopies

ThevibrationcharacterizationofNPsistypicallystudiedbyFT-IRandRamanspectroscopies.Thesetechniquesarethemostevolvedandfeasiblecomparedtoothersimple analyticalmethods.ThecriticalrangeforNPsisthefingerprintregion,whichprovidesthe detailsforthematerialsignature.Inonesample,Pt-NP(1.7nm)functionalizationandits interactionwiththealuminasubstratewereanalysedusingFT-IRandXPStechniques. FT-IRconfirmsthefunctionalityasitshowedsignaturevibrationalpeaksofcarboxylated C–O2033cm 1 ,inadditiontoabroaderO–Hpeakof3280cm 1 ,respectively[54,55]. Becauseofitssignal-enhancingcapabilityviaSPRphenomenon,recentlyimproved surface-enhancedRamanspectroscopy(SERS)isemergingasavibrationalconforming tool[56,57].

1.4.3ParticleSizeandSurfaceAreaCharacterization

VarioustechniquescancalculatethesizeandsurfaceareaoftheNPs.TheseincludedispersingSEM,TEM,XRD,AFM,anddynamiclightscattering(DLS).Itispossibletoincreasethe particlesizeofSEM,TEM,XRD,andAFM,butthezetatheoreticalanalyser/DLSshould beusedtofindtheNPsizeataweakstage.Inonestudy,DLSwasusedtoanalysesilica NPsizedifferenceswhileconsumingserumproteins.Withtheacquisitionoftheprotein layer,thefindingsshowedthatthesizeincreased.However,inthecaseofaggregation andhydrophilicity,DLSmightproveincapableofaccuratemeasurement,sointhatcase, weshouldfocusonthehigh-resolutiontechniqueofdifferentialcentrifugalsedimentation [58–60].

1.4.4OpticalCharacterizations

Opticalcharacteristicsareofgreatconcerninphotocatalyticapplications,andphotochemistshavethereforegatheredagoodunderstandingofthisapproachtorevealtheir photochemicalprocesses[61,62].ThesearebasedonthecommonlawofBeer–Lambert andthebasicprinciplesoflight[63].Thesemethodsincludeinformationaboutthe absorption,reflectance,luminescence,andphosphorescenceofnanomaterials.Metallic andsemiconductorNPshavevariouscoloursandarethusideallysuitedforphoto-related applications.Tounderstandeachapplication’sprimarymechanism,itisoftenessentialto seetheimportanceofabsorptionandreflectanceofthesematerials.UV–visandphotoluminescencearethemostcommonopticaldevicesusedtostudytheopticalpropertiesof NPmaterials(PL,NullEllipsometer).TheDiffusereflectancespectroscopy(DRS)UV/vis

isafullydesignedopticalabsorption,transmission,andreflectionmeasurementunit. Thefirsttwoareextra,whileDRSismostlyauniquetechniqueforthesamplessold.It isimperativetousethemethodformeasuringNPbandgapsaswellasotherNPs.MMT, LaFeO3 ,andLaFeO3 /MMTnanocompositesynthesisanddifferencesintheirabsorption ofelectromagneticradiationbyUV–visDRStoidentifytheiropticalcharacteristicswere studied[64].Inthecaseofnanocomposites,asignificantredshiftwasobservedcompared topristineMMTandLaFeO3 NPs.Insteadofabroadabsorptionbandfrom400to620nm, LaFeO3 andLaFeO3 /MMTrevealedareductionintheirbandgap.TheseNPsaresignificant forphotocatalysisbysolarlight[64].Toinvestigatetheopticalpropertiesofphotoactive NPsandothernanomaterialsandUV,PLconsidersusefultechnologies.Thistechnique givesfurtherinformationontheabsorptionoremissionpotentialofthematerialsand theireffectsonthepicture’soverallexcitementperiod.Itthusprovidesvaluabledetails aboutthecharginghybridizationandhalf-lifeoftheexcitingmaterialontheirconducting bandsforallphoto-andimageapplications.

1.5PhysicochemicalPropertiesofNPs

Differentphysicochemicalfeaturessuchasthelargesurfacearediscussed;aspreviously mentioned,mechanicallyrobust,opticallyactive,andchemicallyreactiveNPsareunique andidealformultipleuses.Someofitsessentialpropertiesarediscussedinthefollowing.

