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John

T. Van Stan, II

Ethan Gutmann

Jan Friesen

Editors

Precipitation Partitioning by Vegetation

A Global Synthesis

Illustrated by Tyasseta and Siloy

JohnT.VanStan,II EthanGutmann JanFriesen

Editors

PrecipitationPartitioning

Editors

JohnT.VanStan,II AppliedCoastalResearchLaboratory GeorgiaSouthernUniversity Savannah,GA,USA

JanFriesen DepartmentofCatchmentHydrology HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearchUFZ Leipzig,Germany

EthanGutmann ResearchApplicationsLab NationalCenterforAtmosphericResearch Boulder,CO,USA

ISBN978-3-030-29701-5ISBN978-3-030-29702-2(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29702-2

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproduction onmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronic adaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnot imply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsand regulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.

Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelieved tobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty, expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeen made.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutional afﬁliations.

ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland

Foreword

Asahydrologist,Iwouldliketoknowwhathappensintheterrestrialbranchofthewater cycle.Theprocessesthatreturnprecipitationtotheatmosphereaswatervaporortotheoceans asriverorgroundwater flowaremanyandcomplex.Ifweeverwanttobeabletounderstand thehydrologicalcycleandtheimpactsthathumanshaveonit,ifweeverwanttobeableto manageourwaterresourcesinasustainablemanner,weneedtounderstandtheseprocesses. Formostraindropsthatfalloverland,the firstthingthathappensisthattheyhitaplant. Unfortunately,orinthepresentcontext,interestingly,thissimpleobservationquicklyleadsto alargesetofquestionsaboutwhathappensnext:Doesthedropstayontheleaftoevaporate backoncetherainstopsordoesitfallthroughthecanopy?Aredropsthatfallthrough concentrated,inducingrelativelyfastpreferential flowthroughthesoil,oristheraindispersed?Ifwecannotgetthesevery firstprocessesright,howcanweeverhopetocometo gripswiththenextsteps?Thesehydrologicalprocessesarerelativelysimplecomparedtothe potentiallyevenmorerelevantchemicalandbiologicalprocessesthattakeplacewhenprecipitationworksitswaythroughacanopy.Fromthemovementofnutrients,spores,and bacteriatothefunctioningofepiphytesanddecompositionofleaflitter,themovementof waterthroughcanopiesgovernsawidearrayofprocesses.

Foralongtime,theseprocesseswerenotbroadlyrecognizedassigni ﬁcantorimportant. Overthelastdecades,precipitationpartitioningandassociatedbiogeochemicalprocesseshave receivedmoreoftheattentiontheydeserve.Thisbookbringstogether,forthe ﬁ rsttime,the resultsofthisrecentworkandprovidesabroadoverviewofwhathasbecomeknown.Now thattherelevanceofprecipitationpartitioningiswellestablished,thismonographquickly bringseveryscholaruptodate.

Precipitationpartitioningisahighlyinterdisciplinarysubject.Onecanlookattheprocesses fromabotanicalpointofviewandwonderwhatthedifferentevolutionaryfunctionsarethat letplants “develop” certainmechanisms.Onecanalsolookattheecosystemasawholeorone canlookatitfromahydrologicalormeteorologicalpointofview.Inordertogetitright,all thesepointsofviewwillhavetobebroughttogether,somethingthisbookreallybringstothe fore.Similarly,indifferentecosystemsandlandscapes,differentpartitioningstakeplacewith differentbiogeochemicalresults.Forthisreason,thelargegeographicaldiversityrepresented inthebookisespeciallyrelevant.FromAmericangrasslandsandcroplandstoforestsin EuropeandsavannainAfrica,weseelargevariationsthatarecapturedbythewidespread empiricalevidenceinthedifferentchapters.

Thisgeographicalanddisciplinarydiversityisalsoreflectedintheexperiencesand expertiseoftheeditors.Thethreepeoplemakinguptheeditorialteamsuffi cientlyoverlapin theirintereststoensureacoherentpictureofthestateoftheart.Toprovideatthesametimea comprehensiveoverview,theybringtogetherabroadsetofskillsfromLIDARandsatellite remotesensingto fieldmeasurementsandhydrologicalandmeteorologicalmodeling.Personally,Ireallyappreciatethefactthatalleditorscontributedtonewmethodsformeasuring thecomplexprocessesofprecipitationpartitioning.Irememberwellhowoneoftheeditors, JanFriesen,traveledthroughGhanawithJohnSelkerandmetodirectlymeasuretreestem compressioncausedbycanopyrainfallinterception.Asanexampleofhowinvolvedany

ofthemeasurementsinthisbookcanget,Ijustwanttomentionthattoensureaconstant temperaturearoundtheclock,wewrappedthetreesinelectricblankets.Runninggeneratorsto keeptreeswarmatnightinAfricasoundslikeasillythingtodo,butitalsoexempliﬁesthe subtledifﬁcultiesthathadtobeovercomeforallexperimentsunderlyingthenewinsights presentedinthisbook.

Itisclearthatthisbookisnotthelastwordonprecipitationpartitioning,asthelastchapter clearlyexplains.Thebookendswithanoverviewofthemanyunknownsthatpersist.The simplestquestion,howmuchrainfallisinterceptedandevaporatesbeforeitcanreachtheroot zone,hasbeenaroundatleastsincetheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thismonographshows thattherehasbeengreatprogress,butthattheenormousdiversityofplants,ecosystems,and landscapesensuresthatmuchresearchremainstobedone.

Asa fi nalwordofintroduction,Imustmentionthegreatgraphicalsummariesofthe differentchapters.Theresearchershaveworkedcloselywithcartooniststomaketheessence ofthe findingsclearwithpicturesthatinformscholarsandlaypersonsalike.Thecartoonsare richindetail,furtheremphasizingthecomplexityandinterrelatednessofallprocessestaking place.Atthesametime,theybringlightnessandhumor,whicharesooftenlackingin scientifictomes.

Imagecredit: © A.BagusTyasseta

Prof.dr.ir.NickvandeGiesen VanKuffelerChairandProfessorofWaterManagement FacultyofCivilEngineeringandGeosciences DelftUniversityofTechnology Delft,TheNetherlands

Preface

WaterisfundamentaltolifeonEarth,includingitsdissolvedandsuspendedmaterials, associatedenergy,andpathwaysthroughthelandsurfaceandatmosphere.Therefore, understandingandmanagingwaterresourcesisalsofundamentaltothesocioculturaland economicunderpinningsofhumancivilization.Giventhisimportance,itisastonishingthat, forthevery firstinteractionbetweenprecipitationandthelandsurface(mostofwhichis vegetated),therehasbeennocomprehensiveandglobalsynthesisandevaluationofextant research.Althoughobservationsofprecipitation–vegetationinteractionshavebeenreported sinceTheophrastus,overtwomillenniaago,theeditorsandcontributingauthorsarenotaware ofasinglevolumethathassinceexclusivelyfocusedontheseprocesses.SinceTheophrastus, researchonhowvegetation “partitions” precipitationhasbecomegeographicallyextensive, butstudiesplacingprecipitationpartitioningprocessesintoglobalcontextarerare.Thefew studiesthathaveconsideredthemacroscaleroleofprecipitation–vegetationinteractions find signifi cantinfluencesoverglobalhydrologicalprocesses,climate,andterrestrialecosystem functioning(e.g.,Mirallesetal.2010;Murray2014;Poradaetal.2018).Assuch, PrecipitationPartitioningbyVegetation:AGlobalSynthesis isnotonlytimelybutalsoalong overduesynthesisandevaluation somethingoftenconsiderednecessaryfortheprogression ofanydiscipline(Moldwinetal.2017).Thisvolumesynthesizesresearchonprecipitation partitioningbyvegetationtodateandgloballycontextualizesthisknowledgewithanexplicit discussionofrelevanceandimpactstotheclimateandterrestrialecosystemfunctioning,as wellasdirectsocioeconomiceffects.Ourintentionisforthistobeacomprehensivereference forresearchersandstudentsseekingtodiscoverwhathasbeendoneandtoinspirefuture researchonbothlong-standingandnewquestions.Indeed,howcanwemanagewater resourcesifwedonothaveanaccurateaccountingof,orevenconsistentaccountingmethods fordetermining, “howmuchprecipitation actually reachesthesurface?”

