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FOURTHEDITION Thiseditionfirstpublished2021
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DataNames:Chevalier,Michel,1943-author.|Mazzalovo,Gerald,author.
Title:Luxurybrandmanagementindigitalandsustainable times:anewworldofprivilege/MichelChevalier,GeraldMazzalovo.
Description:FourthEdition.|Hoboken:Wiley, 2021.|Revisededition.
Identifiers:LCCN2020029296(print)|LCCN2020029297(ebook)|ISBN 9781119706281(hardcover)|ISBN9781119706298(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119706304(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Brandnameproducts–Management.|Luxurygoodsindustry.| Luxuries–Marketing.|Branding(Marketing)
Classification:LCCHD69.B7C4762021(print)|LCCHD69.B7 (ebook)|DDC658.8/27–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2020029296
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2020029297
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Introductionvii
Chapter1:TheConceptofLuxury1
Chapter2:SpecificitiesoftheLuxuryIndustry38
Chapter3:MajorLuxurySectors:Ready-to-Wear, PerfumesandCosmetics,andLeather Goods66
Chapter3:MajorLuxurySectors:WinesandSpirits, JewelryandWatches,andHotelsand Hospitality98
Chapter4:ThePoweroftheLuxuryBrand130
Chapter5:TheLuxuryClient161
Chapter6:BrandIdentity:ConceptsandAnalytical SemioticTools188
Chapter7:AdditionalBrandAnalyticalTools227
Chapter8:CreationandMerchandising276
Chapter9:CommunicationinDigitalTimes324
Chapter10:ManagingaGlobalBrand377
Chapter11:RetailManagement417
Chapter12:SustainabilityandAuthenticity452
Introduction Whywriteafourtheditionofabookthatwasinitiallypublishedin2008?
Fivereasonsjustifytheeffort:
1.Luxuryischanging. Firstofall,luxuryconsumptionandthe industriesrelatedtoitcontinuetoplayanincreasinglyimportantrole intoday’seconomy,societies,andwaysofliving,andareanimportantengineofinnovationandfulfillmentofbasichumandesires towardbeautyandexcellence.Thedynamismoftheluxuryindustries’evolutiondeservesconstantobservationjusttokeepupwithits nature,mechanisms,andmeaningsandtobeabletosharethosewith ourreaders.Injustthefirstmonthsof2020,aswewerebusywriting thenewtext,LVMHboughtTiffany’s;NeimannMarcus,J.Crew,JC Penney,BrooksBrothers,MujiUSA,andBarney’sfiledforChapter 11;SonyaRykielwentintoliquidationandthebrandwasboughtby twoyoungnewinvestors;Fenty,thenewbrandmanagedbyRihanna andco-ownedwithLVMH,occupiedallthewindowsofBergdorf GoodmaninNewYorkinFebruary.TheadventofCOVID-19has alsoshownnumeroussolidaryinitiativesfromsmallandbigbrands.
Inthiscatastrophicpandemic,luxurybrandshavealsoshowntheir resilience,notonlyone-commercebutintraditionalphysicalretail, whentheconditionsallowforreopening.
2.Weknowmore. Sincethethirdeditionin2015,bothauthors havebeeninvolvedinmanagingandadvisingluxuryproductsand servicesbrandsinpersonalgoods,perfumery,distribution,andeducation.Theexperiencegarneredbybeingactivelyengagedinbrand managementrealitiesinAsia,theMiddleEast,andEuropeledus toevolveinourunderstandingofcurrentandfuturebrandmanagementissues.Theacademicliteraturehasbeenprolificonluxury subjectsandmoreknowledgehasemergedasaresult.Alotofthe lessonslearnedareintegratedinthisbook.
3.Weliveindigitaltimes. Thisisoneofthemostimportantfactors affectingallbusinessesingeneralandluxurybrandsinparticular. Thechangesbroughtaboutbydigitaltechnologyareaffectingthe industries,thebrandstrategiesandoperations,theconsumers’ways ofthinkingandbuying,andmore.
4.Sustainabilityisbecomingourwayofliving. Thisisthesecond majorfactorinfluencingluxurybrandmanagementandconsumption.Luxurybrandshavebeensomewhatlateinaddressingit,but arenowfullyonboardandveryofteninnovativeleadersinthefield.
5.COVID-19hasbeenamajordisruptor. Itwilleventuallybe controlled,butitservesasbotharevealerandanacceleratorofexistingtrends.Itwillhaveprofoundeffectsongeopoliticsaswellason everythingrelatedtomobilityand,therefore,onindustrialandcommercialprocesses.
Alltheseconditionshavegeneratedthenewcontentthatisincluded inthisedition.Mostoftheexamplesandfinancialdatahavebeen updated.
Chapter1, whichdelvesintothenotionofluxury,wascompleted withconsiderationsofnewluxuryinwhichexceptionalityprevailsover exclusivity.
Chapter2 explainsthespecificitiesoftheluxuryindustry,howit canbedefined,andwhatmakesitdifferentfromotherbusinesses,in particularfromthefast-movingconsumergoodsandthebasicfashion industry.
Chapter3 describesthedifferentindustrysectorswiththeirsizes andwiththemajorplayers:fashion,perfumesandcosmetics,leather goods,winesandspirits,andjewelryandwatches.Inthisedition,we haveaddedacompleteanalysisofthehotelhospitalitysector,andwe giveasizeforthismarket,adescriptionofthemajorplayers,andthe keymanagementissues.
Chapter4 indicatestheeconomicvalueofeachluxurybrandand howitcanbeassessedanddeveloped.
Chapter5 givesadescriptionofthemajorluxuryclients,bycountryandbylevelofincomeandwealth.Italsodescribeshowdifferent segmentsofthispopulationreacttotheideaofluxury.
Chapters6and7 presentbrandanalyticaltoolsthatwecurrently use.Becausethenumberofthemhasincreased,wesplitChapter 6 of thethirdeditionintotwoparts.InChapter 6 ofthisedition,weintroducethreetools:thebrandhinge,theEST-ET© diagram,andtheBrand AestheticsAnalyticalGrid,thenewtoolthatweappliedtotheThai brandJimThompson.Weintroducethethreeendstoanyaesthetictreatmentandcompletethechapterwithconsiderationsofthestrengthsand weaknessesofthebrandidentitynotionandpositionthebrandidentity approachwithinthebroaderfieldofotherapproachestobrandmanagement.Chapter 7 continueswithsevenanalyticalinstruments,such astheBrandLifeCycle,theprism,andtheRosewindow,andsemiotic toolslikethesemioticsquarebeingappliedtodifferentbrandsandin particulartomarket-centeredorself-centeredbrands.Itendsupwith considerationsonwhatconstitutesavalidsemioticanalysisforluxury brands.
