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FocalPoints

11StudentBillofRights

21The“InvisibleKnapsack”ofWhitePrivilege(Excerpt)

31JamesBank’sFiveDimensionsofMulticulturalEducation

41PolicyAlternativestoHigh-StakesTestingforGradePromotion

42TheNegativeEffectsofHigh-StakesTestingonCurriculumandTeaching

51TeachingSocialJusticebytheNumbers

52Un-standardizingtheCurriculum

53ScienceandSocialJustice

61HowStatusBecomesPublicintheClassroom

62ACooperativeLearningLesson

71StandardsforEducationalandPsychologicalTesting

72UnitedOptOut

73ProductandPerformanceTic-Tac-Toe

81ClassroomManagement100YearsAgo

82ZeroTolerance

83SocialandEmotionalLearning

84RestorativeJusticePrograminAction

85SuccessfulTeachersofAfricanAmericanStudents:AnExcerptFromTheDreamkeepers

86ExamplesofCriticalCurricularResources

87CriticalPedagogyinaFirst-GradeClassroom

91TheEdwardsMiddleSchool:ExpandedLearningTime

92DeborahMeieronCreatingDemocraticSmallSchools

93ToolsforTalkingAboutRace

94LGBTQTermsandTools

95AThird-YearTeacheronSeptember11,2001

96CommunityCommitmenttoEducationinNewOrleans’sLowerNinthWard

97ACaringSchoolCulture:TheChulaVistaLearningCommunityCharterSchool

101DetrackinginRockvilleCentre

102LinkedLearningatStanleyFosterConstructionTechAcademy

111ElPuenteAcademyforPeaceandJustice

112BridgingSchoolsandCommunities

113PadresyJóvenesUnidos

121FindingHopeintheFutureGeneration

122Teachers’UnionsOrganizingforProgressiveEducationandConditionsforTeaching

123TeachersandStudentsTakingActionTogether

124HerbertKohlReflectsonTeachingforSocialJustice

Preface

Thisbookprovidesacomprehensiveintroductiontoteachingintwenty-first-centuryAmericanschoolsBothfoundationalandpractical,thechapters addressconventionaltopicshistory,philosophy,curriculum,instruction,classroommanagement,schoolculture,policy,andsoon

Thebookalsohasapointofview:ahopeful,democraticfutureneedsschoolsthatprovideallstudentswithasociallyjusteducationincludingrigorous, authenticlearningexperiences

Sociallyjusteducationrequiresthatteacherslookbeneaththesurfaceofschoolstructuresandpracticesand considerthevaluesandpoliticsthatpervadeeducation,alongwiththetechnicalissuesofteachingandorganizingschools; askcriticalquestionsabouthowconventionalthinkingandpracticecametobe,andwhoinsocietybenefitsfromthem;and payattentiontoinequalitiesassociatedwithrace,socialclass,language,gender,andothersocialcategories,whilelookingforalternativestothose inequalities

Rigorous,authenticlearningexperiencesrequirethatteachers,schools,andthelargereducationsystem usecurricula,teachingpractices,andassessmentapproachesthatpromoteintellectualdevelopmentandpreparestudentstobeknowledgeable citizens,capableworkforceparticipants,contributingmembersoffamiliesandcommunities,andempoweredagentsofchangeintheirlivesandthe livesofothers;and providelearningopportunitiesthatengagestudentsinconstructingknowledgewherebytheyactivelyintegratenewknowledgewiththeirprior learningandexperiencesincontrasttoteacherstransmittingknowledgewherebystudentsarepassiverecipientsoffactstheirteachersgiveto them

Accordingly,thisbookdoesnotofferasmorgasbordofeducationaltheoriesandpracticesthatreaderscanbrowseandthenchoosefromassuitstheir preferencesWehavetriedtobediligentinfaithfullydescribingprominenttheories,philosophies,andpracticeshistoricalandcurrentthatcomprise educationintheUnitedStatesButwewouldbeneitherhonestnorobjectiveifwedescribedschoolinginaneutralmannerJustastheworldisnotaneutral place,teachingisnotaneutralprofession

Makingchoicesthatadvancesocialjusticeandpromoterigorous,authenticlearningrequiresofteacherscertainpersonalqualitiesintegrity,decency,the capacitytoworkveryhard,andsoonThisbookhopestobolsterthesepersonalqualitieswithprofessionalandscholarlyinsightsdrawnfromsocialtheory broadly,andeducationalresearchinparticularIndeed,groundingteachinginadeeperunderstandingofthetheoryandevidencethatunderlieeducation practicesmakesteachers’decisionsabouttheirownworkcredibletoothersand,justasimportant,sustainableforthemselves

OverviewoftheBookandItsOrganization

Thetwelvechaptersofthisbookaregroupedintothreeparts:

1Thefoundationsofeducation,whichprovidesanoverviewofthehistory,philosophy,politics,andpolicyofschoolingintheUnitedStates

2Thepracticeofteaching,whichaddressessubjectmatter,instruction,assessment,andclassroommanagementallimportantaspectsofteachers’ day-to-daywork

3Thecontextsforlearningandleading,whichexploresissuesrelatedtoschoolcultureandorganization,thelocalcommunity(specifically,the relationshipbetweenfamiliesandteachers,communitiesandschools),andtheprofession

Eachofthesepartsisprecededbyashortintroductionthatorientsthereader,offersmoredetailabouttheensuingchapters,andeasesthetransitionfrom onepartofthebooktothenext

Becauseofthebook’sintegrated,thematicapproach,therearenoseparatechaptershereonmulticulturaleducation,bilingualeducation,orspecial educationRather,thebooktreatsdiversityandinclusionasintegraltoallaspectsofeducationcurriculumandinstruction,classroommanagement, assessmentandtesting,grouping,schoolculture,andsoonandthusintegratesattentiontothemineverychapter

Similarly,throughoutthebookweemphasizethesociological,historical,andphilosophicalfoundationsofeducationThefirstthreechaptersforeground thesefoundationsButbecausefoundationsmakethemostsensewhenwecanseehowtheysupportactualpracticesandconcerns,eachchapteralso includesthehistory,philosophicalpositions,andsocialtheoriesmostrelevanttothatchapter’stopicSomechapterspresententirelynewfoundational material;othersofferanewviewofmaterialpresentedearlier

AChorusofTeachers’Voices

Throughoutthebook,wealsoincludetheobservationsofteachersusingtheirownwordsThewordsofmostteacherswhomwecitecomefromtheir UCLAmaster’sdegreeportfoliosMost,butnotall,oftheirobservationswerewrittenduringtheirfirstyearofteachingFouroftheseteachersare introducedinsomedetailinChapter1,sincetheyandtheirstudentsappearinphotographsandexcerptsscatteredthroughoutthebook

Wewouldexpecttheseteachers,likemostnewteachers,toexperiencesomestrugglesrelatedtolessonplanning,classroomandtimemanagement, paperwork,schoolbureaucracy,andsoonAnd,ofcourse,theydoButlistencarefullytotheirvoices;whatiscrucialisnotjustthattheystruggle,butthe qualityoftheproblemswithwhichtheystruggleTheirstrugglesreflecttheircommitmentstorigorous,authenticlearningexperiencesandtothepursuitof socialjusticeAndtheircommentsrevealtheprofoundrelevanceofeducationaltheorytotheirteachingpracticesandtheirproblem-solvingefforts Werecommendthatallpotentialteacherswriteabouttheirexperiences,thoughts,andobservations,astheteachersquotedinthisbookhavedone Whetherapersonaljournaloraportfoliothatpresentsafullrecordofateacher-candidate’sintellectualandprofessionalgrowth,awrittenrecordinevitably providesrichopportunitiesforreflectionandlearning

OnlineResources:“DiggingDeeper”and“ToolsforCritique”

PastreadershavefoundTeachingtoChangetheWorldprovocativeandchallenging,butalsoengagingandinterestingtoreadandlearnfromThatsaid, makingthemostofthebookrequiresmorethansimplysummarizingthematerialItrequiresthatreadersfurnishwhatthebookitselfcannotprovide discussion,reflection,andelaborationthatpressreaderstomakesenseofthematerialinlightoftheirownexperiences,observations,andpriorknowledge Tohelpreadersgetstartedwiththatdiscussion,weoffertwoonlineresourceslocatedonthebook’swebsiteat wwwroutledgecom/cw/teachingtochangetheworldByplacingtheseresourcesonline,wehopetomakethemmoreaccessibletoreaders,whocanfindthem wherevertheyhaveInternetaccessWeb-basedtoolsarealsoeasiertoupdate,whichmeanswecanprovidepertinentresourcesastheybecomeavailable, ratherthanwaitingforpublicationofthebook’snextedition

Thefirstonlineresourceiscalled“DiggingDeeper”Itincludeschapter-by-chapterliststhatreaderscanconsultiftheywanttodigmoredeeplyintothe chapter’scontentTheselistsidentifyscholarswhoarestudyingorworkingonpracticalapplicationsofissuesweraise,andsomeofthebooksandarticles thatreadersmightfindinterestingandusefulWhenapplicable,thelistsalsoincludeprofessionalorganizationsandactivistgroupsworkingtomake educationpolicyorschoolpracticesmoreconsistentwithandsupportiveofsociallyjustteachingAnd,whenpossible,weincluderesourcesthatcurrentand futureteacherscanuseintheirclassrooms

Thesecondonlineresourceiscalled“ToolsforCritique”Itprovidesasetofpromptsandactivitiesmeanttoprovokethinkingaboutthetopicsandpoints ofviewinthebookItschapter-specificoverviews,andadditionalresourcescanserveasaspringboardforsupportingreaderstothinkcriticallyaboutand getthemostoutofthetextPromptsmightask,forexample,Whatmemoriesofyourownschoolingorotherexperiencesdoesthebookstirup?What,if any,aspectsofthetextmakeyouangry?Whatsoundsreasonable,butyoucan’tbelieveitistrue?Whathaveyoualwaysknown,butyoudidn’tknowyou knewit?Whatdoyouimagineyouracquaintanceswouldthinkaboutthematerial?Whatquestionsareyouasking?