Savannah,GA,USAJohnT.VanStan,II Boulder,CO,USAEthanGutmann Leipzig,GermanyJanFriesen

References

MirallesD,etal(2010)Globalcanopyinterceptionfromsatelliteobservations.JGeophysRes115(D16) MoldwinM,etal(2017)Whyandhowtowriteahighimpactreviewpaper:lessonsfromeightyearsof editorialboardservicetoreviewsofgeophysics.RevGeophys55:860–863 MurrayS(2014)Trendsin20thcenturyglobalrainfallinterceptionassimulatedbyadynamicglobalvegetationmodel:implicationsforglobalwaterresources.Ecohydrol7:102–114 PoradaP,etal(2018)Signiﬁcantcontributionofnon-vascularvegetationtoglobalrainfallinterception.Nature Geosci11:563

Acknowledgements

TheeditorsgratefullyacknowledgethesupportoftheUnitedStatesNationalScience FoundationtotheNationalCenterforAtmosphericResearch.Wealsothanktheillustratorsof thisvolumefornotonlytheirskillfulexecutionofdetailedscienti ﬁcdepictionsbutalsofor theirpatienceindealingwiththemeticulouscriticisminherenttorigorousscienti ﬁcreview. Wewishtoexpressoursincereanddeepgratitudetoallcontributingauthors,thosewho servedaspeerreviewers,andtoNickvandeGiesenforwritingtheForeword.Discussions, reviews,graphicdesignassistance,andnumerousothereffortsfromscientistsexternaltothe bookitselfwerekeytothesuccessfulexecutionofthiswork,andareacknowledgedalphabetically:RoelandL.Berendsen,MatthewT.Jarvis,DelphisF.Levia,JessicaD.Lundquist, SybilG.Gotsch,ElizabethA.Ottesen,CarlL.Rosier,KevinA.Ryan,MorganE.Teachey, JarradH.VanStan,and,ofcourse,oursupportivefriendsandfamily.

AbouttheIllustrators

Imagecredit: © A.BagusTyasseta

A.BagusJatiTyasseta (left),orTyasseta(bagusseta1982@gmail.com ),isanIndonesian artistworkinginthecomicindustrycurrentlylivinginJakartawithhisfamily.Heobtaineda MasterofFineArtsinSequentialArtfromSavannahCollegeofArtandDesigninSavannah, Georgia(USA)wherehemetDr.VanStan.HehaspublishedseveralcomictitlesinIndonesia andiscurrentlyworkingforanAmericancomicpublisher.Hisotherartworkscanbeviewed inhisartstationpage: https://www.artstation.com/tyasseta

FredySiloy (right),orSiloy(Siloyfredy@gmail.com),isagamedeveloperatnoonand colorartistatnight.HeobtainedaBachelorofFineArtsfromInstitutTeknologiBandungin Bandung,WestJava(Indonesia).Heiscurrentlydevelopingachannelgameforkidsnamed TappyTaps andcasualgamechannelnamed IkanAsinProduction. Pleasecheckoutmoreof hisartworks: www.ikaanstudio.com.

1PrecipitationPartitioning,ortotheSurfaceandBackAgain: HistoricalOverviewoftheFirstProcessintheTerrestrial HydrologicPathway 1 JohnT.VanStan,IIandJanFriesen

2StorageandRoutingofPrecipitationThroughCanopies 17 AnnaKlamerus-Iwan,TimothyE.Link,RichardF.Keim, andJohnT.VanStan,II

3EvaporativeProcessesonVegetation:AnInsideLook 35 MiriamCoenders-Gerrits,BartSchilperoort,andCésarJiménez-Rodríguez

4AGlobalSynthesisofThroughfallandStem ﬂowHydrometeorology 49 SeyedMohammadMoeinSadeghi,D.AlexGordon, andJohnT.VanStan,II

5ThingsSeenandUnseeninThroughfallandStem ﬂow 71 AlexandraG.Ponette-González,JohnT.VanStan,II,andDonátMagyar

6SpatialVariabilityandTemporalStabilityofLocalNetPrecipitation Patterns ..................................................... 89 JohnT.VanStan,II,AnkeHildebrandt,JanFriesen,JohannaC.Metzger, andSandraA.Yankine

7GlobalModelingofPrecipitationPartitioningbyVegetation andTheirApplications

EthanD.Gutmann

8ThroughfallandStem ﬂow:TheCrowningHeadwaters oftheAquaticCarbonCycle 121 AronStubbins,FrançoisGuillemette,andJohnT.VanStan,II

9InteractionsofEpiphyteswithPrecipitationPartitioning 133 GlendaMendieta-Leiva,PhilippPorada,andMaaikeY.Bader

10RelevanceofPrecipitationPartitioningtotheTreeWater andNutrientBalance

DougP.Aubrey

11RoleofPrecipitationPartitioninginLitterBiogeochemistry 163 RobertG.Qualls

12AReviewoftheEffectsofThroughfallandStem ﬂowonSoilProperties andSoilErosion ............................................... 183 DavidDunkerley

13FlowPathwaysofThroughfallandStem ﬂowThroughtheSubsurface .....

JanFriesen

14PrecipitationPartitioning HydrologicHighwaysBetweenMicrobial CommunitiesofthePlantMicrobiome? 229

JohnT.VanStan,II,CindyE.Morris,KyawAung,YakovKuzyakov, DonátMagyar,EriaA.Rebollar,MitjaRemus-Emsermann,StéphaneUroz, andPhilippeVandenkoornhuyse

15ValuingUrbanTreeImpactsonPrecipitationPartitioning .............. 253

DavidJ.Nowak,RobertCoville,TheodoreEndreny,RezaAbdi, andJohnT.VanStan,II

16KeyQuestionsontheEvaporationandTransportofIntercepted Precipitation 269

ScottT.Allen,DougP.Aubrey,MaaikeY.Bader,MiriamCoenders-Gerrits, JanFriesen,EthanD.Gutmann,FrançoisGuillemette, CésarJiménez-Rodríguez,RichardF.Keim,AnnaKlamerus-Iwan, GlendaMendieta-Leiva,PhilippPorada,RobertG.Qualls,BartSchilperoort, AronStubbins,andJohnT.VanStan,II

AuthorIndex 281

EditorsandContributors

AbouttheEditors

Imagecredit: © A.Bagus

Imagecredit: © A.Bagus Tyasseta

Imagecredit: © A.Bagus

JohnT.VanStan,II,Ph.D. isanEcohydrologistatGeorgia SouthernUniversityinSavannah,Georgia(USA).Heenjoys collecting ﬁeldobservationsofwaterandelemental ﬂuxesin vegetatedecosystemsduringstormsanddevelopingsensorsto overcomeobservationallimitationswhentheyarise.Hehas workedatsitesinNorthandCentralAmericaandEuropeto improveourunderstandingofhowprecipitationpartitioning affectsotherecosystemprocesseswithin,above,andbelowplant canopies.Healsonarratesfreeaudiobooks: https://librivox.org/ reader/9017.

EthanGutmann,Ph.D. isaHydrologistintheResearch ApplicationsLabattheNationalCenterforAtmospheric ResearchinBoulder,Colorado(USA).Hisbackgroundin hydrology,geology,andcomputersciencefoundahappy marriageinremotesensingandhydrologicandatmospheric modeling.Apassionfortheoutdoorshastakenhimtoremote cornersoftheworld,climbingmountainsinPeru,Nepal,and Tanzania.Healsoenjoysscientiﬁ coutreach,havingdabbledin sciencebloggingatArsTechnicaandsciencevideography withEarthInitiatives.

JanFriesen,Ph.D. isanEcohydrologistattheDepartmentof CatchmentHydrology,HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmental Research UFZ,Leipzig(Germany).Hisresearchprimarily focusesonforestecohydrology,remotesensing,andsensor developmentwhereheappliesanddevelopsnewmonitoring solutionstobridgethegapbetweensitestudiesandremote sensing.Hehasextensiveexperienceinsemiaridand data-scarcecountriessuchasGhana,BurkinaFaso,Nigeria, andOmanandhisworkhasastrongconnectiontowater managementissues.

Contributors

RezaAbdi DepartmentofEnvironmentalResourcesEngineering,CollegeofEnvironmental ScienceandForestry,StateUniversityofNewYork,Syracuse,USA

ScottT.Allen DepartmentofEnvironmentalSystemScience,ETHZurich,Zurich, Switzerland

DougP.Aubrey SavannahRiverEcologyLaboratory,WarnellSchoolofForestryand NaturalResources,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,USA

KyawAung DepartmentofGenetics,DevelopmentandCellBiology,IowaStateUniversity, Ames,USA

MaaikeY.Bader FacultyofGeography,UniversityofMarburg,Marburg,Germany; EcologicalPlantGeography,PhilippsUniversityofMarburg,Marburg,Germany

MiriamCoenders-Gerrits DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands

RobertCoville TheDaveyInstitute,CollegeofEnvironmentalScienceandForestry,State UniversityofNewYork,Syracuse,USA

DavidDunkerley FacultyofScience,SchoolofEarth,AtmosphereandEnvironment, MonashUniversity,Clayton,VIC,Australia

TheodoreEndreny DepartmentofEnvironmentalResourcesEngineering,Collegeof EnvironmentalScienceandForestry,StateUniversityofNewYork,Syracuse,USA

JanFriesen DepartmentofCatchmentHydrology,HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmental Research – UFZ,Leipzig,Germany

D.AlexGordon DepartmentofGeologyandGeography,GeorgiaSouthernUniversity, Statesboro,Georgia

FrançoisGuillemette DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,CentreforResearchon Watershed-AquaticEcosystemInteractions(RIVE),UniversityofQuebecatTrois-Rivi éres, Trois-Rivières,Canada