Chapter8 dealswithcreationandmerchandisingandhasincorporatednumerousnewexamplesdrawnfromourlatestmanagement experiences.Realexamplesofreportsoncollectionstructuresandcalendarshavebeenadded.Considerationsaremadeonstyleissues,drawing fromworkdoneforYvesSaintLaurentandPininfarina.Awholebibliographyisincludedforthoseinterestedingettingdeeperintobrand aestheticsmanagement.Theever-growingrelationshipbetweenartand brandshasbeenaddressed.
Chapter9 dealswithcommunicationindigitaltimesandhasbeen completelyrevamped,providingtheopportunityforanoverallreview onhowdigitalisimpactingtheworld,luxurybrands,andconsumers. Theschemeofthecommunicationchainhasbeenupdated,ashave
thecommunicationplanandcalendar,toconsidertheeffectsofdigital media.Thekeyperformanceindicatorsofacommercialwebsitehave beencomparedtothoseofatraditionalretailone.
Chapter10 dealswithdifferentwaystodevelopaworldwide brand.Itdescribeshowabrandcanbecomecompletelyinternational, sometimesthroughitsownsubsidiaries,butgenerallyalsothroughlocal importersanddistributors.Italsoexplainshowonlineoperatorscan becomeamajorresourceandhowonemustdealwiththem.Itdiscusses howbrandscanalsobepresentandstrongintravelretailoutlets.It presentsprosandconsofdevelopingabrandwithlicensingactivities.
Chapter11 examinesdifferentretailactivitiesinatimeofphysical anddigitalresources.Itexplainshowaconsumerdoesnotselectone oranothersystemofdistribution,butconsidersthesetworesourcesas complementary.Themoretheclientspendstimewithabrandonthe Internet,themorelikelyheistobuyinaphysicalstore,andthemore theclienthasdirectcontactwithabrandinaphysicalstore,themore likelyheistopurchaseontheInternet.Andclientsmustbeseducedand interestedandconvincedwhentheyvisitastore:Aclientwhohasabad impressionorwhohasanegativeexperienceinastorewouldneverbuy thatbrandontheInternet.Brandshavetoadjusttothisphenomenon.
Chapter12 dealswithsustainabilityandauthenticity.Itsummarizesfirstthefuturetrendsofluxuryandthendelvesdeeperintothese twobasicconsumptionandcivilizationtrends.Someoftheindicators ofanincreasingsustainabilitysensibilityarehighlighted,aswellasthe initiativestakenbysomeofthemainluxurybrands.Wedefendthecompletecompatibilityofluxuryandsustainabilityandintroduceapossible consumersegmentationbasedonattitudestowardsustainability.Authenticityisconsideredtobeaqualityofarelationshipbetweentheobject consideredandcertainreferents,whichcanbeintrinsicqualitiesofthe objectorinternaltothebrand,likeitsidentityorevenbelongingtothe consumers’mind.
Wehavealsointegratedtheoverallconclusionofthebookinthis chapter.
AppendixA presentsanextractfromabrandidentitystudyled byMazzalovoin2020ontheSasinSchoolofManagement,theleading ThaibusinessschoolofChulalongkornUniversity(Bangkok,Thailand).
AppendixB isaglossaryofsomeofthemostcurrentexpressions inthedigitalvocabulary.
Thebook,asitsprecedingeditions,isnotmeanttobereadasa novel.Itpresentsamixofmacroeconomicandmicroeconomicconsiderations,anditsmodestambitionistofunctionasareferencetext, whereconsiderationscanbefoundonspecificmanagementissuesfor luxurybrandemployeesandexecutives,consumers,students,teachers, andanybodyinterestedinoursociety’sevolution,areflectionofwhich isgiventhroughthemirrorofluxurybrands.
Chapter1 TheConceptofLuxury Theword luxury hasalwaysbeenasourceofdiscussionofwhat itissupposedtomean.Thisisthereasonweaddedthischapter inthesecondeditionofthisbookandhavekeptitsincethen. Sincewearegoingtowriteaboutluxuryalongwithtextanddiagrams, itonlymakessensetoexploretheintricaciesofwhatismeantbysuch apopularword.Inthisfourtheditionwehaveaddedasectiononthe meaningoftheexpression newluxury,whoseusagehasbeengrowingin thepastfewyears.
AProblematicDefinition Whatisluxury?Atfirstglance,itseemsthatwecananswerinsimple termsandtodistinguishbetweenwhatisluxuryandwhatdoesnotfall intoit.Butwesense,onreflection,thatnoteveryonewillagreeonthis distinction:luxurytooneisnotnecessarilyluxurytoanother.
Theconceptofluxuryincorporatesanaestheticdimensionthat referstoamajorthemeofWesternphilosophy:Howtocharacterizethe notionofbeauty?1 Inthetwentiethcentury,thephilosopherTheodor W.Adornoexpressedtheproblemintheseterms: “Wecannotdefine theconceptofbeautifulnorgiveupitsconcept.”2 Webelievethatitis thesameforluxury:withoutwantingtoconfuseitwiththebeautiful, itturnsout,uponexamination,nolesselusive,and,perhaps,notless indispensable.
Therefore,itisprobablyunrealistictoseekauniversaldefinitionof luxury.Butthisreflectiondrawsourattentiontoaninitialimportant point:thedefinitionofluxuryhasvariedovertime.
AFluctuatingNotion Whatwecommonlycall luxury nolongerhasmuchtodowithwhatwas meantonlyacenturyago;or,alittlefurtherback,intheyearsbeforethe IndustrialRevolution.Wearenottalkinghereaboutobjectsofluxury. Aproductlikesoap,forexample,althougharealluxuryintheMiddle Ages,hasbecomelargelydemocraticsincethen,andithastherefore ceasedtobealuxuryinoureyes.Today,thewordhasaverydifferent meaningfromhowitwasused,forexample,intheseventeenthcentury. Itconnotesforusbothpositiveandnegativeimages;mostofthenegative imagesarederivedfromitshistoricalheritage,whilepositiveimagesare forthemostofarecentintroduction.