TowardTeachingtoChangetheWorld

Theultimategoalofthisbookanditsaccompanyingresourcesistohelpnewteacherstakethefirststepstoward“teachingtochangetheworld”JudySmith, oneoftheteachersquotedinthisbook,describesherexperiencetakingthesefirststepsWewishjustsuchbeginningsforallthereadersofthisbook

TeachingchallengesmyeveryfiberfromlessondesigntoclassroommanagementMyfirstyearintheclassroomshowedmethetremendousjoyofteachingandtheworkthat mustbedonetobethebestteacherIcanbeThroughconstantself-reflection,studentworkassessment,andprofessionaldevelopment,Iamlearningthecrafttobetterbridgetheory andpracticeandtobetterbridgestudentsparentsandthecommunityThroughacademicallyrigorousandculturallyresponsivecurriculummystudentsandIcanbeginto transformtheschoolandthecommunityIndeed,thefocusofmyclassroomisonallofourresponsibilitytomakethecommunityandtheworldabetterplace

JudySmith Highschoolsocialstudies

NewtotheFifthEdition

TeachingtoChangetheWorldhasanewpublisherWearepleasedtojoinRoutledge,aleadingacademicpublisherinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesA divisionoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,Routledgepublishesbooksandjournalseachyearforscholars,instructors,andprofessionalcommunitiesaroundthe worldChangesinthetextitselfincludethefollowing:

Up-to-datestatistics,graphsandfigures,andtimeline Updatedcontentwithspecialattentionto

keyeducationpolicyinitiativesliketheEveryStudentSucceedsAct,aswellastheshiftsinfederaleducationpolicypreferencesfollowingthe 2016presidentialelection,suchasschoolchoice,vouchers,andprivatization; thedevelopmentof,implementationof,andcontroversiesaroundtheCommonCoreStateStandardsandalignedassessments; theheatedpublicdiscourseaboutteachersandteachingspecifically,debatesaboutteacherquality,teachereducation,andteacher evaluation;and thegrowinginfluenceofeducationorganizingthatbringscommunitymembersandteacherstogetheraroundthecommoncauseofensuring thatallyouthhaveaccesstojustandequitableschoolingexperiences

Anew,moreextensive,open-accessonlinesupplementthatincludeschapter-by-chapter“DiggingDeeper”listsand“ToolsforCritique,”bothof whichincorporateanextendedrangeofsuggestedreadings,resources,andorganizationsthatprofessors,teachers,andteachereducationstudents candrawonintheirworkAvailableatwwwroutledgecom/cw/teachingtochangetheworld

AbouttheAuthors

JeannieOakesisPresidentialProfessor(Emeritus)inEducationalEquityatUCLA’sGraduateSchoolofEducationandInformationStudies,whereshewas thefoundingdirectorofUCLA’sCenterX:WhereResearchandPracticeIntersectforUrbanSchoolProfessionalsHermorethan100scholarlybooksand articlesexaminetheimpactofsocialpoliciesontheeducationalopportunitiesandoutcomesoflow-incomestudentsofcolorOnebook,KeepingTrack: HowSchoolsStructureInequality,hasbeenhonoredasoneofthetwentiethcentury’smostinfluentialbooksoneducation,andasecond,BecomingGood AmericanSchools:TheStruggleforCivicVirtueinEducationReform(withKarenHunterQuartz,SteveRyan,andMartinLipton),wontheAmerican EducationalResearchAssociation’sOutstandingBookAwardOakes’smanyotherhonorsincludetheSouthernChristianLeadershipConference’sRalph DavidAbernathyAwardforPublicServiceandtheWorldCulturalCouncil’sJoseVasconcelosWorldAwardinEducationOakesbeganhercareerin educationasamiddle-schoolandhighschoolteacherFrom2008to2014,sheservedasthedirectorofEducationalOpportunityandScholarshipatthe FordFoundationinNewYorkSheistheformerpresidentoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationandamemberoftheNationalAcademyof Education

MartinLipton,formerpublichighschoolteacher,hashadaparallelcareerasaneducationwriterandconsultantandworkedfortenyearsasa communicationsanalystatUCLA’sInstituteforDemocracy,Education,andAccessAmonghispublicationsareLearningPower:Organizingfor EducationandJustice,withJeannieOakesandJohnRogers,andBecomingGoodAmericanSchools:TheStruggleforCivicVirtueinEducationReform, withJeannieOakes,KarenHunterQuartz,andSteveRyanLipton’sphotographs,appearinginthisbookandelsewhere,portraythepossibilitiesfor educationaljusticeinurbancommunities

LaurenAndersonisanassociateprofessorofeducationatConnecticutCollegeAformerupper-elementaryteacherandsupportproviderforK–6public schoolteachers,Laurenhaslived,worked,andconductedresearchinthecountry’sthreelargesturbanschooldistricts:NewYorkCity,Chicago,andLos AngelesLauren’sresearchcollaborationsfocusonthepreparationandearly-careerexperiencesofequity-mindededucators,includingteachereducators ShehaswrittenforanumberofeducationaljournalsandrecentlycoauthoredthebookTeachingforEquityinComplexTimes:NegotiatingStandardsin aHigh-PerformingBilingualSchool(withJamyStillman)

JamyStillmanisanassociateprofessorofeducationalequityandculturaldiversityattheUniversityofColoradoBoulderAformerbilingualelementary teacher,sheworkedasasupportprovidertopublicschoolteachersofEmergentBilingualsformorethanfifteenyearsShehasalsoworkedasateacher educatorandconductedresearchonteachereducationinCalifornia,Colorado,andNewYork,inbothurbanandruralsettingsJamy’sresearchand teachingfocusprimarilyonthepreparationofteacherstoservediverselearners,withanemphasisonhowschoolsandteacherscaneffectivelymeetthe needsofEmergentBilingualstudentsShehaspublishedseveralbookchaptersandanumberofarticlesineducationaljournalsthatexplorethe

relationshipbetweenteacherlearning,languageandliteracyinstruction,andteachers’navigationofeducationalpoliciesSherecentlycoauthoredthe bookTeachingforEquityinComplexTimes:NegotiatingStandardsinaHigh-PerformingBilingualSchool(withLaurenAnderson)

Acknowledgments

Themostimmediateinspirationforthisbookwasthecourage,passion,andhardworkoftheUCLAgraduateswhosewordsandphotographsappear throughoutthechaptersWeareenormouslyappreciativeoftheircommitmenttostudentsandtomakingtherhetoricofsociallyjusteducationrealWeare indebtedtoUCLA’steachereducationfaculty,notablyMeganFranke,EloiseMetcalfe,JodyPriselac,andotherCenterXfacultywhoreadandcommented insightfullyonthebook,alongwiththenoviceandresidentteachersatUCLATheirreflectionsonteachingprovidedilluminatingdirectionTeachers MauroBautista,MarkHill,KimberlyMin,andJudySmith,whoarefeaturedthroughoutthebook,deservespecialthanksforwelcomingusintotheir classroomsandansweringallourquestionssogenerouslyandopenlyWethankourformereditorDeanBirkenkamp,nowatRoutledge,whoremainsa thoughtfulandenergeticchampion,aswellasourcurrenteditor,CatherineBernard,forherongoingencouragement,support,andpatienceWewouldalso liketothankthemanyteachereducatorsacrossthecountrywhohaveofferedhelpfulfeedbackonprioreditionsofthistexttoonumeroustoname

Wearealsogratefultothemanyscholarswho,overtheyears,havecontributedtotheideasandapproachwetakehereThesecolleagues’richideasand generousconversationshaveshapedourthinkinginsubtleandnot-so-subtlewaysWehavealsolearnedagreatdealaboutschoolingandthestrugglefor socialjusticefromformerandcurrentdoctoralstudentsandpostdoctoralscholarswhoseacademicworkhasenrichedourownThanks,too,areduetothe manygenerousfunderswhohavesponsoredourresearch

MartinandJeannie’sfamilyprovidesbothasolidrockofsupportandsubstantivecontributions:LisaOakesbroughtherconsiderableexpertiseasa developmentalpsychologistandprovidedmanyhelpfulsuggestionsandexamplesofthelearningtheorythatunderliesteaching;TracyOakesBarnett offeredinspiringanecdotesandtheconstantreminderofhowmuchfunteachingforsocialjusticecanbe;LowellLipton,anaficionadoofrhetoricand composition,contributedafreshlookatthepostmodernstruggleformeaning;andEthanLipton,afellowwriter,extendedknowingencouragementand gooddinnercompanythroughoutthewritingprocessTheirspouses,SteveLuck,RonBarnett,andReneHuey-Lipton,havebeenwonderfulfriendsaswell asspectacularparentstoourgrandchildrenEmilyandHaleyBarnett,AlisonandCarterLuck,andMaxandSophiaLiptonremindusofwhythismattersso muchWethankthemall

Finally,awordofthankstoJamy’sandLauren’srespectivefamilies,especiallyJamy’shusband,CharlesFramularoanddaughter,SashaFramularo,and Lauren’spartner,ChrisBarnard;allwere(asusual)loving,encouraging,patient,andgenerousduringtheproductionofthismostrecentedition

Democracy,Diversity,andInequity

InearlyMay2017,theforty-fifthpresidentoftheUnitedStatesstoppedbyandcheeredaWhiteHouseeventwhereSecretaryofEducationBetsyDeVoshad gatheredagroupoflocalchildrenandparentsHergoalwastopersuadeCongresstocontinuefundingaprogramthatusespublicdollarstopayprivate schooltuitionforschoolchildreninthenation’scapitalItwasacallforsupportthatreflectedwellthebroadsuiteofeducationreformsfavoredbythenew administrationpublicfinancingofprivatealternativestopublicschools,includingcorporate-runcharterschools,publiclysubsidizedhomeschooling,and voucherplansmuchliketheDC-basedoneatthecenteroftheday’sevent

Meanwhile,halfwayacrossthecountryinChicago,Illinois,acoalitionofgrassrootsorganizationsfromtwenty-fourcities,theJourneyforJustice(J4J) Alliance,wasadvocatingforaverydifferentapproachtosecuringhigh-qualityeducationforthenation’smostvulnerablechildrenInfact,inJ4J’sview, choiceandprivatizationareabigpartoftheproblemfacingpubliceducation,ratherthanviablesolutionsforimprovingitJ4J’sdirector,JituBrown,who hasworkedforyearsasanorganizerandeducatorintheKenwoodOaklandneighborhoodofChicago,laidoutJ4J’sperspectiveinaChicagoReporter opinionpiece,publishedjustafewdayslaterandentitled,“SchoolChoiceIsaScaminSegregatedNeighborhoods”