EthanD.Gutmann ResearchApplicationsLaboratory,NationalCenterforAtmospheric Research,Boulder,CO,USA

AnkeHildebrandt DepartmentComputationalHydrosystems,HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch – UFZ,Leipzig,Germany

CésarJiménez-Rodríguez DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands

RichardF.Keim SchoolofRenewableNaturalResources,LouisianaStateUniversity, BatonRouge,LA,USA

AnnaKlamerus-Iwan FacultyofForestry,UniversityofAgricultureinKraków,Kraków, Poland

YakovKuzyakov DepartmentofAgriculturalSoilScience,Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen,Germany

TimothyE.Link WaterResourcesProgram,UniversityofIdaho,Moscow,ID,USA

DonátMagyar DepartmentofAerobiologyandPollenMonitoring,NationalPublicHealth Center,Budapest,Hungary

GlendaMendieta-Leiva FacultyofGeography,UniversityofMarburg,Marburg,Germany; EcologicalPlantGeography,PhilippsUniversityofMarburg,Marburg,Germany; PlantEcologyDivision-CORBIDI,Lima,Peru

JohannaC.Metzger InstituteofGeoscience,Friedrich-Schiller-UniversityJena,Jena, Germany

CindyE.Morris INRA,PlantPathologyResearchUnit407,PACAResearchCenter, Montfavet,France

DavidJ.Nowak ForestService,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,Syracuse,USA

AlexandraG.Ponette-González DepartmentofGeographyandtheEnvironment,UniversityofNorthTexas,Denton,TX,USA

PhilippPorada DepartmentofBiology,InstituteofPlantScienceandMicrobiology, UniversityofHamburg,Hamburg,Germany

RobertG.Qualls DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentalScience,University ofNevada-Reno,Reno,USA

EriaA.Rebollar CentrodeCienciasGenómicas,UniversidadNacionalAutónomade México,Cuernavaca,Mexico

MitjaRemus-Emsermann SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofCanterbury, Christchurch,NewZealand

SeyedMohammadMoeinSadeghi DepartmentofForestryandForestEconomics, UniversityofTehran,Karaj,Iran

BartSchilperoort DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft,TheNetherlands

JohnT.VanStanII AppliedCoastalResearchLaboratory,GeorgiaSouthernUniversity, Savannah,GA,USA

AronStubbins NortheasternUniversity,Boston,USA; DepartmentofMarineandEnvironmentalSciences,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmental Engineering,DepartmentofChemistryandChemicalBiology,NortheasternUniversity, Boston,USA

StéphaneUroz INRA,BiogeochemicalCyclesinForestEcosystemsUnit,Nancy,France PhilippeVandenkoornhuyse EcoBio,Université deRennes,Rennes,France

SandraA.Yankine CivilEngineeringandConstructionManagement,GeorgiaSouthern University,Statesboro,Georgia

PrecipitationPartitioning,ortotheSurface andBackAgain:HistoricalOverview oftheFirstProcessintheTerrestrial HydrologicPathway

JohnT.VanStan,IIandJanFriesen

Abstract

Thischapterpresentsahistoryoftheinterdisciplinary fi eldfocusedonimprovingourunderstandingofthe firststepinthe terrestrialhydrologiccycle:precipitationpartitioningbyvegetation.Wedescribetheoriginsofinterest,rootedin observationsfrom “TheFatherofBotany,” Theophrastus(350BCE)andsynthesizetheearlyformalhydrologicand biogeochemicalresearch(*1800–1917)thatprovidedthefoundationformodernprecipitationpartitioninginvestigation. Toexaminethe field’spublicationandcitationtrendsoverthepastcentury(1918–2017),ameta-analysisofprecipitation partitioningresearchsampledfromtheThompsonReuter ’sWebofScienceispresentedanddiscussed.Finally,a summaryofresearchpublishedonthistopicthroughSeptember2018(whenthischapterwaswritten)isusedtodiscuss broadfuturedirectionsaswellastointroducetheoverallstructureofthisbook.

Keywords

Throughfall Stemﬂow Rainfall Snow Ice Fog History

1.1Introduction

Anyrain,snow,rime,orcondensate(fog,mistordew)attemptingpassagethroughavegetatedlandscapewillinevitably interactwithitsplantsurfaces.Theseprecipitation-vegetationinteractionsarethefocusofa fieldcalled, “precipitation partitioningbyvegetation, ” thathasrootsdeepintotheoriginsofnaturalscienceitself.Sinceprecipitationpartitioningis typicallythe firstprocesstoaltertheamountandpatterningofmeteoricwater,itaffectsallsubsequentterrestrialhydrologicalandrelatedecologicalprocesses(Savenije 2004, 2018).Thenatureofanybelow-canopyprecipitation(or “net precipitation ”) flux ’shydrologicandecologicalinfluencecandependonhowthatwaterpenetratedthevegetationcanopy, e.g.,asadripfromsurfacesandthroughcanopygaps(called “throughfall”)orasa flowdownthestem(called “stemflow”). Thepartitioningprocessalsoreturnsaportionofprecipitationbacktotheatmosphere(called “interception”)inthecanopy, theunderstoryandlitterlayer(GerritsandSavenije 2011),whichisoflargeenoughmagnitudetoinfluenceregionaland globalwater(Poradaetal. 2018)andenergybudgets(Davies-Barnardetal. 2014;VanderEntetal. 2014).Excellent historicalreviewsexistfor fieldswithwhichprecipitationpartitioningoverlaps foresthydrologyandbiogeochemistry (Andréassian 2004;McGuireandLikens 2011) butnonehavesummarizedanddiscussedhistoricalaspectsoftheprecipitationpartitioning fielditself.Thus,thischapterexaminesthehistoricalorigins,developmentsandmajoradvancements ofresearchseekingtoimproveourunderstandingofthe firstprocessintheterrestrialhydrologicpathwaythroughvegetated landscapes.

J.T.VanStan,II(&)

AppliedCoastalResearchLaboratory,GeorgiaSouthernUniversity,Savannah,GA,USA

e-mail: jvanstan@georgiasouthern.edu

J.Friesen

DepartmentofCatchmentHydrology,HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch UFZ,Leipzig,Germany

e-mail: jan.friesen@ufz.de

J.T.VanStan,IIetal.(eds.), PrecipitationPartitioningbyVegetation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29702-2_1

We firstdescribetheoriginsofinterestregardinginteractionsbetweenvegetationandprecipitationand,then,discussthe earlyformalresearchstudiesthatprovidedthefoundationformodernprecipitationpartitioninginvestigation. Ameta-analysisofstudiespublishedinthis fi eldoverthepastcentury(1918–2017)ispresentedanddiscussed.Finally,a summaryofresearchpublishedinthe firstninemonthsof2018isusedtodiscussbroadfuturedirectionsaswellasto introducetheoverallchapterstructureofthisbookproject.

1.2Origins

Processesgoverningthecapture,storage,evaporation,andredistributionofprecipitationbyplantswerelittlediscussed beforethenineteenthcentury.However,asearlyas350yearsBCE,Greeknaturalistsbeganrecordingtheeffectsof precipitationpartitioningatthesurface,andmanyoftheseobservationsfascinatedscientiststhroughtheAgeofEnlightenmentandintomoderntimes.

Beginningwiththe first-knownscienti ficpublicationonplants, HistoriaPlantarum (350–287BCE),theGreeknaturalist andphilosopherTheophrastus(371–287BCE)describedmanyoftheecologicaleffectsnowattributed,inpartorinwhole, toprecipitationpartitioning.His fi rstdiscussionoftheseeffectstouchedonrainfallredistributionbythroughfall,although thistermandothermodernhydrologicterms(e.g.,stem flowandinterception)werenotyetexplicitlyused.Earlyinthethird volume,TheophrastusreviewsobservationsfromAnaxagoras(510–428BCE),Diogenes(412–323BC),andCleidemos (fifth–fourthcenturyBCE)ontherolethatrainfallredistributionplaysinthedispersalofseeds(sectioni,3),concludingwith hisownobservationsthatthroughfall “bringsdownmanyoftheseedswithit,andatthesametimecausesasortof decompositionofthesoilandofthewater” (sectioni,11)(Theophrastus 1483).Regardingstemflow, HistoriaPlantarum (volumeIV,sectioniii,4–5)reportsobservationsrelatedtothenowwell-recognizedcapabilityoftrees(Hildebrandtand Eltahir 2006),shrubs(Whitfordetal. 1997),herbs,likethyme(BelmonteSerratoandRomeroDíaz 1998),andgrasses (Roth-Nebelsicketal. 2012)tosurviveinaridenvironmentsthroughfunnellingdew,fog,andscantamountsofrainfallto theirrootsystems.Theophrastushypothesizedthatplantssituated “inthelandwherenorainfalls” weresustained “bythe dew” forheconsideredittobe “sufficient[water],consideringthesizeofsuchplantsandtheirnaturalcharacter.” Theidea thatprecipitationinterceptedbyplantcanopieswastakenupbytheplantwasalsodiscussedbyLeonardodaVinci,inhis notebooks(1478–1518CE),wherehestatesthat “the[rain]waterwhichfallsupontheshootcanrundowntonourishthe bud,bythedropbeingcaughtinthehollow[axil]attheinsertionoftheleaf.” Wateruptakebycanopysurfaceshasnow becomeawidely-observedphenomenon(seeChap. 10).Itwasalsoreportedthat figtreescan “becomediseasedifthereis heavyrain;forthenthepartstowardtheroot[wherestem flowinfiltrates]andtherootitself[wherestemflowcanpreferentially flow:JohnsonandLehmann(2006)]become,asitwere,sodden” (volumeIV,sectionxiv,6).