Aswewillsee,thetermhasexperienced,particularlyinthepasttwo centuries,importantsemanticchangesthatreflecttheconstructionof ourmodernconsumersociety.Thesetransformationsareofgreatinterest foroursubject:theyhaddirectimpactontheprogressivesegmentation ofthegloballuxurymarketandonthecurrentpositioningofbrands claimingthisterritory.
TheParadoxofContemporaryLuxury Today’sluxurymarketisbasedonaparadox.Ontheonehand,luxury operatesasasocialdistinction;itisthesignofapracticereservedfor the“happyfew”andthuscircumventsthemasses.Atthesametime, contemporaryluxuryispromotedbythebrands,andtheyremainlinked
1 ItisaquestionwefindinPlaton’s HippiasMajor andextensivelystudiedbyKantandHegel.
2 TheodorAdorno, ÄesthetischeTheorie,translatedbyMarcJimenez.Paris:Klincksieck,1982.
TheConceptofLuxury3 tothelogicsofvolumeofproductionanddistribution.How,therefore, canwereconcileexclusivitywiththeindustrialandcommerciallogics ofvolume?Suchisthedilemmaforluxurybrands,whicheachbrand willtrytosolvebyadjustingitspositioningthroughinnovativestrategies ofcreation,communication,anddistribution.
Eventhoughitmaynotnecessarilyappearassuchatfirstglance, contemporaryluxury,infact,presentsanextensiveandhighlycontrasted landscape.Inordertograspthiscomplexity,astepbackisneeded;this isahistoricaldetourthatwillallowustocomprehendit.
ChronicleofaSemanticEvolution Luxury isakeywordwhoseuseisbecomingmorefrequentinourdaily lives.Wereaditmoreofteninallbrandcommunication;weuseitmore ofteninourdiscourses(ontheInternet,GoogleTrendsshowsthatits usehasincreasedbymorethan30%onaveragebetween2004and2020). Therearetworeasonsforthisincrease:
1. Brandshaverealizedthatthis(sometimesonlyapparent)positioning addstotheircompetitiveness.
2. Ontheotherhand,amajorityofconsumershavedevelopedapositiveattitudetowardtheproducts,services,orexperiencesconnoted bythisfeature.
Weliveinaworldwhereluxuryreigns.Buttheworditselfwas notbornyesterday—definitionshaveaccumulatedforcenturies.Since Plato,Epicurus,Veblen,Rousseau,andVoltaire,uptotoday’sopinion leaders,theproductionanduseofsignsofwealthhavealwaysintrigued thephilosophers,sociologists,andobserversoftheirtime.
Theword luxury,asweunderstandittoday,inheritedthisaccumulationofproposals,sometimeswithcontradictorymeanings.The accelerationofthenumberofdefinitionsinthepast20yearscomes toprovethegrowingcurrentinterestforthequestion.
ModernDispersion Inordertomeasurethisabundanceofmeanings,wemaynotethegrowingnumberofexpressionsthat,today,useit.Thetermnowneedsarticles andadjectivestoclarifyitsmeanings.
Hereareafewmodernexamples: authenticluxury isquitefrequent asanexpressionandwewilldiscussitfurther; luxuryandgrandluxury wasadvertisedbythegreatcardesignerBattistaPininfarina(lussoegran lusso)ona1931posterwhereacarwaspresentedonapedestallikein amuseum.Thisisaninterestingsegmentation,wherealreadyliesthe ideaofaformofanaffordableluxurysuitableforallbudgets.More recently,theeconomistDanielleAllérèsextrapolatedthecommonsense ofPininfarinasuggestingadistinctionbetweenaccessible,intermediate, andinaccessibleluxuries.Evenluxuryyogurtisspreadinginfoodmarketing.Wehearmoreandmoreincasualtalksandinadvertisingthe expression“myluxury”—whichisnotyoursandhasthedefectofnot constitutingamarketonitsown.
Ostentatiousluxuryor“bling-bling”haslongbeenpresentinthe media.Itmayevokea traditionalluxury thatisopposed,ofcourse,tothe newluxury,andsoon.Socialorevenacademictrendsregularlyprovide theirlotofnewexpressionsonthesubject.
Tworelevantpointscanbedetectedinthisdiversity.Thefirstis thattoeachhisownluxury:theconcepthasceasedtomarkaboundary betweenopulenceandeconomicdiscomfort—itisnowasignthatneeds additionalspecificattributestoperformitsfunctionofdistinctionina humangroup.Thisabilityofluxurytoindefinitelysegmentthemarkets showsushowithasbeenabletoblend,bytransformingitself,inour moderncivilizationofmassconsumption.
Thesecondpointisthatthismodernluxuryappearstocarryrather positiveconnotations.Obviously,italsohasitsexcesses,itsindecency; however,thefactthatwecannowspeakofluxuryinpositiveterms alreadycertifiesaremarkablesemanticevolution.Inordertomeasure thisevolution,wemustreturntotheetymology.
EtymologyandTransformations Theword luxury comesfromtheLatin luxus,whichmeans“growaskew, excess.”ItsrootisanoldIndo-Europeanwordthatmeant“twist.”Inthe samefamily,wefind“luxuriant”(yieldingabundantly)and“luxation” (dislocation).Inshort,thetermoriginallyreferstosomethingofthe orderofaberration:itisalmostdevoidofanypositiveconnotation.
Wehaveusedthedictionary Letrésordelalanguefrançaiseinformatisé, whichoffersabriefoverviewoftwocenturiesofuse.
1607:“wayoflifecharacterizedbylargeexpenditurestomakeshows ofeleganceandrefinement”
1661:“characterofwhichisexpensive,refined,”luxuryclothing 1797:“expensiveandsuperfluousobject,pleasure”
1801:“excessivequantity,”aluxuryofvegetation 1802:“whichissuperfluous,unnecessary”
Littlebylittle,thenotionofguiltyexcessdisappears,whiletheideas ofdistinctionandrefinementgaininstrength.IntheClassicalAge, luxuryisalreadyfullofambiguities:speakingofwomen’stoilette,La Fontainerelatesthe“instrumentsofluxury”toeverything“whichcontributesnotonlytocleanness,butalsotodelicateness.”Thisdoesnot preventhimfromcondemning,moralistically,“thesewomenwhohave foundthesecrettobecomeoldattwentyyears,andseemyoungat sixty.”3
Aroundthesametime,thegrammarianPierreNicolewishes that“greatpeople,”bytheirexample,deterusfrom“luxury,blasphemy, debauchery,gambling,libertinage.”4 Insum,theluxuryalreadyconnotessophistication,butitremainsmorallysuspect.