“Wefeelthesameurgencytotransformstrugglingschools,”Brownwroteaboutthenewadministration’sproposals“Butweunderstandthatimposing failed,top-downcorporateeducationinterventionsoncommunitiesofcolorismerelythestatusquo,amplified”Drawingfromthelivedexperienceof thousandsofresidentsoflow-incomecommunitiesofcolor,J4J’scampaign#WeChoose:EducationalEquity,NottheIllusionofSchoolChoicearguesthat publicschools“arebeingkilledbyanallianceofmisguided,paternalistic‘reformers,’educationprofiteers,andthosewhoseektodismantletheinstitutionof publiceducation”1WhatJ4JwantsforchildreninKenwoodOaklandandcommunitieslikeitacrossthecountryisnotchoiceandcompetition(orthe unevennessandinstabilitytheyassure),butwhatfamiliesinmoreaffluentcommunitiescansimplycounton:well-resourced,stable,sustainable, government-supported,communityschools

Inshort,publiceducationtodayiscaughtinthecrosshairsofadeepculturaldivideIt’sadividethatwillinfluencethecareersofnewteachersformany yearstocomeIndeed,teachers’workisalwaysshaped,interpreted,inspired,andconstrainedbytheparticularitiesofitshistoricalmomentAndwhilethis momentisaparticularone,thiscountryhasalwayshaditsdeepdisagreementsabouteducationConsider,forexample,theblatanteviloflawfulsegregation thatkeptourcountry’schildrenseparatedbyrace,themanywhobattledforandagainstitsdejuredismantling,andthemanywhoarebattlingforand againstitsdefactorealizationstill

Thisbookprovidesfoundationalknowledgethatexplainswhypublicschoolsarewhattheyaretoday,andwhypubliceducationisaninstitutionworth savingandimproving,worthfightingfor,andworthchoosingasacareerInthefirstsection,weintroducethebroaderdemographic,historical, philosophical,andpoliticalcontextWeapplyacriticalapproachmeanttoprovidereaderswithnewinsightsandusefultoolsthatwillsupportthemtomake positivecontributionstocontemporarypublicschooling

Chapter1,“TheUSSchoolingDilemma:Diversity,Inequity,andDemocraticValues,”looksatwhocontemporaryUSstudentsareandwhatbasic conditionstheyencounterintheirlives,bothinsideandoutsideschoolWepayattentiontothestructuralinequitiesandopportunitygapsthatstudents experienceintheeducationalsystem

Chapter2,“HistoryandCulture:HowExpandingExpectationsandPowerfulIdeologiesShapeSchoolingintheUnitedStates,”presentsanoverviewof importanteventsinthehistoryofschoolingintheUnitedStatesThechaptersketchesouthowexpectationsforschoolshaveincreasedoverthepast200plusyearsItalsodiscussestwopowerfulandpervasiveideologiesmeritocracyandracialsuperioritythathaveshapedandcontinuetoshapeschoolingin thiscountry

Chapter3,“PoliticsandPhilosophy:TheStruggleOvertheSchoolCurriculum,”exploreshowpeopleinWesternsocietiesthinkaboutknowledgeand schoolingWereviewtraditionalandprogressiveeducationalphilosophiesandtheroletheyhaveplayedinstrugglesoverwhatschoolsshouldteach,how theyshouldteachit,andtowhomThesephilosophieshaveconsequencesexploredthroughoutthebookthatshowupineveryaspectofpubliceducation, includingschoolpolicies,curriculum,teacherpreparation,relationshipsbetweenstudentsandteachers,andsoon

Chapter4,“PolicyandLaw:RulesThatSchoolsLiveBy,”unpackshowlocal,state,andfederalgovernments,includingthecourts,translateourevergrowingexpectationsforpubliceducationintoeducationpolicyandlawThisincrediblycomplexprocessrequirespolicymakersandjudgestojugglethe competingsocial,historical,philosophical,andpoliticalforcesdescribedinChapters1–3ThechapteralsoidentifieshowAmericans’idealizationof economicenterpriseexertsahugeinfluenceintheeducationpolicymakingprocess

PartIintroducesbig,historicalideasattheheartofAmericanschoolingideaslikediversity,equity,anddemocracy,aswellasmeritocracy,racial superiority,andprivilegeWedon’tleavetheseideasbehindwhenwemoveontoPartIIThere,ourattentiontothetheoryandpracticeoflearningand teachingrecallsthetensionoverthemissionandpurposeofpublicschoolsLookingattheusualeducationaldivisionssuchassubjectmatter,instruction, assessment,classroommanagement,andsoforth,wemakethecasethatequityisessential,intheoryandinpracticethatasocialjusticeperspectivedoes notcompromise,butratherdrivesteachersandschoolstoward,quality

PartIIIattendstotheteachingprofessionmorebroadly;indoingso,however,itprofilesspecificteacherswhodescribetheirphilosophiesandhowthey putthemintopracticeasprofessionalsTheseprofilesgivereadersasenseofthechallengesandinspirationsthatteachersfindintheirprofessionTheyalso givereadersasenseofwhat’spossibleinotherwords,howrealteachersaredrawingonanddeepeningtheirfoundationalknowledgeaboutUSschooling (PartI)andtheirknowledgeofteachingandlearning(PartII)astheynavigateconditionsinthepresent,worktotransformeducationalinequities,andstrive tomakeschoolsandtheteachingprofessionwhatsociallyjust,democraticprinciplessuggesttheycanandshouldbe

1JourneyforJusticeAlliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts: Racism, School Closures, and Public School Sabotage,2014, wwwissuelaborg/resource/deathbyathousandcutsracismschoolclosuresandpublicschoolsabotage

Chapter1

TheU.S.SchoolingDilemma

Diversity,Inequity,andDemocraticValues

Whatdoesitmeantobeasociallyjustteacherinasociallyunjustworld?Whatdoallstudentsdeserve?

IgrewupinahouseholdthatdiscussedthesequestionsMyfather,anaccountant,andmymother,aprofessionaleducator,alwaysledmetobelievethateducationcouldsolve justaboutanyproblemintheworldAtmealtimesweoftentalkedaboutthestateofeducation,thegrossinequitiesmymotherobservedbetweenurbanandsuburbanschools,and thereformeffortsIknewthatsomedayIwantedtobeateacher

Schoolinginoursociety,thoughinherentlydemocratic,needstodirectstudentstowardcriticalconsciousnessoftheirpotential,oftheirfreedom,ofongoinginjustices,andof theobligationtoensureourdemocracyandimproveuponitforfuturegenerations

JudySmith Highschoolsocialstudies

TeacherJudySmithgrappleseverydaywithoneofthemostchallengingteachingdilemmasofourtime:makinggoodonthepromiseofequaleducationin asocietythatisprofoundlyunequalTeacherslikeJudyandtheothersyou’llmeetinthisbookrecognizetherelationshipbetweenthenation’sdiversityand itsinequity;theyunderstandthehistoryofthisrelationshipandknowwhyschoolinginequalitiespersistTheyhaveknowledge,skills,andasenseof possibilitythatequipthemtobeagentsforeducationalequityastheysupportstudents’socialandemotionaldevelopment,intellectualcuriosity,and academiccompetenceTheyteachtochangetheworld

ChapterOverview

Thischapterfocusesoninequitiesthatshapestudents’livesItprovidesanumericalbreakdownthatdescribestoday’sstudentsandtherelationshipbetween students’diversecharacteristicsandtheireducationalexperiencesandoutcomesMostpeopleintheUnitedStates,andcertainlyallteachers,haveheard aboutthenation’sracialandeconomicachievementgapsThosegapsreflectequallyimportantopportunitygapsAsweshowinwhatfollows,persistent patternsofunequalconditions,resources,andopportunitiesinandoutsideofschoolunderliethegaps,ordisparities,instudents’achievement EducatorslikeJudySmithdon’tjustwanttounderstandtheseinequities;theyalsowanttohelpremedythemThisactivistgoalisencompassedinteacher educatorandcriticalscholarGloriaLadson-Billings’sideaofaneducationdebt“Debt”asksustounderstandthatahigh-quality,equitableeducationisnot somethingthatyouthmustearnorprovetheydeserve,butsomethingthatsocietyowestothemTooweorrepaymeanswemustfirstlookbeyondthe classroom,thecommunity,andthenation,andintohistoryitself,tounderstandlong-livedandnewinequalitiesthatstudentsfaceinsideandoutsideof school“Educationdebt”alsopointsto“equity”ratherthan“equality”astheappropriateapproachforrepaymentMakingschoolingopportunitiesequalisa worthygoal,butit’snotenoughtoremedyharmsthathaveaccumulatedovergenerationsEquityrequiresprovidingwhatstudentsneedtothriveand succeedThatmeansfarmoremustbeprovidedtothechildrentowhomweowethedebtthantootherswhohavebeensparedgenerationsofinequality Wemarshaleveryconceivableskill,resource,andcommitmentwithinourreachtoalignlearningandteachingwithdemocraticandjustaspirationsinstead ofconformingtopasthabitsandinjusticeTheteachersprofiledthroughoutthisbookbelievethatthereexistsnoworthierpursuitthantransformingthe worldofschoolingasitisandre-creatingitasitshouldbe

Startingwithabroad,demographiclookatstudentsintheUnitedStates,inthisfirstchapterwesetthenationalcontextofstudents’livesoutsideof schoolandtheinequalitiestheyexperiencewithintheeducationalsystemWeconcludethechapterbyintroducingJudySmithandthreeotherteacherswho recognizeandembracetheirstudents’diversity,acknowledgetheirstruggles,andworktobringsocialjusticeandacademicexcellencetotheirclassrooms

WhoAreAmericanStudents?

In2016,anestimated55millionyoungpeoplewereenrolledinelementaryandsecondaryschoolsanincreaseofabout10millionoverthepastthirtyyears Withsmallincreasesexpectedeveryyear,projectionsarethattheschoolpopulationwillgrowto579millionchildrenby20241

WhereDoUSStudentsLiveandGotoSchool?