Eventheinterception,storageandevaporation,ofrainandsnowisbrieflyaddressedinTheophrastus’ observationsof silver fir(Abiesalba)trees.Hedescribesthisspecies’ foliageasbeing “sodensethatneithersnownorrainpenetratesit” (volumeIII,sectionix,6–7).Theeffectsofrainwaterentrainedon,and flowingacross,plantsurfaceswerealsodescribed duringhisstudiesofinfestationandpollination.Infestationofolivetreeswasdescribedasbeing “preventedfromappearing undertheskin[ofthefruit]ifthereisrainaftertherisingofArcturus[thenorthernspringtimestar]” (volumeIV,sectionxiv, 9).Wenowunderstandthatwithin-canopytransportofrainwatercanaffectthespreadofpathogens(Garbelottoetal. 2003), seealsoChap. 14 ofthisvolume.Theophrastusnotestheimportanceofavoidingrainfallduringartifi cialpollinationof fig trees(volumeII,sectionviii,1–3),asrainwaterentrainedonthecanopysurfacescanwashawaypollen,asobservedbyLee etal.(1996),andmayreduceavailablepollenforinsectpollinators.

Theophrastus’ observationsimpressedPlinytheElder(23–79CE),whocalledhim “themosttrustworthyoftheGreek writers” (Parejko 2003).Thus,itisnosurprisethatPlinywasthenextnaturalisttoobserveandreporttheeffectsof precipitationpartitioningbyvegetation.InPliny’s NaturalisHistoria (77–79CE)henotonlydescribesrainfallinterception andthroughfall,butevenqualitativelycomparesthedropletsizedistributionsofthroughfallbetweentreespecies! “The dropsofwaterthatfallfromthepine,the Quercus,andtheholm-oakareextremelyheavy,butfromthecypressfallnone” (volumeXVII,chapterxviii)(c.f.,HallandCalder 1993).Inthesamechapter,PlinyconfirmsTheophrastus’ observations thatsubstantialinterceptionislikelydueto “foliagebeingdenselypacked.” Then,hedescribesaneffectofprecipitation partitioningthatwasnotquantitativelyobserveduntilthetwentiethcentury:thecanopy’sabilityto “smooth” rainfall intensity(KeimandSkaugset 2004;TrimbleandWeitzman 1954), “thealder[canopy]isverydense itservesasan effectualprotectionagainstheavyrains.” Plinyalsosparkedscientificandpublicinterestaboutthechemicalcompositionof throughfallandstemflowthroughhisobservationofallelopathy,orthechemicalinhibitionoftheestablishmentandgrowth ofcompetingplants,intheshadowscastbycertaintrees,especially Juglans (walnut)species: “Theshadowofthewalnut

treeispoisontoallplantswithinitscompass” (volumeXVII,chapterxviii).Modernworkhasnotonlyidenti ﬁedthat allelopathiccompoundsareleachedfromwalnutleavesduringrainfall(JoseandGillespie 1998)butthatthisprocessoccurs inthecanopiesofotherspecies,like Fagussylvatica (Europeanbeech)(Bischoffetal. 2015).Plinyadvocatedforfuture naturalscienti ﬁcinquiryonprocesseswithinthe “shadowsoftrees,” concludingthat “inthecaseofeveryvarietyofplant, theshadeisfoundtoacteitherasakindofnurseoraharshstep-mother.” Duringthe1350s,theMoroccanIslamicscholar, IbnBaṭṭūṭah,gaveperhapstheharshestaccountofrain-plantinteractionsduringhistravelsthroughsouthernTibet,stating thattherewere “poisonousgrassesgrowing,suchthatwhentherainsfalluponit,andrunintorrentstotheneighboring rivers,noonedaresofconsequencedrinkofthewaterduringthetimeoftheirrising:andshouldanyonedoso,hedies immediately.” (IbnBaṭṭūṭah 1356).DespitethisshockingaccountandPliny’spriorurgingforgreaterstudyoftheprocesses atplayintheblackboxenshroudedbythecanopy’sshadow,noknownattemptstomeasure,estimateormonitorthestorage, evaporation,andredistributionofprecipitationbyplantsoccurredforcenturies.

1.3TheFirstObservationsandDevelopmentofConceptualFoundations

1.3.1FoundationalHydrologicObservations

Europeanadventurersduringtheeighteenthcenturyreportedonthelinksbetweenprecipitationandvegetation(von HumboldtandBonpland 1807)andcaseswhereindigenouspeoplesusedprecipitation-vegetationinteractionstotheirbeneﬁt (DeGalindoandGlas 1764).BothvonHumboldtandCaptainGeorgeGlaswitnessed,inparticular,thepeopleoftheCanary Islandsusingfogcapturebyvegetationcanopiestosigniﬁ cantsupplementtheirwaterresourceneeds(DeGalindoandGlass 1764;Kunkel 2012).TheaccountofCaptainGlasisparticularlydetailedandhasbeenusedtointroducetherelevanceoffog interceptioninearlyresearch(Kerfoot 1968):

InoneoftheCanaryIslandsgrowsatreewhichfurnisheswatertotheinhabitantsandbeastsofthewholeplace … itsleavesconstantly distillsuchaquantityofwaterasissufﬁcienttofurnishdrinktoeverycreaturein[El]Hierro,naturehavingprovidedthisremedyforthe droughtoftheisland. Onthenorthsideofthetrunkaretwotanksorcisterns.Oneofthesecontainswaterforthedrinkingofthe inhabitants,andtheotherthatwhichtheyusefortheircattle,washingandsuchlikepurposes.Everymorning,nearthispartoftheisland,a cloudofmistarisesfromthesea,whichthesouthandeasterlywindsforceagainstthefore-mentionedsteepcliffsothatthecloud advancesslowly andthenrestsuponthethickleavesandwide-spreadingbranchesofthetreefromwhenceitdistillsindrops.

Noquantitativeobservationsofprecipitationpartitioningweremadebytheseeighteenth-centuryEuropeanadventurers. Interestinprecipitationpartitioningwithinthescientificcommunityfullyawakenedinthemid-nineteenthcenturywhen Dove(1855),afteranalyzingrainfallobservationsinthetemperatezone,posedthequestionofhowchangesinforestcover mayinfluencerainfallpatterns.Thusmotivated,Krutzsch(1855)reviewedSwissandFrenchdeforestationworktodevelopa conceptualdescriptionofforestcanopyinterceptionprocessesandtheirpotentialinfluenceonrainfallintensity,soilorganic mattercontent,infiltrationanderosion.Althoughhedescribesforestcanopyinterception,nodirectobservationsarereported orcitedin1855.Nearlyadecadelater,Krutzsch(1863, 1864)reportsthe first-knowndirectobservationsofcanopy precipitationpartitioningafterupdatinghismonitoringnetworktoobservebelow-canopyprecipitation(throughfall)in Tharandt,Saxony,Germany.Toourknowledgethiswasthe firstnational,atthattimeassociatedtotheKingdomofSaxony, monitoringnetworkdedicatedtoforest-meteorologicalobservations.Thesethroughfallobservationswereusedtoestimate canopysaturationpointforthe firsttime:0.2mm(Krutzsch 1864).Adirectrelationshipbetweenrelativethroughfalland stormsizeacrossstormswasalso firstreported,withrelativethroughfallbeing9–57%ofstormsranging1.1–14.8mmin magnitude.AlthoughmultipleinsightsweregainedbyKrutzsch’s(1864)throughfallobservations,morequestions(and,asa result,moreinterest)aroseinthescientificcommunity.Broadermeasurementsofcanopyprecipitationpartitioning, includingstem flow,werebegunin1868inBavaria,GermanybyEbermayer(Ebermayer 1873;Bühler 1918)aftervisiting Krutzsch ’smeteorologicalmonitoringstationsinTharandt(Hölzl 2010).SimilartoKrutzsch ’smonitoringnetwork, Ebermayeralsosetupaseriesofnational(KingdomofBavaria)long-termobservatories.Similar fieldcampaigns,although onmorelocalscales(e.g.,experimentalforests,botanicgardens,orsingletrees),forprecipitationpartitioningwerebegunby researchersthroughoutmainlandEurope,e.g.,France[Mathieuin1866perClav é (1875)],Switzerland[Frankhauserin1869 perMauriceandFrécaut(1962)],andtheCzechRepublic(JohnenandBreitenlohner 1879).