AtthedawnoftheIndustrialRevolution,theconnotationof superfluous—whichisnotmotivatedbyeconomicandutilitarian logic—beginsconsolidating.Itbecomesmorenuancedwiththeadvent ofmassconsumptionandthecivilizationofleisure.Thesuperfluous isnotdebauchery;itisbeyondthecommercialsphere,butitcanalso markthepromotionofacertainqualityoflife.
Asforthepricedimension,itappearsveryearlyandremainsvirtually unchangedovertheyears:luxuryissomethingthatistobepaidfor.
FromthesameFrenchdictionary,weseethatcurrentusagesofthe word“luxury”showevolutionarymeanings:theoriginalmeaningsare enrichedbyothers,introducingthewordintothesphereofday-to-day experience(“littleluxuries”)whileaffirmingthenotionofapleasure withoutcomplex(“innocentluxury”):
1. Socialpracticecharacterizedbylavishexpenditures,thesearchfor expensiveamenitiesorrefinedandsuperfluousgoods,oftenmotivatedbyatasteanddesirefortheostentatiousandfatuous.
3 JeandeLaFontaine, LesAmoursdePsychéetdeCupidon,1669.
4 PierreNicole, Del’ÉducationduPrince,1670.
2. Luxury(asanadjective).Ofveryhighquality,sophisticated andexpensive.Article,object,luxuryproduct,grandluxury, semi-luxury,luxurystyle,luxuryanimal.
3. Referstoathing,abehaviorvaluablebecauseoftheenjoymentit provides.“Thetoothbrushstillplaysmetricksandalsothetubeof toothpastethatalwaysbreaksfromthebottom.Onemustsacrifice thesesmallluxuriestothegreatluxuryoftime”(PaulMorand).5
4. Qualifyathing,abehaviorvaluablebecauseofitsrarityandsometimesbythefactthatitisdevoidofutilitarianfunction.“Theemergingformsofsocietytodayarenotmakingtheexistenceofintellectual luxuryoneoftheiressentialconditions.Probably,theunnecessary cannotnorshouldinterestthem”(PaulValéry).6
Theadventuresofthewordreflectthoseoftheconcept.Itshowsthat luxuryemergedfirstasalicitexperience—apracticeofdistinction—and then,wheneveryonewantedtodistinguishhimselffromeveryone,asa commonexperience.Fromtheetymologyofexcessorbotanicaldeviation,themeaningextendsintoexcessiveorunnecessary,redundant, expensiveobjects.Theprevioussensesarestillpresent,buttheyevolve toincludescarcity.Soonthemeaningattachedtothevaluable,rare,and expensiveobjectwillapplytothelifestylesoftheirownersandmean wealth,ostentation,and,therefore,power.
Withtheemergenceofthepostmodernbrand—thatis,theappearanceofbrandscommunicatingintheregistryofluxurybyoffering imaginaryworldsassociatedwithluxuriouslifestyles,withoutnecessarily offeringexpensiveandcertainlynotrareobjects—newmeaningsemerge andaresuperimposedonthepreviousones.
Theaesthetictreatmentofobjects,design,andcreativitybecome morerelevant.Atthesociallevel,luxurygathersadditionalvaluesof seductionandelitism,notforeigntothevaluesofpowerandprestige. Hedonismbecomesthelatestadditiontothevalencesofluxury,acharacteristicofourtimesofpostmodernconsumerism.
TheAdventofIntermediateLuxury Thistransformationofmeaningisbasedonacontemporarysociological revolution,adirectconsequenceofthemassproductionandespeciallyof
5 Morand, L’hommepressé,1941.
6 Regardssurmondeact,1931.
theriseofthebrands:theadventofintermediateluxury.Trulyluxurious lifestylesarepresent,morethanever,inanymoderncommunication: buttheyformonlypartoftheequation.Intermediateluxurybrands offercountlesspossibilitiesforthemiddleclasstotakepartsymbolically, partially,orvirtuallyintothisworld.
Thegloballuxurychessboardisthereforedistributedontwolevels,ifnotmore:ontheonehand,“trueluxury”—whichfewpeoplecanafford—increasesitsholdonthemarket.Thegrowthofthe numberofwealthyorwell-to-doconsumers(especiallyintheBRIC countries)combinedwithabiggersupply—investmentsintheluxury industriesthathavebeenyieldinghigherreturnsoninvestmentthan ordinarybrands—haveledtoastrongvisibilityofluxuriouslifestyles. Thepressandthemediaingeneralcontributeactivelybyexposingthe lifeoftherichandfamous.
Ontheotherhand,intermediateluxurybrands,inapplyingtheir logicofvolumeofproductionandcommunication,ensurethedemocratizationofluxury.Theymultiplytheopportunitiesforconsumersof themiddleclasses,tobeincontactwiththepossibleimaginaryworlds theyoffer.Whatismorenaturallyhumanthantoaspiretosignsofsocial recognition,success,comfort,andprestige?Thisdemocratizationisrampant.Nervesa,theItalianbrandofmen’sready-to-wear,doesnothesitate topromote“low-costprestige.”TheAmericanbrandTernerJewelry promotesitsproductsinairportshopswithbroadsignsshowing“Luxury at€12.”
Theultimatesymbolofthisdemocratizationcouldbetherecent attentionpaidtosoccer—apopularsport,anti-elitistparexcellence—by somebrands,muchbiggerthanTernerandNervesa.Thekick-offhad takenplacein1998inParis,whenYvesSaint-Laurentpresenteda paradeofsomeofhishistoricfashionmodelsattheopeningceremony oftheWorldCupattheFranceStadium.Duringthe2010World CupinSouthAfrica,LouisVuittonpresentedanadvertisingcampaign wherethemythicalchampionsPelé,Maradona,andZidanecompeted intablesoccer(baby-foot).Parmigiani,theSwisswatchmaker,was “theofficialwatchmakerofthefootballclubOlympiquedeMarseille” inthe2010s.ItsdirectcompetitorHublotsponsorsthesoccerclubs JuventusofTorino,Chelsea,andBenfica,aswellasJoseMourinho (coach),Pele(thelegendaryBrazilianplayer),andKylianMbappé(an internationalFrenchplayeratParis-Saint-Germain).Itwasalsothe officialtimekeeperofthe2018WorldCup.TheEnglishPremierLeague
isafavoritetargetoftheluxurywatchesbecauseofthewidespread worldwidecoverageitbenefitsfrom.TagHeueriswithManchester United,JeanRichardwithArsenal,andsoon.