Muchofthenation’spopulationgrowthoverthepastthirtyyearshasbeenintheSouth,whereschoolsnowteachabout39percentofthecountry’s studentsSchoolsintheWest,whichenrollaboutaquarterofthenation’schildren,haveexpandedaswellThesearealsotheregionswherefuturegrowth isexpectedSuchshiftsposechallengesforsouthernandwesternstates,whichtendtohavefarlesswealthintermsoftaxrevenuethannortheasternstates, wherethefewestschoolchildrenreside

Amongthe55millionstudentsintheUnitedStates,roughly50millionareenrolledinpublicschoolsThoughcharterschoolsschoolsthatreceivepublic fundingbutoperateoutsidethetypicalschooldistrictstructurereceivemuchattentioninthemediaandhavegrownconsiderablyoverthepastdecade, theystillrepresentarelativelysmallproportion(27millionin2014,orabout5percent)ofpublicschoolenrollmentSlightlymorethan5million,or10 percent,ofschool-agechildrenintheUnitedStatesattendprivateschools,and38percentofthemareinCatholicschoolsPrivateschoolenrollments,in declinesince1989,areprojectedtodiminishfurtherbetweennowand20242Despiteallofthebudgetproblemsandcriticismpublicschoolshavefacedin thepasttwodecades,theproportionofstudentstheyservehasincreasedcomparedtoprivateschools

About34percentofstudentsatotalof18millionin2012werehomeschooledThesestudentsreceivedinstructionundertheirparents’guidanceat homeandspentfewerthantwenty-fivehoursaweekatapublicorprivateschoolAlthoughstillasmallfractionofallstudents,homeschooledchildren increasedfrom850,000in1999,thefirsttimethesedatawererecorded,to13millionin20153

HowDiverseAreStudentsintheUnitedStates?

Today’sUSschoolchildrenareadiversegroupLonggonearethedayswhenUSpublicschoolstudentswereoverwhelminglyWhite,nativeborn,and EnglishspeakingImmigrationstatus,religiousness,familycomposition,sexualorientation,anddisabilitystatusallrepresentimportantdimensionsof studentidentityandexperienceConsider,forexample,thediversityreflectedinfirst-yearteacherMichelleCalva’sdescriptionbelow

MostofmystudentseitherarerecentimmigrantsfromLatinAmerica(mostfromMexico)withlimitedprioracademicexperienceorarelowacademicachieversforavarietyof reasonsOutoftwenty-ninestudents,oneisvisionimpaired,threeattendresourcespecialistclassesdaily,oneattendsspeechtherapyweekly,andtworeceivespecialmath assistancetwodaysaweekAllofmystudentscomefromeconomicallydisadvantagedhomeseveryonereceiveseitherfreeorreduced-pricelunchesatschoolandtwelvereceive freebreakfastTwenty-eightareMexicanAmericans,andoneisofPuertoRicandescentManyofmystudents’parentshavelimitededucation;noneattendedschoolsintheUnited StatesTwospeakEnglish

Whatexactlyisourobligationtopreparemystudentsforthefuture?Ihopethattheeverydaylessonsofmath,languagearts,socialstudies,andscience,whichrequirethe majorityofmyattention,arehelpingtopreparethemfortheworldoutsideofourclassroomButIbelievethatbecomingbiculturalrequiresmorethanjustreadyingtheindividual forthedominantsocietyItalsorequirespreparingsocietyfortheminoritymembersIcanonlyguidemystudentsintheirquesttobecomeindividualsIcanhelpthemdefine valuableassetswithintheirownculture,Icanprovidethemwithassistanceinachievingpersonalsuccess,buteventuallytheywillhavetofacetherestofsocietywithoutmeor othereducatorsattheirsides

MichelleCalva First-yearteacher,grades4,5,and6

ClassroomslikeMichelle’sareprevalentincitieslikeLosAngeles,NewYork,Chicago,andMiamiandincreasinglycommoninsmallandmidsizecities, aswellasinruralandsuburbanareasForteacherstoday,multiculturalismcannotbereducedtoalesson,acurriculum,ateachingstyle,orevena philosophyMulticulturalismisafactafundamentalconditionthatcharacterizesourculture

Race

In2014,Whitestudentsmadeup50percentofschool-agechildrenintheUnitedStates;25percentwereHispanic(orLatinx4),16percentAfricanAmerican, and5percentAsian5Thisamountstoahugeshiftsincethe1970sLatinxstudentshavetripledtheirrepresentation,whileWhitestudents’proportionofthe totalhasdecreasedabout30percentAlthoughstillrelativelysmallproportionally,Asianenrollmenthasalsogrownrapidlyoverthepastthirtyyears,and thesetrendsareprojectedtocontinue(SeeFigure11)

Inaddition,studentswhoidentifyasbiracialormultiracialnowaccountforroughly3percentofenrollment6Whilerepresentingarelativelysmallchunk ofschoolchildren,multiracialbabiesbornintheUnitedStatesincreasedfrom1to10percentbetween1970and2013,makingmultiracialyouththefastestgrowingyouthsubgroupinthecountry7

Althoughracialgroupsarenotdistributedevenlyacrossthecountry,everyregionhasexperiencedgrowthinstudentsofcolorIn2014,Whitestudents weretheminorityinboththeWestandtheSouthIntheWest,Whitestudents,at38percent,representedasmallershareofthestudentpopulationthan Latinxstudents,at42percentinthesameyearIntheNortheast,theSouth,andtheWest,LatinxstudentsnowoutnumbertheirBlackpeers8

Figure11

PercentageDistributionofStudentsEnrolledinPublicElementaryandSecondarySchoolsbyRace/Ethnicity

†Notapplicable

1Datafor2026areprojected

Note:RacecategoriesexcludepersonsofHispanicethnicityPriorto2008,separatedataonstudentsofTwoormoreraceswerenotcollectedAlthough roundednumbersaredisplayed,thefiguresarebasedonunroundedestimatesDetailmaynotsumtototalsbecauseofrounding

Source:USDepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,CommonCoreofData(CCD),“StateNonfiscalSurveyofPublicElementary andSecondaryEducation,”2004–05and2014–15;andNationalElementaryandSecondaryEnrollmentbyRace/EthnicityProjectionModel,1972through 2026SeeDigestofEducationStatistics2016,table20350

ProportionatelymorestudentsofcolorattendpublicschoolsthanprivateschoolsIn2012,privateschoolstudentswere72percentWhite,about20percent “Whiter”thanpublicschools9HomeschooledchildrenarepredominantlyWhiteaswell,83percentin201210

Immigration

ImmigrantsaresomuchapartofUShistory,witheverygenerationseekinganewbeginningseekingabetterqualityoflifeforthemselvesandtheir familiesManyimmigrantsarerefugees,orpeopleseekingasylumfrompersecutionintheirhomecountries

ThreetimesasmanyimmigrantsenteredtheUnitedStatesinthe2000scomparedwiththenumberthatarrivedinthe1960s,andtodaytheUnitedStates ishometo433millionimmigrantsHowever,thepercentageofforeign-bornresidentsisonlyslightlylargerthaninthe1950sabout9percentthen, comparedwithalmost135percentin2015RecentestimatesputtheundocumentedimmigrantpopulationintheUnitedStatesatover11millionabout one-quarterofthetotalforeign-born11

Between1970and2000,theproportionofstudentsinK–12schoolswhowerechildrenofimmigrantstripledIn2015,179millionchildrenlivedwithat leastoneimmigrantparentTheyaccountedfor26percentofchildrenunderage18intheUnitedStates12Nolongerdomostimmigrantsheadfor California,NewYork,Texas,Florida,NewJersey,andIllinois;inthepastdecade,immigrantshaveincreasedtheirpresenceinstatesintheSoutheast, Midwest,andRockyMountainregionaswellInaddition,thenumberofrefugeestudentsisontherise,too,invariousregionsoftheUnitedStatesIn2015, toporigincountriesforimmigrantswere,inorder,India,China,andMexicoToporigincountriesforrefugeesintheUnitedStatescurrentlyincludeIraq, Somalia,Syria,Afghanistan,andSudan,amongothers13Ofundocumentedimmigrants,71percenthailedfromMexicoandCentralAmericaIn2015,itwas reportedalsothatmorethan62,000unaccompaniedyouths,manyescapingviolenceand/oreconomicdespair,weredetainedattheMexico-USborder ManysuchyouthhavesubsequentlybeenreleasedtosponsorsandarenowenrolledinschoolsnationwideThehighestconcentrationsofsuchstudentsare inCalifornia,Florida,NewYork,andTexas14DespitetheprimeplaceofimmigrantsinUShistory,andaswediscussinlaterchapters,suchdemographic shiftsoftenbringtothesurfacesomeofthemorexenophobictendenciesstillpermeatingUSculture

Language

Today’sschoolsincludejustunder12millionstudentswhospeaklanguagesotherthanEnglishalsocalledheritagelanguagesathome15In2015,this groupaccountedfor22percentofschool-agechildren,upfrom10percentin1980Approximatelythree-quartersoftheseyoungpeoplecomefromhomes whereSpanishisspoken,withtheremainingquarter(approximately3million)fromhomeswhereotherlanguagesarespoken,withArabic,Vietnamese,and Chinesebeingthenextmostcommon16

AsFigure12indicates,statesvaryenormouslyintheirpercentagesofstudentsfromhomeswherelanguagesotherthanEnglisharespokenForfifteen statesin2015,20percentormoreoftheirstudentswereinthiscategorytoppedbyahighof45percentinCalifornia17Onlyfourstateshadfewerthan5 percentofstudentsfromhomeswithlanguagesotherthanEnglishspoken,andinallstatesthenumberofstudentswhospeaklanguagesotherthanEnglish was(andis)increasingrapidly

WhenschoolsdeterminethatastudentdoesnotyetspeakEnglishproficiently,thelabelEnglishLearneristypicallyassignedEnglishLearnersarethe fastest-growingstudentgroupintheUnitedStatesIn2012–2013,485millionstudents,or10percentoftheK–12studentpopulation,wereidentifiedas EnglishLearners18Thesestudentsattendschoolsinallfiftystates,but,asFigure13indicates,studentenrollmentsbystatevaryconsiderably