1.5.1MechanicalandOpticalProperties

ThereisgreaterinterdependencebetweentheopticalandelectronicpropertiesofNPs.The noblemetalNPs,forexample,displayfullUV–visibleextinctionbandsnotavailableon thebulkmetalspectrumandhavevisualpropertiesthataredependentonsize.Whenthe conductionelectrons’mutualexcitationisaroused,thisbandofenthusiasmresultsina continuousphotonoccurrence,knownastheLSPR.LSPRexcitationresultsinwavelength selectionabsorptionwithalargeRaylightscatteringcoefficientofmolarexcitationresonancewithanefficiencyequaltothatof10fluorophoresandenhancedlocalelectromagneticfieldsnearthesurfaceofNPs,whichstrengthenedspectroscopy.Itiswellknownthat theabsorptionspectrumoftheLSPRspectrumreliesonthesize,shape,andinterparticle spacingoftheNPs,aswellasitsdielectricandlocalcharacteristics,suchassubstrates,solvents,andadsorbents[65].Therustycoloursseeninthedoor/windowsofblemishedglass aregoldcolloidalNPsresponsibility,whileAgNPsareusuallyyellow.Thefreeelectrons onthesurfaceareeasilytransportableviathenanomaterialintheseNPs(delectronsinAg andgold).ForAgandgold,themeanopenpathis50nm,morethanthesizeofthesematerialsinNPs.Thus,noscatteringisrequiredfromthebulkafterweakinteraction.Instead, intheseNPs,theysetupstandingresonanceconditionsresponsibleforLSPR[66,67].

1.5.2MagneticProperties

Forresearchersfromvariousdisciplines,includingheterogeneousandhomogeneouscatalysis,biomedicine,magneticfluids,datastorageformagneticresonanceimaging(MRI),and

environmentalremediationsuchaswaterdecontamination,magneticNPsareofconsiderableinterest.TheliteratureindicatesthatNPsworkbetterwhenthesizeissmallerthanthe criticalvalue,i.e.10–20nm[68].Effectivelycontrolledatsuchalowscale,themagnetic propertiesofNPsmaketheseparticlespricelessandcanbeusedindifferentapplications [31,68,69].InNPs,theunevenelectronicdistributioncausesthemagneticpropertydevelopment[70,71].

1.5.3MechanicalProperties

Researcherscanfindnewapplicationsinawiderangeofnecessarysectors,includingtribology,surfaceengineering,andnano-making,thankstoitsdistinctmechanicalproperties. AmechanicalstudyoftheautomatednatureoftheNPsinvolveselasticmodulus,hardness, stress,vibration,adhesion,andfriction.Coagulationandlubricationalsohelpimprove themechanicalcharacteristicsoftheNPsandthisparameter[72].NPsexhibitdifferent mechanicalpropertiesincontrastwithmicroparticlesandtheirbulkmaterials.Furthermore,comparingthesteepnessbetweenNPsandtheexternalcontactsurfacechecking onalubricatedorgratedcontactrevealsthattheNPsoperateinacommunicationsetup. DecentchecksandinteractionsbetweentheNPs’mechanicalcharacteristicsandanysurfaceshapearecriticalforimprovingsurfacequalityandenhancingmaterialelimination.In theseareas,astrongunderstandingofthefundamentalmechanicalaspectsofNPs,includingtheelasticmoduleandthehardness,motion,friction,andinput,typicallyrequiresgood performance[72].

1.5.4ThermalProperties

ThethermalconductivityofNPmetalsisknowntobehigherthanthatofstablefluids. Forexample,thethermalcopperconductivityisabout700timeshigherthanwaterand approximately3000timeshigherthanengineoilatroomtemperature.Inaddition,alumina oxides(Al2 O3 )arethermallymorethermallycapablethanwater.Fluidscontainingsolids suspendedwithhigherthermalconductanceshouldthereforebesubstantiallyhigherthan conventionalheattransmissionfluid.Dispersingthenanometricscalessolidparticlesinto liquidsuchaswater,ethyleneglycoloroilsproducesnanofluids.Dispersednanometric scalenanofluidsaresupposedtoexhibitsuperiorpropensitiescomparedtoconventional heattransferfluidsandfluidscontainingmicroscopicparticles.Asthisthermaltransfer occursontheparticles’surface,itisessentialtouseparticleswithalargeoverallsurface region.Thewidertotalareaalsoimprovesthestabilityofthesuspension[73].Ithasrecently beenshownthatadvancedthermalconductivityisexhibitedbynanofluidsconsistingof CuOorAl2 O3 NPsinwaterorethylene[74].