Brandsarethemainfactoroftherecenttransformationsoftheconceptofluxury.TheessayistDanaThomastracesthisdriftfromthe notionsofexclusivity,quality,andtraditiontothoseofaccessibilityand aestheticsinthe1960s,withtheadventofagenerationofyoungconsumersanxioustobreaksocialbarriers.7 Itisneverthelessinthe1990s thatthemodernconnotationsoftheterm luxury expand,aspostmodernbrandsflourishwiththeirmultiplerepresentationsandproposalsof possibleworlds.
Weseeinanycasethattheconceptcanboastarichhistoryaswellasa presentthathasneverbeenmorediverseorabundant.Butifwehaveseen howluxuryhasevolved,itremains,inessence,difficulttoidentify.Its definitionsareessentiallysubjective:theyreflecttheprofessional,social, andculturaltrajectoriesoftheirusers.Dependingonwhetheroneis aneconomist,brandmanager,philosopher,sociologist,psychologist,or consumer,thedimensionsthatsomeonewillretainwillbeobviously different.
However,thisproliferationofrepresentationsisnotdevoidofmeaning.Thereislogictothiswealthofdefinitionsthatcanteachusabout theoveralleconomyandthemeaningsofluxury.
ClassificationofExistingDefinitions Beyondthetangibleaspectsofluxuryproductsorservices,weneedto considerthephenomenonasawholeintermsofproduction,marketing, andcommunication.Luxuryisadiscourse,theassertionofacertain lifestyle.Wecanthereforedistinguishbetweenemissionandperception ofthisdiscourse.
Withthisreading,thediversityofthecurrentdefinitionsandanalyses ofluxurycanbedividedintotwobroadcategories:thoserelatingtothe supplyofproductsorservicesandthoserelatedtothepsychological andsocialimplicationsoftheseproductsorservices—inotherwords, consumers’perceptions.
7 DanaThomas, Deluxe:HowLuxuryLostItsLuster.Penguin,2008.
nature of luxury mechanisms of perception of production AnalyticalSchemeoftheDefinitionsofLuxury
Ontheonehand,wethereforefinddefinitionsrelatingtotheproductionofluxury;ontheother,definitionsrelatingtoitsperception(see Figure1.1).Alternatively,ineconomictermswecouldidentifythemas thesupplyandtheusefulnesslogics.
PerceptualApproaches Sociologistsandpsychologistsarenaturallyinterestedintheresonanceof luxuryinthepopulation—andare,therefore,onthesideofthemechanismsofperception.
Forsomeauthors,suchasPierreBourdieu,buyingaluxurybrand isawaytoexpressasocialposition:accordingtohim,luxuryisessentiallydefinedbyitsdimensionofsocialcommunication.8 TheAmerican economistThorsteinVeblenandhisconceptof“conspicuouswaste”also belongsinthisgroup.9 Accordingtohim,highlightingone’sconsumptionofpriceyproductsisamethodofbuildingrespectabilityfortheman ofleisure.JeanBaudrillardhasasimilarapproach:forhim,ourobjects, tornbetweentheirvalueofuseandexchangevalue“aretakeninthefundamentalcompromisetohavetomean,thatistogiveasocialsense.”10 Inthesamevein,GillesLipovetskyrecentlywrote:“Luxuryisseenas perpetuatingaformofmythicalthinkingattheheartofadesacralized
8 PierreBourdieu, LadistinctionetCritiquesocialedujugement.Minuit,1979.
9 ThorsteinVeblen, TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass.TheMacMillanCompany,1899.
10 JeanBaudrillard, Pourunecritiquedel’économiedusigne.Gallimard,1972.
Figure1.1
commercialculture.”11 Inotherwords,inasocietywhereeverythingis measuredandbought,luxurywouldreintroduceanalmostmagical,not strictlyquantitativedistinctionamongindividuals.
Economistswhohavereflecteduponthephenomenonofluxury areespeciallyattachedtointegratingthequestionofitsvalorizationinto aglobalmacroeconomicmodel.Theyarethereforepositionedalsoon thesideofthemechanismsofperception.Forinstance,thetheoryon theelasticityofdemandforluxurygoodsisconsideredtobepositive andgreaterthan1,whichmeansthatthedemand,paradoxically,will increasewhenthepriceincreases.Thisisobviouslythesymbolicvalue oftheluxuryproduct—itsdistinctiveeffect—thatisthecause.
ProductiveApproaches Forthisothercategory,thediscoursesorientedtowardthemechanisms oftheproductionofluxuryaremadebyoperationalmanagers,executivesconcernedwiththefunctioningoftheirbrandandtheconditions ofproductionof“theluxuryeffect.”Theyalsoneeddefinitions,but morepragmaticones.
ConsiderthecaseofPatrizioBertelli,presidentofPrada:hedefines luxurybyaconvergenceofcreationandintuition.Anotherexampleis theComitéColbert,anassociationregrouping82Frenchluxuryhouses in2020(plus16associatedmembersand6Europeanmembers),which stressesthealliancebetweentraditionandmodernity,know-howand creation,internationalreputationandcultureofexcellence.
Fortheseapproaches,whatdefinesluxuryislessitssocialimplicationsthanasetofqualificationsembeddedintheproductionofthe objectorservice:qualityofmaterials,technicalknow-how,andbold andcreativetalent,whosesustainabilityisensuredbythetransmissionof intangiblevalues—tradition,artisanalexigency,questforperfection.
ThegreatfashiondesignerCocoChanelusedtodefineluxurysimplyastheoppositeofvulgarity:awaytoevadethequestion,whichrefers moretothemechanismsofperception,butwhichshowsus acontrario howthediscoursesoftheactorsoftheluxuryworldhavebecomemore profoundinthepostmodernworld.
11 G.LipovetskyandE.Roux LeluxeEternel.Gallimard,2003.
Wecanalreadyholdontotwouniversesofclearlydistinctrepresentations,whoseissuesdivergeandevenconflict.Butitispossibleto refinethisclassificationfurther.