Figure12K–12StudentsWhoSpeakaLanguageOtherThanEnglishatHome,2015

Source:KidsCountDataCenter,2015AmericanCommunitySurvey,http://datacenterkidscountorg/data/tables/81-children-who-speak-a-language-other-than-english-athome#detailed/1/any/false/57386936868867/any/396397

Figure13

TopFifteenStatesWithHighestEnglishLanguageLearner(ELL)StudentEnrollmentinPublicSchools,SchoolYear2012–2013

Source:MigrationPolicyInstitute(2015)ELLInformationCenterFactSheetSerieswwwmigrationpolicyorg/research/states-and-districts-highest-number-and-share-english-languagelearners

DespitetheprevalenceoftheEnglishLearnerlabel,itisincreasinglycommontorefertothisstudentgroupasEmergentBilingualsorDualLanguage LearnersThisshiftreflectsgrowingunderstandingsaboutthebenefitsofsupportingstudents’developingbilingualism;italsochallengesmonolingualand English-onlyideologiesthatprivilegestudents’acquisitionofEnglishoverspeakingorretainingtheirheritagelanguages19Thenewerterminologyalso respondstothechangingdemographicsofthisstudentgroup,71percentofwhomarenative-bornUScitizens20Whilemanyofthesestudentspreviously enteredschoolassequentialbilinguals,meaningtheyhadcommunicatedpredominantlyintheirheritagelanguageandexperiencedlittletonoexposureto Englishbeforeenteringschool,manyenterschooltodayassimultaneousbilingualsThesestudentshavebeenexposedtoandhavecommunicatedinEnglish andtheirheritagelanguagessince(ornearlysince)birth,andenterschoolsintheUnitedStateswithvaryingdegreesofproficiencyinbothlanguages

Aswediscusslaterinthischapterandothers,thepathsofEmergentBilingualsthroughUSschoolsmuchlikethepathsofimmigrantsthroughUS societyareoftendifficult,asevidencedinnewteacherKarenRecinos’sdescriptionofherownexperiencesandthoseofherfamily

WhenIimmigratedtothiscountryasa13-year-old,oneofthemostdifficulthurdlesIhadtoovercomewasthatoflearningasecondlanguageIknewIhadtotakeadvantageof thepricelessgiftmymotherhadgivenmebybringingmetothiscountryFromthedaymydaddiedsheworkedtirelesslytoprovideformytwoyoungerbrothersandmyselfShe leftusinGuatemalatopursuetheAmericandream,adreamthatcausedhertoshedmanytearsForeightyears,sheworkedlongdaystosenddollarssowecouldhavefoodon thetableandreceiveagoodeducationShedreamedofonedaybringingustotheUnitedStateswherewewouldhaveabetterlife,afuturewithmorepossibilitiesItwasnoteasy forhertoaccomplishthatdream,butshediditToday,elevenyearslater,IhavetheprivilegeoftellingmystoryandwhatIhadtoovercomeonceIgottothelandof opportunities”

KarenRecinos First-yearteacher

StudentsWithDisabilities

In2015,about13percent(approximately66million)ofstudentsinkindergartenthroughgrade12inUSpublicschoolswereclassifiedashavingdisabilities relatedtolearningMost(about35percent)ofthesestudentswereidentifiedaslearningdisabledAnother20percentwereidentifiedashavingspeech impairments,andanother13percentasexperiencingotherhealthimpairmentsthatinterferewithlearningStudentswithdisabilitiessuchasautism(autism spectrumdisorder),emotionaldisturbances,intellectualdisabilities,anddevelopmentaldelayseachaccountedforbetween5and9percentofchildrenserved undertheIndividualsWithDisabilitiesEducationAct(IDEA)21

Whiletermssuchas“learningdisabled”areincommonuse,manyeducatorsprefertoavoidthisgenerallabelingwhentheycan,insteadreferringto “childrenwithlearning(orhearingordevelopmental)disabilities,”thusseparatingonecharacteristicofthechildfromthetotalindividualThisisoften referredtoasusing“people-first”languageInrecentyears,manyalsohavecometoquestiontaken-for-granted,sociallyconstructedunderstandingsofwhat itmeanstobe“able”orhave“ability”Asweaddressinlaterchapters,classificationsrelatedtodisabilityarehotlydisputed

Referralpracticeshaveledtodisproportionatedesignationsofdisabilityamongstudentsfromcertaingroups;boysofcolor,forexample,areamongthose mostlikelytobereferredforandsubsequentlydiagnosedashavingattention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorderand/oremotionaldisturbance22Conversely,they aremuchlesslikelyasarelow-incomechildrentoberepresentedamongthosedesignatedas“gifted”Infact,moststudentsqualifiedforandplacedin giftedprogramsandadvancedclassesareWhiteorAsian,whileBlackstudentsremainsignificantlyunderrepresented23Becauseoflonghistoriesof discriminationandtheirconcentrationinunderfundedschooldistrictsaphenomenonweaddresslaterinthischaptercertaingroupsofchildrenare disproportionatelyatrisk,forvariousreasons,ofhavingtheirlearningneedssignificantly(andtotheirdetriment)misdiagnosed

Religion

PerhapsduetothestatedseparationofchurchandstateintheUnitedStates,religionisoftensidelinedinconversationsaboutstudentdiversityAnd althoughreligionhasbecomesomewhatlessimportant(formanypeople)inrecentyears,thevastmajorityofadultsintheUnitedStatesreportreligious affiliations,andmorethanhalfreportthatreligionisveryimportantintheirlives24WhileChristiansaccountfor71percentoftheadultpopulation, religiousdiversityoverallandwithinthebroadcategoryofChristianisontherise25Increasingly,themediaandpublicdiscoursefindsalientsocialand

politicaldifferencesbetweenwhataretermed“fundamental”or“evangelical”Christiansand“traditional”Christians

Membersofvariousfaiths,includingJudaism,Buddhism,Islam,andHinduism,constitute6percentofthepopulationThosereportingnoreligious affiliationaccountfortheremainingroughly23percenta7percentincreasesince2007withyoungerpeoplebornafter1980lesslikelytoclaimreligious affiliationthanoldergenerations26

Americans’religiousbeliefsandpracticesdonotfitneatlyintoconventionalcategoriesIncreasingnumbersoffamiliesreportengaginginmultipleand mixedpractices,notsurprisinggiventhatroughly39percentofmarriedadultshavespouseswhoaffiliatewithareligionordenominationdifferentfrom theirownEvenwithsuchshifts,however,exclusionaryviewsofreligion’sroleinpubliclifehaveincreasedIn2014,forexample,morethanhalfofpeople surveyedsaidChristianfaithwasanimportantattributeofbeing“trulyAmerican”27

Thesestatisticsspeaktoreligiousdiversityamongadults;indoingso,theyrevealtrendsthatnodoubtinfluencethebeliefsandbehaviorschildrenbring toschool,perhapsespeciallysoinourcurrentpoliticalclimateOrganizationssuchastheSouthernPovertyLawCenter,forexample,havereportedspikesin bullyingandhatecrimesagainstMuslimstudentsInfact,inonerecentsurvey,42percentofMuslimswithchildreninK–12schoolsreportedthattheir childrenhadbeenbulliedbecauseoftheirfaith,comparedwith23percentofJews,20percentofProtestants,and6percentofCatholics28Somehaveargued that,withoutintentionalsupportsputinplacebyjudiciouseducators,Muslimyouthareatriskofsufferingdiscriminatorytreatmentgiventhe“perfect storm”29ofeconomicdownturn,anti-immigrantsentiment,USmilitaryactioninpredominantlyMuslimcountries,andmainstreamconflationofIslam withterrorism30

FamilyComposition

FamiliesintheUnitedStatescomeinallshapesandsizesInmanyways,thetraditionalimageofafamilyawomanandamanofthesameracewhoare marriedandbothbiologicallyrelatedtotheirchildrenrepresentsoutdatedassumptionsaboutwhoraiseschildren,how,andinwhatconfigurations nationwide31In2014,lessthanhalf46percentofchildrenwerelivingwithtwoparentswhowerebothintheirfirstmarriagedownfrom61percentin 1980and73percentin196032Thatlikelymeansthatmorethanhalfoftoday’syoungpeoplehaveexperiencedshiftsinfamilystructureandroutinesbefore orduringtheirtimeinK–12schools

Infact,roughlyone-fourth(26percent)ofchildren18orunderarelivingwithasingleparent,and5percentarelivingwithneitheroftheirparents Meanwhile,asubstantialpercentageofchildren(16percentin2014)arelivinginblendedfamiliesthatincludestepparents,halfsiblings,and/orstepsiblings (SeeFigure14)In2009,18millionchildrenlivedwithadoptiveparents,upfrom11millionin199133In2015,roughly427,000childrenlivedinfostercare eachday,withatotalof671,000childreninthefostercaresystemthatyear34In2015,29millionchildrenwerebeingraisedbygrandparents35 Inaddition,multiracialfamiliesareontherise;oneineightnewmarriagesoccursbetweenspousesofdifferentracesandethnicities36Growingnumbers ofchildrenarealsobeingraisedbysame-sexparentsAlthoughmoreconcentratedinparticularmetropolitanareas,approximately600,500households headedbysame-sexcouplesresideacrosseverystateandnearlyeverycountynationwide37

SexualOrientationandGenderExpression

CharacterizingdiversityalongthelinesofsexualorientationremainsdifficultbecauseoflimitednationalsurveydataA2016studyfindsthatabout10 millionpeopleintheUnitedStatesidentifyaslesbian,gay,bisexual,ortransgender(LGBT)Thisconservativeestimatetranslatestoabout41percentof adultsidentifyingasLGBT38Interestingly,whenpolled,USadultsestimatedin2011thatamuchhigherpercentage25percentofthepopulationisgayor lesbian39Today,63percentofAmericanssayhomosexualityshouldbeacceptedbysociety,and55percentsaytheyfavorallowingsame-sexmarriage40 Despiteincreasingacceptanceofhomosexuality(particularlyamongyoungadults),halfofstatesstilldonotincludesexualorientationorgender expressioninthelanguageofnondiscrimi-nationlawsthatapplytoschools41Sinceterminologyshiftsandchanges,afewdefinitionsarehelpfulhere Sexualorientation,familiartomostAmericans,referstohowpeoplethinkofthemselvesintermsofwhotheyareattractedtoromanticallyorsexually Genderexpressionreferstothewayindividualsperformtheirgenderroles;itmayormaynotcorrelatewiththegenderthatindividualsclaimtohave,or withtheirsexualorientationNotably,astransgenderandgendernonconformingstudentshavebecomemorevisible,somestatesandschooldistrictshave takenactiontoensuretheyareprotectedfromdiscriminatoryspeechandacts