Interestingly,bothKrutzschandEbermayerpublisheddetailsregardinginstrumentationaswellascostsperstationfor theirobservatories.Forexample,Fig. 1.1 showstheannualmaintenanceandobservercostsaswellastheoverallinstallation costsfortheBavarianobservatory.FortheSaxonobservatoryinstalledin1862–1863,theinvestmentcostswereestimatedto 87Thalerand4Neugroschen(Saxoncurrencyaround1862)whereastheannualcostforobservationamountedto30Thaler

Fig.1.1 Costsforthe a Saxonforest-meteorologicalobservatory(Krutzsch 1863)and b annualmaintenanceandobservercostsperstationforthe Bavarianobservatorynetwork(Ebermayer 1873)

(Krutzsch 1863).Thisequatestoapproximately$160(nineteenthcentury,i.e.,unadjustedforinflation).Observersthat workedatanystudysitelocationexperiencingsub-zerotemperatureswerepaidanextra20Thalers,amountingto50Thaler perstation.FortheBavarianobservatory,installedin1866,Ebermayerestimatedaninvestmentcostof500guilders (Bavariancurrencyatthetime)andannualmaintenanceandobservercostsof250guildersperstation(Ebermayer 1873). Throughfallobservationsbeganwithoutspatialreplication,comparingmeasurementsofoneopen fieldgaugeandone below-canopygauge(Ebermayer 1873).Despitethislimitation,Ebermayer(1873):(1)reportedthatannualrelative throughfallvariedsignificantlyacrossforesttypes(68–75%ofrainfall)andacrossfourseasonalleafstates;(2)estimatedthe firstsnowinterceptionamount(38%ofsnowfall);and(3)provideddetailedinstrumentationinformation.The firstdiscussion ofthroughfallspatialvariabilitywasbasedonobservationsfromGroß Karlowitz(nowVelké Karlovice,CzechRepublic)by JohnenandBreitenlohner(1879) althoughthenumberofgaugesdeployedwasnotspeci fied.Thisstudyalso firstreported theeffectofeventdurationoninterceptioncapacity(i.e.,short,lowintensityrainfallproducesgreaterinterceptionandthe oppositeconditionsincreasethroughfall).Awareoftheneedtoaccountforinterstormandspatialthroughfallvariabilitybut limitedbycostsandlogistics,Bühler(1892)distributedgaugesunderdifferentdegreesofcanopycoveranddifferentlyaged treesintwoSwissforests(includingsnow,butnotstemflow)andrecordeddiscretestormsizeandintensity.Underthis samplingdesign,Bühler(1892) firstfoundtheasymptoticrelationshipbetweenrelativeinterceptionandstormsize,where relativeinterceptionishighestforsmallstorms(<5mm),decreasinguntillargestorms(>10mm)andremaining more-or-lessstable.Hoppe(1896)conductedwhatisconsideredtobethe firsthigh-resolutionthroughfallstudywhere20 gaugesweredistributedalongtwocrossinglinesatadistanceof2minBrunneckandFarnleite,Austria(Fig. 1.2a). Impressively,this firsthigh-resolutionthroughfallstudyalsoincludedmeticulousphotogrammetricanalysesofcanopy closureanddensity(Fig. 1.2b).ThesepastresultsinspiredEbermayer ’scomprehensivemanuscript(synthesizingdatafrom Bavaria,Prussia,FranceandSwitzerland)andclearlyinfluencedhisdiscussionashenotedthathisthroughfallresultsshould betreatedas “minimalcrowninfluence” (i.e.,lowerboundaryconditions)ratherthananaverage(Ebermayer 1897).

Fig.1.2 PhotographstakenbyHoppe(1896)showing a the ﬁrsthigh-resolutionthroughfallmonitoringcampaignand b canopyclosureabovean examplethroughfallgauge.Adetailworthnotingisthepresenceofstemﬂowmonitoring(seethecollarconnectedtotrunkinthephotograph center)

Stemflowwas,reportedly,notmeasureduntil1868atEbermayer ’sJohannes-Kreuzsite;however,basedonlater publicationsitseemsthesestemflowobservationswereneverpublished(Bühler 1892;Ebermayer 1873;Ney 1894).The fi rst publishedstemflowobservationswerebyRiegler(1881)alongsideaconceptualdiscussionofthestemflowprocess.

Stemflowwasmeasuredfromfourisolatedtrees,eachadifferentspecieswithuniquecanopystructuring: Fagussylvatica, Quercusrobur, Acerplatanoides,and Abiesexcelsa (Riegler 1881).Hisdiscussionwasmorerobustthanhissampling campaign,synthesizingthescantstemflowdataavailableatthattimetosupporthypothesesaboutstemflow’srelationship withbranchangleandbarkroughness(Riegler 1881).HecitesaninterestingpersonalcommunicationwithProfessorKerner (likelyAntonJosefKernerattheUniversityofViennafrom1878to1895)aboutexperimentsthatinvolvedpouringsmall gristgrainsontobranchesandleavestovisualizewater flow(i.e.,stemflow)patterns(Riegler 1881).Wecouldnot findthe resultsoftheseexperiments.Riegler(1881)alsocollectedthroughfallandopenrainfall,ultimatelyconcludingthatprevious work(i.e.,Ebermayer 1873)requiredcorrectionforstemflowandrecommendingfutureworkincludestemflowinthe canopywaterbalance.Ney(1893, 1894)wasthe firsttocomprehensivelymeasureandestimatestand-scalestem flowand mayactuallyhavebeenthe firststemflowobserver,asEbermayer(1873)mentionedthatNeymadethestemflowobservationsatJohannes-Kreuzfrom1868to1871(that,asmentionedearlier,werenotpublished).Ney(1893)includedstemflow measurementsacrossforesttypes,leafstatesandprecipitationtypes namelyrain,snowandevendew.Surprisingly,his analysisextendsevenfurther,intotheinfluenceofstandage,interspeci fictraits,canopydensity(Ney 1893).Hisproceeding publicationsummarizedpreviousstemflowobservationsandemphasizedstemflow’simportancetonetprecipitationcalculations(Ney 1894).Althoughrarelycited,theresultsofNey(1893, 1894)confirmmanyofthelatetwentiethcenturyand earlytwenty-firstcenturyecohydrologyliterature(FriesenandVanStan 2019).

Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,scientistshadachievedaprofoundunderstandingofmostprocessesunderlyingthe hydrologicalaspectsofprecipitationpartitioning,howtomeasuretheseprocesses,andhowtoestimatethosethatwerenot directlymeasurableatthattime(likecanopywaterstorage).Enoughobservationsanddiscussionshadbeenpublishedbythe earlytwentiethcenturythatZon(1912)andBühler(1918)wereabletodevelopcomprehensivereviewsofprecipitation partitioningstudieswithreferencetobothrainandsnow.Thesereviewshighlightedthroughfallandstemﬂowmeasurements andtheindirectestimateofinterception,leavingtheinterceptioncomponents,waterstorageandevaporation,understudied. Horton(1919)thenclosedthisgapbypresentingdirectestimatesofrainwaterstoragecapacityfordifferentleafstructures, discussinghowtodisentanglestorageandevaporationcomponentsofinterception,andplacingtheseinterceptioncomponentsintocontextalongsidenetprecipitationmeasurementsandwindconditions.Horton’s(1919)seminalpaper,being citedcopiouslysinceandcontinuingtobecitedtoday,thuscompletedtheconceptualfoundationuponwhichmodern precipitationpartitioningworkbegantobuild.