SocialandIndividualAspects Forpsychologistsandsociologistsfocusedontheperceptionsofluxury, theinterestisfirstontheparadoxicalcommitmenttosomeobject,apparentlyuseless:Whatarethehiddenreasonsbehindluxuryconsumption?
Theperceptualapproachrevealstwotypesofmotivationsthatdo notoverlapentirely:onecanconsumeluxury(possiblyunconsciously) inordertodisplayitor,inamorepersonalapproach,simplytohave funforhisownpleasure.Thisdimensionseemsoftenneglectedbythe sociologicaldiscoursebutcannotbereducedtothepreviousone.Thisis amoreprivatedimension,adimensionofcomfortandindividualhedonism,aspointsout,forexample,Jean-PaulSartrein L’ÊtreetleNéant (1943),whenhewrote:“theluxurydoesnotdesignateaqualityofthe objectowned,butaqualityofpossession.”
Itisconceivable,forexample,thatIbuyaluxurysoap“because I’mworthit”toidentifywiththecelebritywhomakestheclaim—in short,forthesakeofsocialrepresentation.ButIalsobuyitbecause itsmellsgoodanditsfoamissmootherthansoapfromotherbrands. ThesequalitiesIdonotneedtoshowtoanyoneinordertoenjoythem. Thesoapservesmyownhedonism:itpleasesme,andifIamnolonger convincedthatitsmellsbetterthantheothers,Iwillprobablystopbuying it,despitetheprestigeofitsbrand.
Still,thepleasurebornfromtheconsumptionofluxurycomesalso fromstoriesthatcanbetold.Luxurymakesusdreamandwealsocan dreamalone.HowdoIknowwhethermysoapfeelsobjectivelybetteror ifitisthebrandadvertising,thereferencetoacelebritythatconvinced me?Inthissense,socialrepresentationisneverfarfrompersonalexperience.ThisiswhatJeanBaudrillardstresseswhenwriting“theprivate andthesocialaremutuallyexclusiveonlyinthedailyimagination.”12
Withoutdenyingthisanalysis,onewondersifthereisnot,among sociologistsofluxury,acertainmoralistbiasthatencouragesthemto ignorethequestionofhedonism.Intheirdiscipline,socialexperience
12 Baudrillard, Pourunecritiquedel’économiedusigne
oftenoverwhelmspurepleasure—or,saiddifferently,theintrinsicqualitiesoftheproduct.Thesequalitiesremain,consumerswillagree,constitutiveofexperience.
TheBrandandItsManifestations Aswejustmentioned,discoursesaboutthemechanismsofproduction ofluxurycharacterizethepointofviewofoperationalexecutives.They are,however,structuredbythephenomenonofthebrand.Itintroduced asecondandcriticaldimensioninaproductiveapproachtoluxury.The brandgeneratesissuesthatthemanagercannotconfusewiththoseofthe productitself.
Forexample,specificqualitiesareexpectedfromaHermèsscarf, theresultsofaknow-howthatcanberecognizedvisuallyandtactilely andthataretheindispensableanddefiningattributesofHermèsscarves. However,somethingelseisexpected:amoreintangiblesupplement, anidea,aprestigethatwillbecalled“Hermès”—asabrandor,more precisely,asabrandidentity.
Thereisasortof“beyondtheactualproduct,”thatisthebrand andthattheproductmustpromotewithoutbetrayal.Buttheproduct isonlyoneofthepossiblebrandmanifestations,makingbrandmanagementissuesevenmorecomplex.Advertising,pointsofsale,store windows,websites,socialnetworks,sponsorships,andsoforthareother formsofbrandmanifestationsandnotlessessentialforthepromotionof itsidentity.
Twodimensionsofbrandidentityareusuallydistinguished:the brandethics,theintelligiblepartthatismadeupofitsvalues,itsvision oftheworld,anditsidealizedrepresentation;andthebrandaesthetics, thesensorypartthataffectsitsphysicalandconcretemanifestationsor allimaginableinterfacesbetweenthebrandanditsconsumers.The aesthetictreatmentsofthesensorypartofthebrandparticipateinthe sensitiveexperienceofthebrand.Theemergenceof“lifestylebrands” tellsusthatthisexperiencespreadbeyondproducts,inotherareas,such ascommunication,spaces,orbehaviors(seeChapter8oncreation).
Nowthatwehavesplittheproductionsideintothebrandandits manifestationsandtheperceptionsideintoitssocialandindividualparts, weareabletopositionalltheauthors’definitionswehavementionedso far(seeFigure1.2).
nature of luxury mechanisms of perception of production
brand
Vleben
Bourdieu
Baudrillard
Lipovetsky
Coco Chanel
manifestations
Comité Colbert personal social
Bertelli
Molière
Sartre
Céline
Allérès
Figure1.2 PositioningofSomeAuthorsontheAnalyticalSchemeofthe DefinitionsoftheNotionofLuxury
nature of luxury Etymology: Excess
mechanisms of perception of production
manifestations brand personal social refinement elegance pleasure, exception boldness hedonism costly superfluous useless quantity excessive
Lavish lifestyle splendor ostentation wealth
status seduction elitism power
sumptuous, quality precious, rare design creativity excellence
Words in italic and gray: historical definitions
Words in Roman and black: modern definitions
Words in bold: postmodern definitions
Figure1.3 HistoryoftheSemanticEvolutionoftheDefinitionsoftheNotion ofLuxury
Inordertoclosetheloop,itremainstoreverttothesemantichistory oftheterm luxury describedearlierandinsertthemeaningsidentified inouranalyticalscheme(seeFigure1.3).
Theprogressivetransformationoftheconceptbecomesmore noticeable.Anumberofmodernorpostmodernvalues(referringto lifestylebrands)thatcharacterizecontemporaryluxurylikeelitism, hedonism,aestheticcreativity,andseductioncanberegroupedwithin clusters.Thesemeaningsaremainlyconcentratedaroundsocialluxury perceptionsandthepositiveconnotationsofitsmanifestations:itisa symptomofthegrowingsocialimportanceofluxury,especiallythrough theintermediateluxuryconsumption,butitalsoreflectstheriseofthe brandasitsmainvehicle—withoutadoubt,themajorandstructuring phenomenonofthisnewmarket.
LuxuryValues Nowthatluxuryisimposingitspositiveconnotationstothecontemporaryworld,howdoconsumersperceiveit?Whatarethevaluesthey identifywithluxury?