Figure14Children’sFamilyArrangements:GrowingDiversity42

Note:Basedonchildrenunder18Dataregardingcohabitationarenotavailablefor1960and1980Inthoseyears,childrenwithcohabitingparentsare includedin“oneparent”For2014,thetotalshareofchildrenlivingwithtwomarriedparentsis62percentafterroundingFiguresdonotaddupto100 percentduetorounding

Source:PewResearchCenteranalysisof1960and1980decennialcensusand2014AmericanCommunitySurvey(IPUMS)

Theabsenceofsuchlegislationhasbeenasourceofgrowingconcerninlightofhigh-profilehatecrimescommittedagainstLGBTstudents(While statisticshavenotquitecaughtup,LGBThasgainedsomenewletters,QIA,inrecentyears,whichweaddressmorefullyinChapter9)In2015,nearlynine outoftenLGBTmiddleandhighschoolstudentsreportedverbaland/orphysicalharassmentatschoolinthepastyear,nearlythree-quartersfeltunsafe becauseoftheirsexualorientation,andnearlyathirdhadskippedatleastonedayofschoolinthepastmonthbecauseofsafetyconcerns43Bullyingonthe basisofgenderexpressionislikewiseanareaofgrowingconcern44

Class

Socialandeconomicclassareimportantaspectsofidentity,andtheystructurestudents’schoolingexperiencesandoutcomesSometimessocialclassis treatedobjectivelysuchaswhenpeoplearesortedaccordingtoanincomeand/orwealthscaleThus,anindividualorfamilybecomes“poor”or“upper middleclass”onthebasisoftheirincomeand/orwealthInsuchsorting,otherobjectivefactorsthosethatcanbemeasuredempirically,likeyearsof schoolingmightalsobeincludedButasanaspectofidentityanddiversity,classhassubjectiveandculturaldimensionsthatarefarmorecomplexthan thosethatcanbemeasuredempiricallySocialclassdifferencescontributetothedifferentkindsofknowledge,preferences,andtendenciesthatstudents bringintotheclassroomand,therefore,thewaystudentsultimatelyexperienceschool

Asoneexample,sociologistAnnetteLareauhasstudiedtheexpectationsandparentingpracticesofparentsfromdifferentsocialclassbackgrounds45 Lareaufoundthatupper-middle-incomeandhigh-incomeparentsdedicatedacertainkindofattentionwhatshecalls“concertedcultivation”topreparing theirchildrenforhabitsandbehaviorsthatensuredschoolsuccessTheseparentsscheduledplaydates,enrolledchildrenin(oftencostly)extracurricular activities,andotherwisefosteredchildren’stalentsthroughparent-organizedactivityMeanwhile,working-classparentstendedtogranttheirchildrenmore unstructuredtimeandfreedomforself-directedactivitywhatLareaucalls“theaccomplishmentofnaturalgrowth”46

Importantly,Lareaushowshowthesetendenciesactually,child-rearingpreferencesarerelatedtothedifferentamountsofmoneyandfreeorflexible timeparentshadtostructurechildren’sactivitiesShealsoshowsthatwhilebothapproacheshavebenefitsanddrawbacksforchildren’sdevelopment, concertedcultivationprepareschildrentobeabettermatchwithwhatmainstreamschoolinglooksforinschoolreadinessandsuccessThus,thechildrenof advantagedmiddle-classandaffluentparentsoftenfinditeasiertoacclimatetoschools’expectationsfor“good”studentbehaviorForexample,these childrenmightbewellpracticedinmovingfromactivitytoactivityunderanadult’sdirectionandininteractingwithpeersaccordingtothehighly specializedrulessharedbyschoolsTheimportanttakeawayhereisthatwhatmightlooklikerelativesuccessatschoolisoftenafunctionnotofstudents’

skillsorsmartsbutofthesynergyalongclasslinesbetweentheirfamiliesandtheirschools

RecognizingtheComplexityofIdentity

Ofcourse,thedataandstatisticsjustrevieweddon’tdescribereal,“whole”peopleorthecomplexsocialdynamicsthatshapetheirlivesDatapointsare reductivebynatureNoonepersonisonlyawomanoronlyheterosexualoronlyanativeSpanishspeakeroronlyAsianAmericanoronlymiddleclass Likewise,datacan’ttelluseverysalientdetailAchildmightliveina“single-parenthousehold”withhisdadandhisdad’sunmarriedpartner,whilegoing tohisgrandparents’houseafterschooluntildinner

Weallidentifyourselvesandareidentifiedbyothersusingmultiple“official”demographiccategoriesorlabels(eg,categoriesrelatedtorace,gender, age,educationlevel,language,andincome),eachofwhichencompassesenormousvariationIndeed,race,genderidentification,language,wealth,andthe resteachexistontheirowncontinuum,andthecombinationsareinfiniteWaltWhitmanfamouslywrote,“Iamlarge,Icontainmultitudes”47Infact,weall containmultitudesmultipleidentitiesthatintersectandinterrelate,andthathaveprofoundimplicationsforhowweexperiencetheworld,including schooling

SocialtheoristshavedevisedconceptsthathelpeducatorsunderstandsomeofthesecomplexitiesHybridityanddynamismdescribehowthebiological andculturalmixing(hybridity)andconstantchange(dynamism)thatcharacterizemanysocietiescanpreserveculturesandenrichthematthesametime Forexample,SpanglishisnowspokenwithprideonEnglish-languagesitcoms,NewYorkCity“fusion”restaurantsserveDominicanandChinesefood,and growingnumbersofmultiracialfamiliesarebringingtogetherdiversehistoriesandheritagesandcreatingnewtraditions

Intersectionality,meanwhile,describestheconnectionsamongoppressivebeliefs,habits,andsocialstructuressuchasracism,sexism,homophobia, religiousdiscrimination,andsoonIntersectionalityemphasizesthatthese-ismsdonotexistinisolation;rather,theyintersectandoperatetogetherIn doingso,theycontributetosystemsofprivilegeandoppression,layersofdiscrimination,andpatternsofsocialinequality

TeacherMarkHillgivesconcreteexamplesofhowtheseconceptsofidentity,hybridity,andintersectionalitymanifestinthelivesandlearningofteachers andstudents

WhenIthinkaboutcultureIfeelthatIsitinauniquespaceWhileitisagiventhatasindividualsweallhaveauniqueupbringing,Ihaveyettofindanyone’squiteassingularas myownMyfamilyconsistsofmyself,mytwinbrother,andmymotherandfatherWhenmymother,whoisWhite,marriedmyfather,whoisBlack,herfamilyimmediately disownedher

AsapersonofcolorIamassumedtohavegrownupwithallthetypicalassumptionsAmericanshaveforBlackpeople,butIhavefewmemoriesofanysuchexperiencesIgrew upinapoor,raciallymixedneighborhood,butIwasneverallowedoutofthehouseorthewalled-upbackyard,andweneverhadanyvisitorsThus,myculturalidentitywas formedalmostsolelybasedonmymother,aWhiteJewIlitthecandlesofourmenorahonHanukkah,celebratedRoshHashanah,andamsympathetictoIsraelintheMiddleEast conflict

IhavefoundthatthisexperiencehelpsmetorelatewithallofmystudentsIrememberasachildwantingothersto“see”methesamewayIsawmyselfBecauseofthisImakea tremendouseffortto“see”studentsasindividualsandacceptthemontheirownterms,regardlessofpreconceivednotionsofrace,gender,orage

MarkHill Highschoolmathematics

Whetherdiversevoices,perspectives,andlanguagesareheardorignoredinclassrooms,theyarethere;theywillnotbesilencedorassimilatedoutof existenceSometeacherswillviewthetremendousdiversityofthechildrenintheirmidstasanasset;others,sadly,willnotSometeachers,likeMarkHill, MichelleCalva,andJudySmith,willstruggletoconstructsomethingwholeandwonderfulthatconnectsindividualsandgroupsacrossdifferences;others won’tWehopemostdo,becausewebelievethatthisistheonlywaytoprovideafreeandequaleducationtoallThatsaid,theinequalitiesofAmerican societyandschoolsthatdisadvantagesomanychildrencertainlymakethejobsoftoday’steachersespeciallychallenging;ofcourse,theyalsomake teachers’jobsallthemoreimportant

InequityOutsideofSchool

“GenerationsofAmericanshavebeentoldthattheyliveintheworld’srichestnationButtheUnitedStatestodaymightmoreaccuratelybedescribedasthe nationwiththeworld’srichestrichpeople,”observedtheauthorsofareportoninequalityintheUnitedStates48Youmightbewondering:whydidtheysay this?Infact,amongthetwentyrich,industrializedcountriesthatbelongtotheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD),the UnitedStatesrankshighestinincomeperperson49Despiteitsriches,however,theUnitedStatesisoneofthemosteconomicallyunequalcountriesinthe world,withpovertyratesunmatchedinotherwealthycountriesChildren,morethananyothergroup,beartheburdenofthisinequality

EconomicInequality

ThegapbetweenthewealthyandthepoorisenormousAsFigure15shows,thetop10percentofUSfamiliesown76percentofthenation’swealth Meanwhile,thebottom50percentoffamiliessharetheremaining1percentoftotalwealth50Althoughsomeinthemediafeaturetheseandotherstark differences,smallerandseeminglylessdramaticgapsalsoprofoundlyimpactAmericans’dailylivesForexample,thedifferencebetweenlivinginpoverty andearninga“livingwage”canappeartrivialinthecontextofmacroeconomicdata,butforafamilythatdifferencecanmeanhavingornothavingfood securityandsafeshelterManyfamiliesonceassumedtobe“middleclass”nowfindthemselvesonthemarginsofbeingabletoaffordcollegefortheir children