1.3.2FoundationalBiogeochemicalObservations

Quantitativeobservationsoftheexchange(leachingoruptake),transformation,andwash-offofdepositednutrientsduring precipitationpartitioningbeganincroplands.Theseagriculturalrootsstemfromnutrientcontentanalysesbecomingkeyto studiesontheefficacyoffertilizerapplicationmethodsduringthemid-to-late1800s(Johnson 1869).Indeed,conservationof fertilizerwasofsignifi cantsocioeconomicandculturalimportancetobothfarmersandnationsbeforedevelopmentofthe Haber-Boschmethodforsynthesizingammonia(Erismanetal. 2008).Despiteconjectureonnutrientexchangebetween leavesandprecipitationbyStephenHales(1727),wherehisobservationsofsubmergedleaves(Fig. 1.3)promptedthe hypothesisthat “nourishment isconveyedintovegetablethro’ theleaves,whichplentifullyimbibethedewandrain, whichcontainsalt,sulphur,etc.,” researchonbiogeochemicalaspectsofprecipitationpartitioningdidnotmatureuntilthe mid-twentiethcentury.Infact,chemicalleachingbetweenprecipitationandplantsurfaceswasnotgenerallyacceptedbythe publishingbiogeochemicalcommunityuntilitsexperimentalconfirmationviaisotopicallylabelednutrientsinthe1950s (Longetal. 1956;SilbersteinandWittwer 1951).Ofcourse,thelossofinternalsolutesfromdamagedordeadplant materialsintowaterhasbeenknownsincethedawnofhumancivilization(q.e.d.,popularplant-basedbeverages,likebeer, tea,orcoffee).Thedelayinrecognizingandquantifyingnutrientexchangesbetweenprecipitationandlivingplantsurfaces appearstobe,inlargepart,duetoanextensiveandsometimescontentiousdebatethatbeganinthe1870s assummarized byLeClercandBreazeale(1908).ThedebateseemstohavebeenrootedintheEarlofDundonald’s(1795)hypothesisthat soluteswithinplantsareprotectedbytheir “outwardsurface,” preventing “theirbeingacteduponbyrainormoisture.” This hypothesiswasoddlyfoundationaltohisoverarchingtheoryofnaturalscience,statingthat “theinsolubility,toacertain degree,ofthissystem[plantsurfaces],adoptedbynature,isundoubtedlypreferred foritisevidentthatifputrefactionor oxygenationhadpossessedthepowerofrenderingallthevegetablematter,byaspeedyprocess,solubleinwater … therains wouldhavewasheddownsuchextractsandsolublematters,asfastasformed,intotheriversandsprings,contaminatingthe watersandrenderingthemunfitfortheexistenceof fishes,orfortheuseofterrestrialanimals” (Dundonald 1795). Dundonald(1795)goesontodescribethe “perniciousconsequences” thatwouldresultshouldplantsurfaceschemically

Fig.1.3 AnillustrationofabranchsubmersionexperimentperformedbyHales(1727).Observationsoftheleavesduringlong-termsubmersion inspiredHalestohypothesizeaboutthepossibilityofnutrientexchangebetweenprecipitationandleafsurfaces(imagefromHales 1727)

interactwithprecipitation,including “thesea,intheprocessoftime,wouldtherebyreceiveallthe[dissolved]vegetable produceofthedrylandandtheEarthwouldultimatelybecomebarren.” Thus,theworld’s ﬁrstauthoritativetreatiseonplant biogeochemistryarguedthatprecipitationandinternalplantsolutescouldnotinteractwithoutcatastrophicconsequences.

Majorleapsinchemicalandagriculturalsciencethroughoutthemid-1800s,dueprimarilytoGermany’sAgricultural ExperimentalStations,debunkedmanyofDundonald’stheoriesonplantbiogeochemistry(Johnson 1869).However,the Earl’stheorythatchemicalleachingbetweenplantsandprecipitationwasimpossible,remainedaningrainedbeliefofthe scientificcommunity.Thistheoryevenpersisteddespiteexperimentsshowingthatin-tactleaves(albeitdetachedfromthe stem)couldenrichpuri fiedwaterwithsolublesalts,ineightsuccessivetrials,andthatthemassofsaltdissolvedintothe waterwassimilartothemasslostintheleaves’ ash-ingredients(deSaussure 1804).Nineteenth-centuryplantscientists ascribeddeSaussure’s(1804)observationsofsoluteleachingtotheleavesbeingdamaged.Infact,onlydamagedplants werethoughttolosesolutestoprecipitation(Guilbertetal. 1931;Ritthausen 1856).Bythelate1800s,themostfamousplant physiologistofthetime,Dr.SamuelW.JohnsonofYale,stilldownplayeddeSaussure’s(1804)foliarleachingobservations, stating “allexperimentswhichindicategreatloss[ofsolutes]inthisway[i.e.,interactionwithprecipitation],havebeen madeonthecutplant,andtheirresultsmaynotholdgoodtothesameextentforuninjuredtissuesofplants” (Johnson 1869). Still,observationsweremountingthatperplexedplantbiogeochemists(whodeniedprecipitation-relatedsoluteexchange), beginningwiththe firstobservationsofcropnutrientcontentsatvariousgrowthstages(Norton 1847).Norton’s(1847) perplexingobservationwasthatcertainnutrientsincropsdidnotcontinuallyaccumulateuntilripening;rather,they maximizedaroundtheheadingperiodthendiminisheduntilharvest(LeClercandBreazeale 1908).Manyscientistsasked, “wherearethesenutrientsgoing?” andmostbelievedtheywerebeingtranslocatedbacktotherootsorsoil,buttheycould notbefoundthere(LeClercandBreazeale 1908).

Liebscher(1887)hypothesizedthatthislossofnutrientsinhealthycropswasduetoportionsoftheplantwitheringand decaying;however,nutrientlossesofthiskindonlyaccountedforaportion.Afterreviewingthenineteenth-centuryplant biogeochemicalliterature,Wehmer(1892)positedthat “plantfood” wasremovedfromleavesbyprecipitation.Althoughhe didnotcollectdatahimself,boththeestimateofthepotentialnutrientlossfromrain-relatedleachingandaconceptual processofleachingwereprovided(Wehmer 1892).LeClercandBreazeale(1908)statethatWehmer ’s(1892)reviewand hypothesiswereopposedbyhiscontemporariesto “sogreatanextentthatitseemstohavebeenrelegatedtothe

background.” Indeed,evenLeClercandBreazeale(1908),whoobservedrainfallenrichmentwithsaltsafterpassingthrough variouscropcanopies,stillconcludedthatonlywash-offprocessesoccur, “plantsexudesaltsupontheirsurfaces,andthe rainthenwashesthesesaltsbacktothesoil,” andstoppedshortofindicatingthatsoluteleachingcouldoccurbetween precipitationandplantsurfaces.AnothernotableworkontheenrichmentofrainfallbyplantexudatesisthereviewbyArens (1934).Thus,theapplicationofisotopicallylabelednutrientstobiogeochemicalresearchwasrequiredtoconﬁrmuptakeand leachingfromplantleavesexperimentally(Longetal. 1956;SilbersteinandWittwer 1951).

LeClercandBreazeale(1908)werenotthe firsttoobserveanddiscussthewash-offofplantexudatesbyprecipitation this,likeleaching,was fi rstobservedbydeSaussure(1804).Duringobservationsofcucumberleaves,henoticedexudations thatformedcrustsacrosstheleafsurface(deSaussure 1804).Hetestedtheexudatecrustandfoundthat,althoughitwasnot deliquescent,aportionwassolubleinwaterandlikelytobewashedoffbyprecipitation(deSaussure 1804).Johnson(1869) discussesthese,andsimilar findingsonothercrops,andindicatesthatthewash-offofexudatesduringprecipitationmay represent “aconsiderableshareofthevariationsinpercentageandcompositionofthe fixedingredientsofplants.” Itwasnot realizedthatprecipitationwash-offalsoincludes “dry” depositedatmosphericmaterials,orthatthesematerialshadbiogeochemicalimportance,untilthemid-twentiethcentury(Ingham 1950;Meetham 1950).ShortlyafterIngham’sand Meetham’s(1950)publications,scientistsrecognizeddrydepositioncontributionstonetprecipitationchemistry(Eriksson 1952;Tamm 1951).Thus,itwasinthe1950sthatarobustconceptualfoundationofprecipitationpartitioningbiogeochemicalaspects(thatincludedelementalleaching,uptake,transformationandwash-off)wasachieved.Thisdecadealso producedthe firstcomparativeobservationsofthroughfallchemistrybeneathvariousforestcanopies,speci ficallypine,oak andbirch(Tamm 1951).Tamm(1951)comparedthroughfallCa,K,NaandPconcentrationstoopenrainfalltohighlightthe signifi cantenrichmentofthesenutrientsinthroughfall(by4–70times).The firstannualthroughfallnutrientyieldswere reportedas25–30kgK,11kgCa,9kgNa,andnearly900kgofcarbohydratesha 1 year 1 foranappleorchard(Dalbro 1955).Inthesameyear,Will(1955)roughlyestimatedthroughfallnutrientyieldsforselectsolutes,butdidnotpublishthe fullstudyuntilafewyearslater(Will 1959).Thesenutrientyieldssurprisedmanyplantbiogeochemistsandplaced throughfall,particularlyleachingbythroughfall,intothestandardresearchmethodologyfornutrientbudgeting(Tukey 1966).However,biogeochemicalaspectsofstemflowwerestillunexamined.Stemflowproperties(acidityandparticulate content)were firstreportedbyPozdnyakov(1956),butstem flownutrientconcentrationsand fluxes,includinginterspeci fic andseasonalvariability,wouldnotbereporteduntilVoigt(1960).Then,thepotentialforstemflownutrient fluxestoexert signifi cantlocalizedecologicaleffectswasnotrecognizeduntilEatonetal.(1973)andMahendrappaandOgden(1973).