1.6FunctionsofNPs

TheNPsfindtheirapplicationinalmosteveryday-to-dayutility,andsomeofthesignificant applicationsarediscussedasfollows:

1.6.1DrugsandMedications

Thebasicphysicalandchemicalpropertiesofsingleormultiplenano-sizedinorganicparticlesarebecominganincreasinglyvaluablecommodityindevelopingnovelnanoequipment usedinmanydifferentphysical,biological,biomedical,andtherapeuticproducts[75].

Throughouteverymedicinemarket,theimportanceofNPsindeliveringdrugsinthe bestdosagerangehasimproved.Thishassometimesresultedinanimprovementinthe medicines’clinicalefficiency,weakenedsideeffects,andimprovedpatientcompliance[76]. Ironoxideparticlessuchasmagnetite(Fe3 O4 )oritsoxidizedformofmaghemite(Fe2 O3 ) aremostwidelyusedforbiomedicalapplications[77].Forbiologicalandcellimagingapplicationsandphotothermaltherapeuticapplications,theoptionofNPstoachieveefficient contrastisbasedontheopticalpropertiesofNPs[78].Overthepastfewyears,hydrophilic NPdevelopmentasadrugcarrierhasrepresentedasignificantchallenge.Polyethylene oxide(PEO)andpolylacticacid(PLA)NPswereestablishedasanexcellentmethodfor intravenousdrugadministrationamongthedifferentapproaches[79].Forvariousinvivo applications,suchasMRIcontrastenhancement,tissuerepairandimmunoassay,detoxificationofbiologicalfluids,hyperthermia,drugdelivery,andcellseparation,superparamagneticironoxideNPswithgoodsurfacechemistrycanbeused[80].Antibodieslabelled withfluorescentdyes,enzymes,radioactivecompounds,orcolloidalAu[67]canbeused todetectanalytesintissuepartsviaantigen–antibodyinteractions.

Thespecificbenefitsofliposomes,includingthecapabilitytoshielddrugsfromdegradation,targetthemattheiractivesites,andminimizeharmfulnessandothersideeffects,area possiblecarrierinsteadoftraditionaldosagetypes.ThepolymericNPsprovidesomesignificantadvantagesovertheliposomesofthesematerials.NPs,forexample,helpimprovedrug ratabilityandprovideconvenient,controlleddrugreleaseproperties.Theextremeabsorbed lightiseffectivelyconvertedintolocalizedheatbyAu-NPs,whichcanbeusedfortargeted laserphotothermalcancertherapy[81,82].Besidesthis,topreventtumourdevelopment, theantineoplasticeffectofNPsisalsoeffectivelyused.Comparedtoorganiccompounds thatarecomparativelytoxictobiologicalsystems,theantimicrobialpropertiesofinorganic NPsaddmorepotencytothisessentialfeature[83–85].Toselectivelyovercomethemicrobialcells,theNPsareengagedwithvariousclasses.Becauseoftheiradequateantibacterial efficacy,TiO2 ,ZnO,BiVO4 ,andCu-andNi-basedNPshavebeenusedforthisreason[86].

1.6.2MaterialsandManufacturing

TheNPmanufacturerdisplaysphysicochemicalcharacteristicsthatinducespecificelectrical,mechanical,optical,andimagingpropertiesthatarehighlysoughtforapplications inthemedical,commercial,andecologicalsectorsinparticular[87].NPsfocusonbiologicalandnon-biologicalcharacterization,design,andengineeringof <100nmstructures, exhibitingnewanduniquecharacteristics.Manyproducersathighandlowlevelshave reportedthepotentialbenefitsofnanotechnology.Massproductionofmarketableproducts suchasmicroelectronics,aerospace,andpharmaceuticalcompaniesarenowunderway [88].Manyindustrieshaveindicatedthatnanotechnologyisthenextdevelopment,includingfoodprocessingandpackaging.RET(organicdyemoleculesandnoblemetals)hasbeen consideredintherecentinterestinbiophotonicsandmaterialsscience[89].Theplasmon

resonancearisingfromthereciprocaloscillationofelectronsatthesurfaceoftheNP[89,90] isdistinctlycolouredinNPmetals,suchasnoblemetals,suchasAuandAg.