Figure15DistributionofWealthintheUnitedStates

Source:CongressionalBudgetOffice,TrendsinFamilyWealth,1989to2013,August2016,wwwcbogov/sites/default/files/114th-congress-2015-2016/reports/51846-familywealthpdf

TheacceleratinggapbetweenrichandpoorintheUnitedStatesisn’tjustaconsequenceofthewealthybecomingricher,butoftherelativeincome stabilityofthosewhohavefarlessFigure16showsthatin2012high-incomehouseholdsinthetop5percentoftheincomedistributionreceivedalmost sixteentimestheincomeoflow-incomehouseholdsinthebottom10percent51Also,mostmiddle-tolow-incomefamilieshavemadeonlymodestincome gainsoverthepastthirtyyears,andtheaverageincomeinthelowestquintilehasbarelybudged52Mostincomegainsresultfromfamiliesworkinglonger hours,oftenbyaddingasecondwageearnerIn2009,marriedwomeninthemiddlethreeincomegroupsworkedalmosteightweeksmoreayear,on average,thantheydidin1979Inaddition,ithasbecomeincreasinglymoredifficultforparentstoaffordtimeofftocarefortheirchildrenintheUnited StatesthaninmostotherOECDcountries,becausetheUnitedStatesistheonlyonethatdoesnotmandatepaidmaternityorpaternityleave53

Figure16RealFamilyIncomebyIncomePercentile,1967–2012(in2012dollars)

Source:DatafromCDeNavas-Walt,BDProctor,andJCSmith,USCensusBureau,CurrentPopulationReports,P60-245,Income,Poverty,andHealthInsuranceCoverageinthe UnitedStates:2012,September2013,TableA-2

Increasingly,peoplewhoarefullyemployeddonotearnenoughtokeeptheirfamiliesoutofpovertyhencethetermtheworkingpoorIt’snotthatUS workersearnlessbecausetheyworklessInfact,workersintheUnitedStates,onaverage,workabout1,768hoursperyear,morethantheircounterpartsin otherOECDcountries(exceptGreece)54Alltold,povertyratesarehigher,andlivingstandardsarelower,forthepoorintheUnitedStatesthantheyarefor thepoorestpeopleinotherindustrializedcountries55Comparativelyspeaking,thosewhoarepoorintheUnitedStatesalsotypicallyremainpoorforlonger periodsoftime,andwithlessopportunitytomoveupoutofpoverty,aswell56

Whilestatisticsindicatesomeimprovementssuchastheofficialpovertyratedroppingfrom148in2014to135percentthefollowingyearpovertystill impactsanenormousandunacceptablenumberofAmericans,especiallychildrenThishaslongbeenaconcern Inthemid-andlate1990s,Clinton-eraDemocratsfoundcommongroundwithconservativepoliticiansandinstitutedsignificantchangestowelfare policiesThosechangesreducedbenefitsandestablishedmorestringenteligibilityrequirementsforAidtoFamiliesWithDependentChildren,foodstamps, andotherpublicassistanceforpoorchildrenIntheinterveningyears,theeffectsofthesechangesontheoveralleconomyhavebeenhotlydebated,butthey havedonenothingtostemchildhoodpovertyOneinfouryoungchildrenintheUnitedStatesnowlivesinpovertyThenumberoflow-incomestudents receivingfreeorreduced-pricelunchatschoolincreasedfrom18millionin2006–2007to31millionin2012,andnowmorethanhalfofstudentsinthe UnitedStatesqualifyfortheprogram57

Despitetherecoveryfromtherecessionof2008,45millionchildrenunderage18werelivinginpovertyin2015,representing231percentofthetotal populationand336percentofthoselivingbelowthepovertyline58Thesepovertyratesweremoreacuteforcertainchildren,affectingapproximately12 percentofWhitechildren,5936percentofAfricanAmericanchildren,30percentofLatinochildren,and32percentofAmericanIndianchildren60

Thesediscrepanciesreflectsocioeconomicinequalitythatincludesandgoesbeyondfood,shelter,health,andeducationinsecurityforthecurrent generationThegapsrepresentcross-generationalchallenges;somegroupshavesignificantwealthandothersupportstopassontotheirchildren,while othergroupshavefarlessIn2013,forexample,theaveragewealthforWhitefamilieswasseventimeshigherthanforBlackfamilies,61andtentimesthatof Latinxhouseholds62

EaseoffindingemploymentlikewisediffersalongraciallinesAfricanAmericanswithhighschooldiplomasandcollegedegreesareunemployedat nearlytwicetherateoftheirWhitecounterparts63Ofcourse,theseandotheremploymentdiscrepancieshaveatrickle-downimpactonchildren’slivesand livelihoodsIn2015,forexample,BlackandLatinxchildrenwerelesslikelythanWhitechildrentohaveaparentworkingyear-round,full-timeSeventysevenpercentofWhitechildren,about66percentofLatinxchildren,and55percentofAfricanAmericanchildrenhadparentswithsecureemployment64

WagedisparitiesalsocontributetothehigherratesofpovertyamongchildrenofcolorForexample,in2015,Blackmenmade22percentlessinaverage hourlywagesthanWhitemenwiththesameeducationandexperience65

Inaddition,althoughthegendergaphasdiminished,womenstillmakelowerwagesthanmen,evenwhentheyholdthesamequalificationsandworkthe samehoursTheyarealsomorelikelytobeheadingupsingle-parenthouseholdswithdependentchildrenGiventheintersectionsofraceandgender, womenofcolorare,inturn,amongthosemostlikelytoearnpoverty-levelwagesIn2013,36percentofAfricanAmericanworkersand42percentofLatinx workersearnedpoverty-levelwages,comparedto23percentforWhites;inallcases,theserateswerehigherwhileaveragewageswerelowerforwomen thanmenwithinracialsubgroups66

Racialdisparitiesinwealthandincome,asdescribedaboveandinwhatfollows,leadtocorollarydisparitiesinchildren’saccesstothebasicsoflifefood, healthcare,housing,andsafetyaswellasaccesstohigh-qualityschooling

InequityintheBasicsofLife

OnDecember10,1948,theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsadoptedandproclaimedtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsFollowingthis historicact,theassemblycalledonallmembercountriestopublicizethetextofthedeclarationand“tocauseittobedisseminated,displayed,readand expoundedprincipallyinschoolsandothereducationalinstitutions,withoutdistinctionbasedonthepoliticalstatusofcountriesorterritories”67Article25 ofthedeclarationstates:

Everyonehastherighttoastandardoflivingadequateforthehealthandwellbeingofhimselfandofhisfamily,includingfood,clothing,housingandmedicalcareandnecessary socialservices,andtherighttosecurityintheeventofunemployment,sickness,disability,widowhood,oldageorotherlackoflivelihoodincircumstancesbeyondhiscontrol68

TheUnitedStateswasoneoftheoriginalsignersofthedeclaration,andyetmanyAmericanswouldlikelydisagreewithitsprovisions;otherswouldseeit asaworthystatementofprincipleapplyingmostlytoothercountries;andstillotherswouldtakeitasacalltoactionAllwouldhavetoagreethatit remainsunrealized;accesstothemostbasicsocialsupportsintheUnitedStates(eg,adequatefood,healthcare,andhousing)dependsonwealthand incomeAsonereportoninequalityphrasedit,“IntheUS,perhapsmorethaninanyotherprosperoussociety,inequalityreachesintodimensionsoflife wheremostpeoplewouldprefertobelievethatmoneydoesnotrule”69

Food

InterviewedbyBillMoyersin2013,JoelBerg,asheadoftheNewYorkCityCoalitionAgainstHunger,explainedthewebofconsequencestochildrenwho livewith“foodinsecurity”

Foodinsecuremeansfamiliesdon’thaveenoughmoneytoregularlyobtainallthefoodtheyneedItmeanstheyarerationingfoodandskippingmealsItmeansparentsaregoing withoutfoodtofeedtheirchildrenItmeanskidsaremissingbreakfastsAnd,ironically,becausehealthyfoodisusuallymoreexpensivethanjunkfood,andbecausehealthier optionsoftendon’tevenexistinlow-incomeneighborhoods,itmeansthatfoodinsecurityandobesityareflipsidesofthesamemalnutritioncoin,sofoodinsecuritymayactually increaseafamily’schanceoffacingobesityanddiabetesFiftymillionAmericans,includingnearly17millionchildren,nowliveinfoodinsecurehomes70

Giventhepovertystatisticssharedinpriorsections,it’snotsurprisingandyetstillshockstheconsciencethatin201527percentofAfricanAmerican and27percentofLatinxchildrenwerelivinginhouseholdswheretheycouldnotcountonhavingenoughfoodforanactive,healthylifeforeveryonein theirfamily71

Health

Children’shealthintheUnitedStatesishighlyrelatedtotheirfamilies’incomestatus72Asthmaandleadexposurebothassociatedwithenvironmental toxins,includingpollutionandunsafebuildingmaterialsarejusttwoofthehealthproblemsthataffectlower-incomechildrenathigherratesInone dramaticexample,thepercentageofchildreninFlint,Michigan,withelevatedlevelsofleadintheirbloodknowntolowercognitivefunctioningand increaselearningproblemsnearlydoubledaftertheleadstartedleachingoutofthecity’soldleadwaterpipesin201473Morethan40percentofFlint’s residentslivebelowthepovertyline

Keytomaintainingchildren’shealthandpreventingtheirillnessistheiraccesstoahealthcaresystemAlthoughlocal,state,andnationalhealth insuranceandservicesareaccessibletomost,manylackgoodhealthcare,andthisisespeciallytrueforthenation’spoorestchildrenWerecentlysaw historicallylowratesofuninsuredchildren,inpartduetotheObamaadministrationpoliciesTheKaiserFamilyFoundationreportedthefollowingin2017:

Followingdecadesofsteadyprogress,largelydrivenbyexpansionsinMedicaidandCHIP[Children’sHealthInsuranceProgram],thechildren’suninsuredratehasreachedanalltimelowof5MedicaidandCHIParekeysourcesofcoverageforournation’schildrencoveringnearlyfourinten(39percent)childrenoverallandoverfourinten(44percent) childrenwithspecialhealthcareneedsMedicaidservesasthebaseofcoverageforthenation’slow-incomechildrenandcovered368millionchildreninfiscalyear2015CHIP, whichhad84millionchildrenenrolledinfiscalyear2015,complementsMedicaidbycoveringuninsuredchildrenaboveMedicaideligibilitylimits74