1.4TheLastCentury:ABibliometricAnalysisfrom1918to2017

Sincethehydrologicalandbiogeochemicalfoundationsofprecipitationpartitioningresearchwerelaid,thenewresearch topicsraisedandaddressedoverthelastcenturyinthis fieldhavebeensubstantialanddiverse.Ratherthanattempta completesummaryofkeyadvancementsinthis field,whichwouldlikelyrequiremuchmorespacethanavailableforthis chapter,weperformameta-analysisofpublicationandcitationtrendsfromThompsonReuter ’sWebofScience(WoS). Certainly,WoSrepresentsonlyaportionofthefullcorpusofliteratureonanysubject,placingsomelimitationsonour bibliometricanalyses seerecentdiscussionsonthistopic(HarzingandAlakangas 2016;MongeonandPaul-Hus 2016). TheWoSsampleofpublicationsandcitationsonprecipitationpartitioningisassumedtoprovidesuffi cientcoverageand stabilityofcoverage(i.e.,HarzingandAlakangas 2016);however,weacknowledgeabiasinWoStowardEnglishpublications,whichdidnotbecomethedominantlanguageofscienceuntilaftertheSecondWorldWar(Gordin 2015).Besides missingsomeearlyworksinotherlanguages,weareunsureoftheexactimpactofover-samplingEnglishpublicationson thebibliometricanalyses.Anotherconsiderationregardinglanguage:althoughkeytermsforprecipitationinterception processes canopy/leafandstem/trunkevaporationandwaterstorage wereusedbytheresearchcommunitypriorto1918, keytermsfornetprecipitation fluxes throughfallandstemflow arenottobefoundintheWoSpublicationdatabaseuntil EllisonandCoaldrake(1954).Notwithstanding,useofWoSenablesassessmentofthedisciplines(or “ResearchAreas” per WoS)whereprecipitationpartitioningresearchhasbeenpublishedandcited.

Queriesoverthepastcentury,excludingpatentsandlimitedtotitles,abstractsandkeywords,resultedinthefollowing totalnumberofpublicationsforbibliometricanalysis:3666forthroughfall,2405forrainfallinterception,1494forstemﬂow, 387forsnowinterceptionand136forfoginterception.Searchresultsweremanuallyreviewedtoremoveunrelated publicationsfromthedataset.Ofthe252researchareascategorizedbyWoS,rainfallinterceptionandthroughfallstudies representedthegreatestdiversityacrossdisciplines,beingpublishedinover90researchareas.Despitestem ﬂowresearch havingthelateststart,ithasbeenpublishedin77researchareas.Snowandfoginterceptionstudieswererepresentedin

63and50researchareas,respectively.Thedominantresearchareaforpublicationofallprecipitationpartitioningtopicsover thepastcenturywas “EnvironmentalSciences&Ecology,” representing80–90%ofpublications.Forthroughfalland stemflow,journalsinthe “Forestry” researcharearankedsecond,havingpublishedatleast70%ofresearch.Asignificant portionofstudiesonallinterceptiontopicswerepublishedin “Meteorology&AtmosphericSciences” outlets.Thedominanceofforestryjournalsinthroughfallandstemflowalignswithnetprecipitation fluxeshavingprimarilybeeninvestigated fortheirroleinforestwaterandnutrientbudgetsoverthepastcentury(Parker 1983;VanStanandGordon 2018;Will 1955). Ontheotherhand,studiesonvegetationwaterstorageandevaporationofprecipitationhaveprimarilybeenmotivatedbyan interestinmoisturereturntotheatmosphere explainingthedominanceofmeteorologyandatmosphericsciencejournals overthepastcentury(Horton 1919;LundbergandHalldin 2001;Rutteretal. 1971;vanDijketal. 2015).Overone-quarter ofsnowinterceptionpaperswerepublishedinthemathematicsresearcharea,consistingofworkwithamodelingfocus (Hellström 2000;ListonandElder 2006;Pomeroyetal. 1998).Nearlyone-thirdoffoginterceptionpublicationsare publishedinthebiodiversityandconservationresearcharea,likelybecausemanyfog-reliantecosystemsarebiodiversity “hotspots” inneedofconservationscience(Bruijnzeeletal. 2011).

Precipitationpartitioningresearchhasbeenfrequentlycitedbythebroaderscientiﬁccommunitybetween1918and2017. ThenumberofstudiesinWoSthatciteprecipitationpartitioningliteratureoverthepastcenturywas10times(stemﬂow)to 25times(snowinterception)thenumberofpublicationsonthesubject!Thesecitationsyielded100-yearH-indices(not includingself-citations)rangingfrom35(fog)to117(throughfall).Researchareascitingprecipitationpartitioningresearch overthepastcenturyweremorediversethanthepublicationresearchareas,by1.5–2times.Thenumberofresearchareas citingeachtopicwas106(foginterception)to140(throughfall),buttheenvironmentalscienceandecologyarenadominated thecitationsforalltopics.

Intotal,studiesfromallkeywordsearchesinWoSrepresentedauthoraffiliationsfrom121differentcountriesinevery worldregion.Apictographoftheseresultspercountry(forthetop25countries)showsthedominanceofEuropean,North American,EastAsian,andOceaniancountriesinpublicationoutputoverthepastcentury(Fig. 1.4).However,inexamining internationalpublicationtrends,itisimportanttorecognizethatmultiplesocioeconomic,political,andphysicalgeographic factorsunderly “why” scientistsstartinvestigatingprecipitationpartitioningprocessesandinteracttodetermine “how” these investigationsareenabledandsupported.Wealsoreiteratethatourbibliometricanalysisunder-representsnativelanguage scientificpublication,whichcouldincreasethenumberofpublicationsrepresentedinFig. 1.4.Afewmajorworldregions arestronglyrepresentedbyasinglecountryintheprecipitationpartitioningliterature:Brazil(SouthAmerica),India(South Asia),andMexico(CentralAmerica)(Fig. 1.4).AlthoughSouthAfricanresearcherswereactivefromtheearlydaysof precipitationpartitioningresearchinforestsandgrasslands(Beard 1955;Phillips 1926, 1928;Wicht 1941),theirworkinthe fieldslowedthroughthecentury,resultingintheirranking29th(n publications=48) tiedwithChile.OfallMiddle Easterncountries,Iranproducedthemostpublicationsonthistopicoverthepastcentury(31st, n publications=36),which

Fig.1.4 Pictogramofthe25countriesthathavepublishedprecipitationpartitioningresearchaccordingtotheWebofSciencedatabase,where boxsizeisweightedbynumberofpublicationsandthecolorindicateseachcountry’sworldregion

appearstohavebeenprincipallymotivatedbyconcernsaboutthedegradationoftheCaspianOrientalBeechForestsoverthe pastdecade(Ahmadietal. 2009).ForSoutheasternAsia,Indonesiahasproducedthemostpublicationsonthistopicperthe WoSdatabase(32nd, n studies=31),generallyrootedintheworkofCalderetal.(1986).However,the ﬁ rstEnglish publicationonprecipitationpartitioningfromSoutheasternAsiaappearstobeanassessmentof ﬁveMalaysiancatchments (LowandGoh 1972).Todate,noworkinEnglishonthissubjecthasbeenreportedforCentralAsiaortheCongo,areaswith quitedifferentvegetation,eachequallymeritingprecipitationpartitioningresearchinordertocloseregionaldatagapsand achieveamacroscaletoglobal-scaleunderstanding.

1.5CurrentRelevance

Ninemonthsinto2018(atthetimeofwritingthischapter),over100papershavealreadybeenpublishedexamining precipitationpartitioninganditsrelationshipswithecosystemfunctions,showingthegrowingrelevanceofthe field.We focusthisreviewofrecentresearchonpublicationsandpresentationsthathavedescribednewprocessesandestimatesof statesor fluxes.Thus,studieswhichreportdataonpreviouslyknownprocesses,statesor fluxesfornewplantspecies, vegetationcovers,etc.,havebeenexcludedfromthefollowingdiscussion.Thereisalsonotenoughroominthischapterto fullydescribetheprocessesunderlyingeachofthesehighlights;assuch,theintentionisthatthereaderwillrefertothecited publicationorpresentationforgreaterdetail.Notallresultsindicatethatprecipitationpartitioningsigni ficantlyinfluencethe studiedecosystemproperties;forexample,noinfluencewasfoundforthroughfallonrootbiomass(Qietal. 2018), contradictinglong-citedsemi-quantitativeworkregardingthroughfallpatternsandrootpatterns(FordandDeans 1978).The oft-citedworkonstemflow’sroleingenerating “fertileislands” aroundplantrootsinaridenvironments(Whitfordetal. 1997)hasalsobeenchallengedbymeticulousmanipulationexperimentsthatfoundthestemflowinfluencealonewas inadequatetoengenderfertileislands(Lietal. 2017).Somenaturalandplantationforestsystems’ mayevenberesilientto changesinprecipitationpartitioning(Orságetal. 2018),andtheircanopyecohydrologicalprocesses,themselves,maybe resilienttoclimatechanges(Gimenoetal. 2018).Identifyingthedegreetowhichecosystemelements,processesandthe entireecosystems,themselves,areresilientorsensitivetointerception,throughfallandstem flowisacomplexandcritical pursuit.