1.6.3Environment

Thereleaseofthesematerialstotheatmospherecontributestocommercialanddomesticengineerednuclearpowerplants[91].Theuseofengineeringmaterialswouldincrease soilandgroundwaterNPconcentrations,whichprovidethemostsignificantexposurepathwaysforassessingenvironmentalrisk[92].DuringtheformationofnaturalNPs,thesurface ofNPscanbeconsumed,co-precipitated,orstuckwiththeaccumulationofNPscontainingtoxinsadsorbedtotheirbodiesbyavastspecific-to-massproportionofnaturalNPs. NPpollutants’interactiondependsonthecharacteristicsofNPs,suchasscale,composition,morphology,porosityandaggregation,andstructure[93].Thefollowingattributesof NPsmaketheidealthemecandidateforenvironmentallyfriendlygoods,sanitationoftoxic substance-contaminatedmaterials,andecologicalstagesensors[10].Superparamagnetic ironoxideNPsareavaluablesorbentmaterialforthisharmfulsoftmaterial[94,95].

NPphotodegradationisalsoageneralizedmethod,whichincludestheuseofseveral nanomaterials.Forphotodegradation,Rogozeaetal.revealedinatandemfashionthat modifiedsilicaNiO/ZnOhasbeenproductivebecauseoftheminimumsizeofthehigh NPsurface(<10nm)[96].

1.6.4Electronics

Inrecentyears,therehasbeenrisinginterestinprintedelectronicsproductionbecause printedelectronicsofferthepotentialforlow-cost,large-areaelectronicsforflexibledisplaysandsensorsappealingtoconventionalsilicontechniques.Asamassmanufacturing processfornewformsofelectronicequipment,printedelectronicswithvariousfunctional inkscontainingNPssuchasmetallicNPs,organicelectronicmolecules,CNTs,andceramic NPsareexpectedtoflowquickly[97,98].Anexcellentexampleofthesynergiesbetween scientificdiscoveryandtechnologicalgrowthistheelectronicindustry.Thefindingsofnew semiconductingmaterialshaveledtoarevolutionfromaspiratedtubestodiodesandtransistorsandfinallytominiaturechips[10,99].ThecriticalcharacteristicsofNPsthatmake nanotechnologybenchmarks[100]possibleforNPtobeusedinelectrical,electronic,or opticalapplications,includingbottom-uporself-assemblyframeworks,areeasyhandling.

1.6.5EnergyHarvesting

Becauseoftheirlargesurfacearea,opticalbehaviour,andcatalyticnature,scientistsare changingtheirresearchstrategiestoproducerenewableenergiesfromreadilyavailable resourcesatlowcost.NPsarethebestcandidateforthisreason.NPsarewidelyusedto generatepowerfromphotoelectrochemical(PEC)andelectrochemicalwatersplitting[48], especiallyinphotocatalyticapplications.ElectrochemicalCO2 reductioninfuelprecursors, solarcells,andpiezoelectricgeneratorsalsoprovidedadvancedenergygenerationoptions inadditiontowatersplitting[34].NPsareoftenusedinenergystorageapplicationsto reserveanimationsinvariouswaysatthenanoscalelevel[101,102].Nanogeneratorshave

recentlybeendevelopedtotransformmechanicalenergyintoelectricityusingpiezoelectric power,anunconventionalapproachtopowergeneration[103].

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ImplicationsofNanotechnologyandEnvironment

CHAPTERMENU

EcotoxicologicalImplicationsofNanoparticles,21

EcotoxicityofFullerenes,23

EcotoxicityofCarbonNanotubes,23

EcotoxicityofMetalNanoparticles,23

EcotoxicityofNanocomposites,24

EcotoxicityofOxideNanoparticles,25

NanotechnologyandAgriculture,26

RiskAssessmentFactorsandModulationofNanomaterials,27 References,30

2.1EcotoxicologicalImplicationsofNanoparticles

Substantialquantitiesofengineerednanoparticleshavebeenintroducedintothe atmospherebycreatingnanotechnologies,includingthoseinambientairandwater.An increasingnumberofstudieshaveconcentratedonassessingthetoxicityofnanoparticles commonlyusedintheindustrytoprotecthumanhealthandbiodiversityfromthe potentiallyharmfuleffectsofawidevarietyofnanoparticles[1].