TheThreeScales Ananswercancomefromaveryrelevantstudy,ledbydeBarnier,Falcy, andValette-Florence,onasampleofover500personsinFrance.Itallows synthesizingthevaluescurrentlyassociatedwithluxurybyconsumers. Thisinvestigationofferstheinteresttocomparethreeindependentscales ofvaluethatexploredtheperceptionofluxurybyconsumersdoneby Kapferer,13 VigneronandJohnson,14 andfinallybyDuboisetal.15
Thestatisticalconvergenceofthethreemodelshighlightsfourmain typesofvalues,whichweclassifybyorderofintensity.Infact,wemay recognizeherefouressentialdimensionsthatconsumersconsidertobe essentialforabrandtobelongtotheluxuryworld.
13 J.-N.Kapferer,“WhyAreWeSeducedbyLuxuryBrands?,” JournalofBrandManagement 6,no.1(1998):44–49.
14 F.VigneronandL.W.Johnson,“AReviewandaConceptualFrameworkof Prestige-SeekingConsumerBehavior,” AcademyofMarketingScienceReview 3,no.1(1999): 1–15.
15 B.Dubois,G.Laurent,andS.Czellar,“ConsumerRapporttoLuxury:AnalyzingComplexandAmbivalentAttitudes,”HECResearchPapersSeries736.HECParis,2001.
1. Elitism(“distinction,”“select”)isthedimensionmostpresentsimultaneouslyonthethreescales.Thehistoricalsocialdimensionof luxurystillplaysitsrolefullyasanindicatorofsocialsuccess—or asimulacrumofthatsuccess.Thecreationofasenseofbelongingto aselectedgroupappearsastheessentialexperiencedimension.The creationofafeelingofbelongingtoachosengroupappearstobe theessentialdimensionoftheexperience.
2. Unsurprisingly,productqualityandhighpricesarealsosignificant characteristics.Theconceptofqualitycanextendtoallbrandmanifestationssuchascommunication,realandvirtualplaces,people, andsoon.
3. Inthethirdpositionwefindpersonalemotionalandaffectiveelements,suchashedonism,butwithaweakercorrelation.Thisisthe generationofpleasureandemotions,keycomponentsofpostmodernconsumption,whichappliesheretoluxurybrands.
4. Finally,thepowerofthebrand(resultingfrompastdecisionsand actions)appearsatthesideofreputationanduniqueness.
Throughthisexercise,theconsumerhimselfgivesushisowndefinitionofluxury.Andalthoughthefundamentalintuitionofsociologists (distinction)isconfirmed,wediscoverthattheconsumerisnotless attentivetothemeansofproductionoftheluxuryobjectandbrands thantoitspersonalandsocialimpacts(seeFigure1.4).Yetagain,luxury cannotbereducedtoitssoleeffectsofdisplay.
Otherconsiderationscanbedrawnfromthisstudy.
First,mostconsumersthinkandliveluxuryonlyintermsofbrands. Couldluxurybeexperiencedoutsideofthebrandworld?Wecould refertotheimaginaryworldoftwoFrenchnovels, ÀRebours16 and Les Choses17 :twoportraitsofcharacters,consumersobsessedbyluxury.In bothcases,thebrandsareabsentfromtheiruniverse:itisthequalityof theproductsthatholdstheirattention.Today,onthecontrary,brands appearasthenaturalvehiclesbywhichluxuryplaysitsprimaryrolein postmodernconsumption.
Secondly,eachbranddevelopsitsownspecificstrategies,whichdo notnecessarilycoverthefoursectorsofouranalyticalscheme.
16 J.-K.Huysmans, ÀRebours.Charpentier,1884.
17 G.Perec, LesChoses.Julliard,1965.
nature of luxury mechanisms of perception of production manifestations brand personal social hedonism elitism power reputation quality high price
Figure1.4 PositioningoftheDefinitionofLuxuryGivenbyConsumers
Finally,thestudyofdeBarnier,Falcy,andValette-Florencedemonstratestheexistenceofacontinuumofluxurywithincreasingintensity, frommassluxurytounaffordableluxury,viaintermediaryluxury.
TheSemioticSquareoftheConsumptionValues Webrieflypresentatoolthatwillbedescribedinmoredetailin Chapter7.Weanticipateitsusebecauseitcansupportsomereasoning aboutluxury,especiallywithregardtothelogicsofconsumerbehavior, andthusrefineourapproachtoageneraldefinitionofluxury.
Thisdiagramiscalledasemioticsquare.Itisawaytopresenta groupofcontraryandcontradictoryconceptsfocusingonthemanner inwhichtheyareopposed.Theseoppositionsaredynamic,asthetension betweentheantagonistsproduceseffectsofmeaning.(Thesamewayas inanactionmoviewheretheoppositionbetween“good”and“evil,” betweentheheroandhisopponent,canbetheengineoftheplot.)
Thisisalsotrueforthediscoursesonthemotivationsofluxuryconsumers.Thediagramofconsumptionvalueswasoriginallydevelopedby Jean-MarieFlochtohelpinthedesignofasupermarketlayout.Itcoversthedistributionofthedefinitionswehaveoutlinedearlierandallows exploringthemotivesofconsumptionluxury.
Itdistinguishesfourtypesoflogic(Figure1.5),whicharesomeof themotivationsofpossiblepurchaseandwhoopposeeachotherorcontradict:thelogicofneed(“wehavenomorebread”);thelogicofinterest (“Ialreadyhaveenoughcoffeeathome,butIwanttotakeadvantageof thispromotion”);thelogicofdesire(“anexoticdishisawaytotravel”); thelogicofpleasure(“Iamcrazyaboutchocolate”).Itgoeswithout sayingthatapurchasecanperfectlyobeyseverallogicsatthesametime, despitetheirapparentcontradictions:Icanchoosetobuyorganicchocolateorpremiumpasta.
Ifweseektoclassifythevaluesassociatedwithluxuryinthisdistribution,werealizethatthelogicsofdesireandpleasureontherightside ofthesquarewillbethepredominantengines.Hedonismisinthelogic ofpleasureactivatedbydiversionary/aestheticvalues;elitismislocated onthetoprightvertex,withthemythical/utopianvalues.Aswenoted, luxurybrands,evenmorethanothers,mustmakecustomersdreamof possibleworldsandprovideexperiencesintenseinemotions,dreams, andpleasure.