Regardingrainfallinterceptionresearch,globalestimatesofrainfallstorageandevaporationfromvegetationhavebeen revisedtoincludenonvascularvegetation(lichensandbryophytes),increasingglobalvegetationwaterstoragecapacity, from0.4to2.7mm,andevaporationby61%(Poradaetal. 2018).Savenije(2018)commentedonthePoradaetal.(2018) interceptionestimates,statingthey “suggestthatwaterbalancecomputationsneedtoberevisited.” Indeed,muchworkthus farin2018hasexaminedrainwaterstorageandevaporationcontrolsinvegetation.Onehighlightinthisresearchvein includesworkbyKlamerus-IwanandWitek(2018)thatquantiﬁesandcharacterizestheeffectsofleafpollutantuptakeand infectiononleafwaterstoragecapacity.Signi ﬁcantworkhasbeendoneoninterceptedwatertakenupbyleavesand redistributedwithinplants andanewreviewarticlesummarizesthesefoliarwateruptakepathways,thebiophysical conditionsunderlyingthem,andprovidesquantitativeassessmentofthisprocesswithinplantwaterbudgets(Berryetal. 2019).Thereisalsoagrowingawarenessoftheimportanceofstormeventsandprecipitationroutingwithinthecanopyto plant–microbeinteractions,especiallyregardingthe “diseasetriangle ” betweenhosts,pathogenicmicrobesandtheir environment(Aungetal. 2018).

Forthroughfall,signi ficantworkcontinuestofocusontheeffectsofitsreductiononmultipleecosystemfunctions,like netecosystemproductivity,soilmoisturedynamicsorsoilgasemissions(e.g.,Brachoetal. 2018;O’Connelletal. 2018; Samuelsonetal. 2018).Understandingofthroughfallkineticenergyandsoilerosioninforestswasrecentlyrevisedto recognizetheimportanceofunderstoryvegetationinfluences(Lacombeetal. 2018).Newinsightsinto fi ne-scalespatial variabilityinthroughfallamountandintensitieshavealsobeengained,revealingtheimportanceofpatternsinstorage “refilling” duetowithin-stormevaporation(KeimandLink 2018).Fine-scaletemporalvariabilityinthroughfallgeneration processesisonthehorizon,asnearreal-timeobservationssystemsarebeingtestedinthe fieldthatyieldwaterstableisotope measurementseveryfewminutes(Herbstrittetal. 2018).Ingeomorphology,recent findingsindicatethroughfallmeasurementsmaybeimportantforfalloutradionuclide-basedmethodsusedtodeterminestreamsuspendedsedimentsource andage(Karwanetal. 2018).Soilaggregatestabilityandassociatedorganiccarbonstocksappeartorely,inpart,on throughfall(Zhangetal. 2018).Forstemflow,an “alternativewatertransportsystem” forplantswasrecentlyidentifiedand describedthatreliesonstemflow(Biddicketal. 2018).Stemflowfromforests’ fogwaterharvestingmayplayanimportant roleinwaterresourcesalongthearidOmanicoast,havingbeenestimatedtoincreaseprecipitationavailableforrechargeby 20%(Friesenetal. 2018).Debatehasrecentlyarisenregardingstemflowresearch,wherescientistsareaskingwhatmetrics

(stemflowpercentage,yield,input,orfunnelingratio)underwhichcircumstancesshouldresearchersreportforstemflow (Carlyle-Mosesetal. 2018).Thisquestionwas,inpart,motivatedbyarecentglobalanalysisofstemflowinforeststhat indicatesstemflowmayexertsignifi cantecologicalinfluencesonnear-stemsoilbiogeochemicalprocessesviaresource limitation(VanStanandGordon 2018).

Therehavealsobeenmanynewinsightsfromstudiesinvestigatingallprecipitationpartitions.Recentworkindicatesthat dissolvedorganicmatterinthroughfallandstem flow(called “tree-DOM”)canbesignificantlyconcentratedcomparedto otherterrestrialhydrologic fluxes(VanStanandStubbins 2018),thattree-DOMisstructurallydiverse(Stubbinsetal. 2017), andthatitmayprovideahighlybiolabileCsubsidytosoilmicrobes(Howardetal. 2018).Inthetropics,acomprehensive evaluationofDOMopticalandisotopicpropertiesindicatedthattree-DOMmayreachstreamnetworks,whereitmaybe rapidlymetabolized(Osburnetal. 2018).Regardingagriculturalscience,recentworkhaselucidatedthroughfall’sand stemflow’sroleinpesticidetransport(Glinskietal. 2018),anditwasfoundthatprecipitationpartitioningshouldbe consideredwhenmanagingcropcanopiesforrainfedagriculture(Hakimietal. 2018;Nietheretal. 2018).

Finally,signi ficantprogresshasbeenmadeattheintersectionofmicrobiologyandprecipitationpartitioning.The fi rst reportofbacterialcellstransportedfromthecanopytothesoilsduringstormsfoundthatthis fluxcanequalquadrillionsof cellsha 1 year 1 (Bittaretal. 2018).Analysisofthebacterialcommunitystructureviahigh-throughputsequencing,found forthe firsttimethatthroughfallandstemflow fluxescancarrytaxaknowntoengageinsoilandlitterbiogeochemical processes,andthattheircommunitycompositionmaybeprincipallycontrolledbyatmosphericdepositionandstorm synopticpatterns(Teacheyetal. 2018).Thesebacterialhitchhikerssharetheirhydrologichighwaywithalargequantityof metazoans:1.2millionrotifers;216,000nematodes(manybeingbacterialfeeders!);160,000tardigrades;73,000mites;and 25,000collembolansyear 1 tree 1 (Ptatschecketal. 2018).Consideringtheabundanceoffungalspores(GönczölandRévay 2004),archaea(Watanabeetal. 2016),particulates(Bischoffetal. 2015),andsoon,thelatest fi ndingsshowthatthroughfall andstemflowmaybestbeanalogizedasephemeral,butcongested,hydrologichighwaysbetweentheplantcanopyandany receivingsurfaceorsubsurfaceecosystem.Futureresearchwill,undoubtedly,shedfascinatinginsightsintowhetherthese compoundsandcreaturessurvivetheirinteractionswithprecipitationpartitioning,wheretheyendup,whattheydothere, andhowmuchitmattersatvariousecosystemscales.

1.6Conclusions:TheStructureofThisVolume

Webeganthischapterand,thereby,thisbook,byfamiliarizingourreaderswiththePeripateticoriginsandfoundational observationsofprecipitation–vegetationinteractions.Itwastheimpactsofprecipitationpartitioningatthesurface,inthe “shadows” castbyplantcanopies,thatcaughttheeyesofthe “FatherofBotany” (Theophrastus)andPlinytheElderover 2000yearsago.Contrary,however,tothechronologicalorderofdiscoveryinthis fi eld,thisbookwilladdresstheimpactsof precipitationpartitioningonlyafterathoroughdescriptionoftheunderlyingprocessesbehindthe “shadow,” or,putmore scientifically,withintheblackbox:waterstorageonvegetation(Chap. 2)andevaporation(Chap. 3).Wefollowthe remainingprecipitationthatdrainsfromthecanopytothesurfaceasthroughfallandstem flow(Chap. 4)and,then,examine thedissolvedandparticulatecompositionofthesenetprecipitation fluxes(Chap. 5)aswellastheirspatiotemporalpatterns atthesurface(Chap. 6).Tocontextualize,forthe firsttime,allprecipitationpartitioningprocessesintotheglobalhydrologic cycleandclimatesystem,Chap. 7 describescommonparametrizationsandapplieslandsurfacemodelstoestimatethe impactsofprecipitationonregionalandglobalhydrologicforecastsandland-atmosphereenergyexchange.Precipitation interception,throughfall,andstemflowarealsoplacedintocontextwithinvegetatedecosystemprocesses,startingwiththeC cycle(Chap. 8),andthenverticallythroughtheecosystemitself:startingwiththeplantsinhabitingplantcanopies,epiphytes (Chap. 9),thenexaminingthewaterandnutrientbalanceofplantsrootedinsoils(Chap. 10),impactsonlitterbiogeochemistry(Chap. 11)andsoilphysicochemistry(Chap. 12),thenconcludingwiththerelevanceofprecipitationpartitioning tosubsurfacewaters(Chap. 13).Asprecipitationpartitioninginteractsacrossallhabitatsofvegetatedecosystems,a discussionisprovidedregardingitsinteractionswithmicrobiotainhabitatsthroughouttheplantmicrobiome(Chap. 14). Finally,theimportanceofprecipitationpartitioningtothehumanenvironmentishighlightedviadescriptionoftheeconomic valuationofitsecoservices(Chap. 15).Tobeascomprehensiveatextaspossibleonitssubject,the finalchapterconcludes withcurrentlyunansweredquestionsthatthe fieldconsiderstobekeytotheilluminationofprocessesattheconceptually shadowedintersectionofhydrologic,ecological,andclimatetheory.Itisourhopethatthisbookwilladdfueltothe firethat TheophrastusandPlinyignitedandmakeitbrighter brightenoughtoconcentrateitsbeamstowardthedarkerreachesof currenttheorywhilekeepingconspicuousthelessonsofpastresearch.

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