Oxidativestressisconvenienttoquantifyinthesenseoftoxicityandecotoxicitybecause cellsreactwithmanydefensiveresponses,easilycountedasanenzymeorgeneticreaction, tooxidativestresses[2].Severalinvitrotoxicitytestsofnanoparticles,forexample,TiO2 and fullerenes,haveshownthatreactiveoxygenspecies(ROS)isgenerated[3,4].Thisdeceptive contrastillustratesthenecessityinanimalsandindividualcellstoresearchnanoparticles’ interactionsandnanoparticles’mechanisticaspects.

Manynanoparticlesarephotochemicallyactivetoproduceexcitedelectronstothe sun.Whenoxygenispresent,superradicalscanbeformedbydirecttransmissionof electrons[5],inanecotoxicitysense,circumstancesinwhichspeciesaresimultaneously exposedtonanoparticlesandlight.

Ecotoxicityassessmentsarecarriedoutatarangeoftrophicstages,includingcertain speciesandsomeexposureconditions,suchasmicroorganisms,plants,invertebrates,and vertebrates.Thestructuredprotocolsdescribeindividualphysicalandphysiologicalstates anddirectionandgrowthandfertility.Thebenefitsofmicroorganismsareall-roundand verydiverse,tiny,andshortgeneration[6].

2ImplicationsofNanotechnologyandEnvironment

Apartfrommicroorganisms,therearemanyveryusefulorganismsfromdifferentenvironmentsthatmaybeusedinecotoxicitytesting.Organismsofdifferenttrophiclevelsfrom primaryproducerstopredatorscanbeofconcernbecausetheyaccumulateinthefoodchain (bioamplification).Thisisbecauseofenvironmentalcontaminants.Organismscanalsobe chosendependingonmultiplehabitatsinthesoilandwaterbecausetheybecomeessential tothebiogeochemicalcyclingofelements[5]forcarryingoutanenvironmentalmethod. Ecotoxicitymeanstoxicityexclusivelyforspeciesofecologicalconcern.Simultaneously, thetermbioassayrequirestheassessmentoftoxicityorstressbyasubstancewithinan ecologicalmatrixthatappliestoliveinthenatureoftheorganism.

Theexposureoffishtonanoparticlesinpurewatercan,therefore,constituteanecotoxicitytrialwhileexposureoffishtonanoparticlesinsaltwaterresultsindissolutionof organiccarbon(DOC)[6].Changesinnanoparticlessuchasions,naturalcolloids,and otherlockedsurfacesastheycomeincontactwiththeenvironmentalmatrixcomponents wouldlikelyaffectnotonlymobility,aggregation,andsoon.Still,theywillalsochangethe toxicityproperties[7].Ecotoxicology,asintraditionaltoxicology,canalsouseawiderange ofphysiologicalandgeneticendpoints.Thefunctionaltestingofecotoxicspeciesneverthelesscontributestothedifficultyofsuchstudies.Verypuresystemshavebeenusedinmost researchonnanoparticulateadverseeffects,wherenanoparticlescaninteractwithmatrix constituentsthataffectbioavailability[6].

ThesafetydoubtsofNPswereemphasized,andtheirusewasinvestigatedbothpurposelyandaccidentallyconcerningthepotentialdangersassociatedwithNPs[8,9]. Massiveindustrialprocessingofnanoparticlesmightsoonleadtothepresence,indifferent environmentsandhumans,ofbothnanoparticlesandwasteproducedwhenpresenting them.Onceyouevaluatenanoparticles’hazardsfromtheenvironmentalperspective, thereisaparadoxthatpotentiallyharmfulnanoparticlesoftenpossessthepotentialof creatingtheso-calledgreenchemistry.Thesemoreenvironmentallyfriendlyprocessescan beusedinecologicalcontaminants[10].Examplesaretheuseofengineerednanoparticles totreatwaterandfixthewater,whichhasprovensuccessfulandhasalsocreatedquestionsabouthumanexposurestonanoparticlesintreatedwater.Researchtodetermine whetherornotasubstanceisharmfulincludesassessingthematerial’sinherenttoxicity anditsinteractionwithlivingcells[11].Ininvitroandinvivotoxicologicaltests,the dosesordosagelevelsusedaremostoftentoohighrelativetoactualaccidentalhuman exposure[8].