Logic of need Logic of desire Logic of interest vertex determining the brand typology of luxury
Logic of pleasure Figure1.5 SemioticSquareofConsumptionValues
Butitisalsopossibletospeakof“gooddealluxury,”sacrificing, partially,thelogicofinterest.Inrecentyears,websitesspecializingin “privatesales”havebeenflourishingontheInternet,offeringluxury brandproductswithheavydiscounts.
Infact,theeconomiclogicsarenotidenticalfortrueluxurybrandsandthoseofintermediateluxury.Asitsnameindicates, intermediate—oraccessible—luxuryisdefinedpreciselybyitsaffordable price.
Inadditiontoprivatesales,luxurybrandsareofteninterestedin developingmoreaffordablecollectionsorproducts,capitalizingontheir notoriety.Itisanobviouslyperilousexercisebecauseoftheriskofdisrepute.However,somebrandshavebeenverysuccessfulatit.Forthe past10years,theFerraribrandhasbeendevelopinglicenseagreements forallkindsofderivativeproductsinareasthatarecarefullykeptaway fromitscorebusiness:watches,clothes,perfumes,computerequipment, entertainmentparksinthePersianGulfandChina,andsoon.Ferrari managestheunusualfeatoffloodingthemarketwithcapsorkeychains bearingitsnameandcolorwithoutalteringitstrueluxuryimage.
Moresignificant,perhaps,isthecurrenttrendthatsees middle-marketbrands,borningeneralontheleftsideofthe
TheConceptofLuxury19 semioticsquareofconsumptionvalues,developingtotherightside, usingthecodesofbehavioroftraditionalluxurybrandsinterms ofcommunication,creation,andcoherenceinthemanagementof brandidentity(re)orientedtowardluxury.Itisatypicalmovementof mid-rangeleather-goodsbrandssuchasFurla,Longchamp,Coach, Lancel,andsoon.LewFrankfurt,formerCEOoftheAmericanbrand Coach,usedtodefinehisbrandas“ademocratizedluxurybrand.”18
Certainly,today,toremaincompetitive,allbrandsmustexcelon allfourverticesofthesquareofconsumptionvalues.Butintermediate luxuryisdistinguishedfromtrueluxurybyitspresenceontheeconomic vertex,thatis,howitpositionsitselfwithinthelogicofinterest.Where therealluxuryisnotafraidofitsrelativeexpensiveness,intermediary luxuryseeksminimumcostandaffordableprices.
TrueLuxury,IntermediateLuxury Historicalandcurrentdefinitionsofluxuryhavebeenclassifiedaccordingtotheirreceptiveandproductivedimensions;thishasalsobeen appliedtothemostcommonrepresentationsofconsumersonluxury. Finally,someanalyticalinstrumentshavebeenintroduced.
Wehaveseenthatmassbrandshavelearnedtomanagetheiroperationsbyadoptingtherulesoftraditionalluxury:theyseektobepresent onthefourverticesofthesemioticsquareofconsumptionvalues.
Therefore,whatmaydifferentiateatrueluxurybrand,inthesense thatwasintended50yearsago,fromanewentrantwithaproperstrategic understandingoftheluxuryindustryandthetalenttorunanintermediateluxurypositioning?Onecouldmentionlongevity(thetradition,the legacy),butthesecriteriadonotappeartohavebeentakenintoaccount, atleastconsciously,bytheconsumersinterviewedforthestudyofthe threescales.Arethereotherdifferentiatingfactors?Howtodistinguish, forexample,HermèsfromBottegaVenetaorFendi?
WecaninvokewhatJean-MarieFlochcalls“therefusalofanoveralleconomichegemony,”19 abrandattitudefocusingonothervalues
18 SuzyMenkes,“CoachGallopsintoEurope,” InternationalHeraldTribune,November1, 2010.
19 J.-M.FlochandE.Roux,“Gérerl’ingérable:Lacontradictioninterneàtoutemaisonde luxe,” DécisionsMarketing 9(1996):15–23.
thanthepurelogicofprofit.Inotherwords,whereintermediateluxuryisseekingaffordability,trueluxuryisgoingtopositionitselfnotas unaffordablebutasforeigntotheissue:theleftsideoftheconsumption squareseemsdeserted.Thestakesareelsewhere.
Veryhighluxurybrandscultivatethistypeofsignaltotheirconsumerswhentheyguaranteetheirproductsforlife(asBallywasstill doingin2000forthemen’sshoemodelScribethatitwasrepairing whensentbacktoheadquarters),orevenwhentheytrytosuggest thatthereisnopreferentialtreatment—thatalltheircustomersreceive thesame(exceptional)attentiontoservice,regardlessoftheirvolume ofpurchases.Someveryselectivebrandscanevenpromotesalesmodelsbasedoncooptation,wherepurchasingpowerseemirrelevant,in appearance,atleast.Thisisawayofsaying“ourdemandforqualityputs usabovemercantileconsiderations.”Thisconfirmsthedifferentiating roleofthecritical/economyvertexoftheconsumptionsquarefortrue luxurybrands(Figure1.5).
Instrictbusinesslogic,itisanirrationalbehaviorandinfactitwill naturallyfinditslimits.Butitisinterestingtoseethatthebrandclaims itasaposture,thatitmakesitoneofthekeysofitsidentity.Thisisa majorpointofdifferentiationbetweentrueluxuryandintermediateluxury:thelattercannotaffordindifference,orevenahintofindifference, toeconomicimperatives.Onecanseealso,inthissomehowunnaturalpostureofatrueluxurybrand,adeviationthatbringsusbackto theetymologicalsourcesoftheword luxury.Luxuryisanexcess,agap, adiscontinuity,aneccentricity.Itinvolvesashiftfromanorm,froma positionretainedasnormal.
EccentricLuxury Let’spositionluxuryasadifferentialwithrespecttoastandard.Canthe conditionsofthiseccentricitybespecified?Whatnormsorstandards willrealluxurybrandsbreakfrom?
ForJean-MarieFloch,thefoilisthenaturalmercantileattitudeseekingtheoptimizationofprofitsintheshortterm.Infact,anythingthatis drivenbylogicsofmassmarketsshouldremainoutsideoftherealmof luxury:Istheconsumernotseekingthere,precisely,signsofdistinction?
AdefinitionfromJean-LouisDumas-Hermès(latechairmanofHermès),reportedbyLallement,goesinthesamedirection:“luxurybrandis