Moreresearchisthereforeneededbeforewidespreadstatementsonecotoxicological nanoparticlescouldbeproduced.Thebestapproachsubjecttoscrutinyistopreventthe escapeofnanoparticlestotheatmosphere.Thisdecreasestheirmobilityandprevents theirpresenceintheatmospherebyinsertedNPsintoorganicorinorganicmatrices[12]. TheeasiestwaytoimprovetheprotectionofNPsistheuseofnanocompositeslikethese. Theuseofmagneticnanoparticlesinitsarchitectureisasupportiveapproachtoensuring nanoparticles’security[13].Basedontheusefulcharacteristicsandtheresponsetoa magneticfield,vegetableNPsareprodigiousinfluentialscientists[14].Polymericmaterial containingmagneticnanoparticleswithspecificcharacteristics,catalyticorbactericidal operationfields,isthatmagneticnanoparticlescanberetrievedquicklyusingsimple magnetictrapstoleakthenanocomposite[15].Nanoparticles’ecotoxicconsequencesare asfollows.

2.1.1EcotoxicityofFullerenes

C60fullerenes,beginningwiththeseminalworkofOberdorster[16],havebeenamongthe firstengineerednanoparticlestobestudiedinecotoxicity.Inthefirststudyonfullerene toxicity[16],OberdorstershowedthatlowC60(0.5mg/l)concentrationscouldresultin oxidationandenzymechanges.TheC60modelinfluencestheecotoxicityofC60.BacterialstudiesofC60fullerenesshowedreducedgrowthandbreathingwith Escherichiacoli and Bacillussubtilis [17,18].Otherreportsdemonstratedaresponsivecellularproperty impairedbylownC60concentration[14]inbacterialmembranecompositionandfluidity.InthepresenceofnC60, Pseudomonasputida reduceditsunsaturatedfattyacidsand augmentedcyclopropanefattyacidstodefendthebacterialmembraneagainstoxidative stress.

Changesinthecompositionofthepopulationrevealedgrowthbarrierstosomeindigenousmicrobialorganisms.TheyshowedthattheecotoxicologicaleffectsofnC60could occurwithinthehighlycomplexmedium,includingsoils.Withoutprevioussuspensionin water,themaximumconcentrationofC60wasaddedindryconditions.Thelackofanyecotoxicologicaleffectsmaysuggestthatconsideringhigherconcentrations,thebioavailability ofC60inthelatterexperimentislower[6].

Fullers(1 μM)combinedwithUVlighthaveshownasubstantiallylargerinactivation (100%increase)ofvirusesthanUVlightalone.Inacytotoxicityanalysisonhumancell lines[3],fullerolsarelesstoxicthanaggregatenon-derivatizedfullerenes(nC60).C60-NH2 withapositivechargehinderedthegrowthandreducedtheabsorptionofsubstrates.This damagehasbeenrecordedintwobacterialspecies(E.coli and Shewanellaoneidensis),ata concentrationof10mg/l,onthecellstructures(cellwallsandmembranes)[19].Thesame studyshowedmoderatetonoadverseeffectsforneutrallychargedC60andC60-OH[20].

2.1.2EcotoxicityofCarbonNanotubes

Theecotoxicityofzebras(Daniorerio)undervarioussalinityconditionsforunprocessed, one-,anddouble-wallcarbonnanotubes.Inzebrafishembryos,single-walledcarbonnanotubes(SWCNTs)havesubstantialdelaysinhatchingatconcentrationsabove120mg/l. Two-walledcarbonnanotubesalsoprovidedahatchingdelayofmorethan240mg/l.Carbonblackdidnotaffecthatching,however.SWCNTconcentrationsofupto360mg/l[21] havenotaffectedembryodevelopment.IntheRainbowTroutexperiment,preparedwith surfactantsodiumdodecylsulfate(SDS)andsonicity[22],adose-dependentincreasein ventilationratesandgillpathology(oedema,alteredmonocytes,andhyperplasia)atconcentrationsbetween0.1and0.5mg/lwasobserved.Theauthorsconcludedthatthetrout’s SWCNTsmightactasarespiratorytoxicantandprecipitategillmucus.However,thisdid nothaveasignificanteffectondeath,development,orreproduction[23].

2.1.3EcotoxicityofMetalNanoparticles

Metaltoxicityisaffectedbydifferentfactors,suchassolubility,biologicalsitespecificity, andthelike.Toxiceffectsandheavymetaltoxicityaredefinedasanyfunctionalormorphologicalbodychangesresultingfromingested,injected,inhaled,orconsumedmedications