ThesegainsareinperilinthepoliticalbacklashagainstuniversalhealthcareLookingahead,theKaiserreportidentifiedseriousconcernsgrowingoutof thepoliticallandscape,includingpotentialcoveragelossesforchildren,morelimitedbenefitsandhigherout-of-pocketcostsforchildren’scoverage,reduced accesstocareforchildren,andincreasedfinancialpressureonstatesandproviders75Thereismuchtobeconcernedabout

Housing

In2013,40percentofUShouseholdswithchildrenhadaserioushousingproblemTheseproblemsincludedphysicallyinadequatehousing,overcrowded housing,orhousingthatcostmorethan30percentofhouseholdincome76Approximately16percentofhouseholdsspendmorethanhalfoftheirincomeon housing,77leavinglittleforotherbasicnecessities,suchasfoodandhealthcare

AfricanAmericanandLatinxfamiliesarefarmorelikelytoexperiencehousingproblemsthanareWhitefamilies,asareimmigrantfamilies78In2017, whennearly72percentofWhitesownedtheirhomes,lessthanhalfofAfricanAmericansorLatinxwerehomeowners79(SeeFigure17)Inaddition, familiesofcolorhavesuffereddisproportionatelyintherecenthousingcrisisTheyhavebeentargetedbypredatorylendersandsubjectedtohigh-interest adjustableratemortgages,andtheyareamongthoseexperiencingthehighestratesofforeclosure80Children,ofcourse,arenotimmunetothenegative effectsofthese“adult”issues

Infact,thehomelesspopulationintheUnitedStatesisincreasinglymadeupoffamilieswithchildren,andthiswilllikelycontinuegiventherecent economicdownturnandhousingcrisisAsof2008,familieswithchildrenaccountedfor32percentofthehomelesspopulation,a9percentincreasesince 200781During2013,anestimated138,000children(2per1,000children)werefoundtobehomelessatasinglepointintime,82and25percentofelementary andsecondarystudentswereidentifiedashomelessin2015School-agehomelesschildrenfacebarrierstoenrollingandattendingschool,including transportationproblems,residencyrequirements,inabilitytoobtainpreviousschoolrecords,andlackofclothingandschoolsupplies

Figure17HomeownershipRatesbyRaceandEthnicityofHouseholder,2017

Source:USCensusBureau,QuarterlyResidentialVacanciesandHomeownership,FirstQuarter2017,wwwcensusgov/housing/hvs/files/currenthvspresspdf

Clearlythen,youngpeoplecompriseasignificantproportionoftheUShomelesspopulation;amongthoseontheirownaresignificantnumbersofLGBT youthResearchsuggeststhatroughlyoneinfourLGBTyouthwhocomesouttohisorherparentsistoldtoleavehome83Forthisandotherreasons,about 40percentofallhomelessyouthidentifyasLGBT,comparedtolessthan10percentoftheoverallyouthpopulation

Safety

In2012,oneinfour(23percenteach)BlackandLatinxchildrenlivedinneighborhoodsreportedbytheirparentstobeneveroronlysometimessafe, comparedwithonly7percentofWhitechildrenChildrenlivingatorbelowthepovertylineweremorethanthreetimesaslikelyasbetter-offchildrento liveinsuchneighborhoodsIt’slongbeenknownthatunsafeneighborhoodshavehigherratesofinfantmortalityandlowbirthweight,aswellaschild abuseandneglect;childrentherewatchmoretelevision(frequentlyasaferpastimethangoingoutside),participatelessinafter-schoolactivities,andhave lowerschoolachievementandhighschoolgraduationratesYoungpeoplegrowingupinneighborhoodswithhighlevelsofcrimeandgunviolenceare themselvesmuchmorelikelytobecomevictimsorperpetratorsofviolentcrimeTheyarealsomorelikelythanchildreninsaferneighborhoodsto experiencetraumaresultinginsocialandemotionalproblems84

Newsreportsremindusofanotherkindoftruththatsomeyoungpeoplearealsoatgreaterrisk,asaretheirfamilies,ofexperiencingdiscriminatory publicpoliciesandpractices,includingpolicingpracticesthatputtheminsignificantdanger85ThenumberofpoliceshootingsofyoungBlackmenin2016 (ages15–34)wasninetimesgreaterthanforotherAmericans,andfourtimestherateforyoungWhitemen86TragicinstancesofunarmedBlackteenagers beingkilledbypoliceinChicago,Illinois;Ferguson,Missouri;Cleveland,Ohio;Dallas,Texas;andTerrebonne,Louisiana,havebeenprofiledinthemedia

andbeenthesubjectofsignificantactivismonthepartofcommunitymembersconcernedforthesafetyoflocalyoungstersBlackLivesMatter,which beganasahashtagonTwitterfollowingthenot-guiltyverdictinthekillingof17-year-oldTrayvonMartininFlorida,becamearallyingcryafterthepolice shootingofMichaelBrowninFergusonandevolvedintoanationalmovementagainstbothpolicebrutalityandabroadersetofracialinjustices

GeographicandEconomicIsolation

Disparitiesinchildren’saccesstobasiclifenecessitiesarecompoundedbythesegregationoflow-incomechildrenandstudentsofcolorinlargeurban centers,andincreasinglyinresidentiallysegregatedsuburbanandruralneighborhoods,tooOneparticularlywell-documentedtrendhasbeenformiddleandworking-classfamiliesminoritized87andWhitetomoveawayfromcentralcities,leavingtheremainingresidentstofaceproblemsofunemployment, poverty,racialisolation,andcrumblingschoolsAscitysmokestackindustriescontinuetobe“down-sized,”gooverseas,ordisappearentirely,jobshavealso movedbeyondtheurbancore

Thejobsremaininginthecitytendtobe“neweconomy”jobsininformationandhigh-techindustriesthataremoredifficulttoqualifyforthanjobsin the“oldeconomy”factoriesFewinner-cityresidentsespeciallythelargenumberofnewlyarrived,hardworkingimmigrantsqualifyforthesejobsMost settleforirregular,part-timeworkinservicesandlacksecurity,benefits,andalivingwageatermusedtodescribetheincome,calculatedforeach community,thatensuresthatapersonworkingfull-timewillnotfallbelowthepovertyline

Theseemploymentconstraints,commonininnercities,togetherwithhousingpoliciesandthepreferencesofWhitefamiliestobuyhomesinschool districtsthatarepredominantlyWhite,meanthat,despiteincreasedracialdiversityintheUnitedStates,mostyoungpeopleliveinhighlysegregated neighborhoodsWhitechildrentypicallyliveincommunitieswherethevastmajorityofpeopleareWhiteAfricanAmericanchildren,onaverage,livein neighborhoodswheremostoftheotherchildrenareBlackorLatinx;Latinxchildrentypicallyalsoliveinplaceswheretheyareinthemajority88

SchoolingInequities

In2002,SenatorChristopherDoddandCongressmanChakaFattahintroducedintoCongresslegislationthatwouldensurethatbasiceducational opportunitiesareavailabletoallUSstudentsTheirStudentBillofRightswouldholdstatesaccountableforprovidingallstudentswiththe“fundamentals ofeducationalopportunity,”89includinghighlyqualifiedteachersandguidancecounselors,challengingcurricula,up-to-datetextbooksandmaterials,and smallclassesTheseareresourcesknowntohaveanenormouspositiveimpactonachievement,especiallyfordisadvantagedstudentsSeeFocalPoint11to readthetextofthislegislation

OnemightthinkthatsuchabillofrightswouldbeunnecessaryintheUnitedStates,givenitswealthandlonghistoryofpubliceducation,butmanyof thenation’schildrendonotroutinelyexperiencethesebasicelementsofeducationintheirpublicschoolsThisdeclarationofstudentrightshasyettobe passed

SegregatedSchools

Overthepastdecades,racialsegregationhascontinuedtohaveprofoundeffectsonpublicschools;sotoohasthecontinuedexistenceandexacerbationof divisionbetweenpoorcities(andcitycenters)andsurroundingaffluentneighborhoods,includingouter-urbanandsuburbancommunitiesAsaresult,more thansixtyyearsafterBrownvBoardofEducation, 90manycities’publicschoolsystemsremainpredominantlyattendedbystudentsofcolorMiddle-class Whitesinthoseurbancentersoftenolderthanotherparentsofschool-goingchildrenandmoreaffluentincreasinglychooseprivateeducationfortheir ownkidsSomeseekprivateschoolsfortheresources,status,andprivilegeOtherspraisetheidealofintegrationbutworrythatintegrationinpractice wouldtriggerdecliningschoolqualityStillothersfearfortheirchildren’ssafetyWhateverthereasons,withdrawalofsupportbythemiddleclasshasleft manyurbanpublicschoolsresource-pooranddecayingAtthesametime,demographicshiftshavebroughtlower-income,morediversepopulationsintothe suburbanandsometimessegregatedringaroundcitiesnotwithoutsomepredictable(anddeeplyproblematic)backlash91

FocalPoint11StudentBillofRights

HR236

StudentBillofRights

IntheHouseofRepresentatives

ToprovideforadequateandequitableeducationalopportunitiesforstudentsinStatepublicschoolsystems,andforotherpurposes BeitenactedbytheSenateandHouseofRepresentativesoftheUnitedStatesofAmericainCongressassembled,SEC112StateEducational AdequacyAndEquityRequirements(a)FundamentalsofEducationalOpportunityAStateshallprovideforallpublicschoolsintheStateaccess,at levelsdefinedbytheStateundersection113asidealoradequate,toeachofthefollowingfundamentalsofeducationalopportunity:(1)high-quality classroomteachersandschooladministrators(2)rigorousacademicstandards,curricula,andmethodsofinstruction(3)smallclasssizes(4)quality facilities,textbooks,andinstructionalmaterialsandsupplies(5)up-to-datelibraryresources(6)up-to-datecomputertechnology(7)qualityguidance counseling

Overall,schoolsegregationhasincreasedsincethel980s,especiallyforBlackandLatinxstudents92Moststriking,thepercentageofschoolswith enrollmentsof90–100percentstudentsofcolorhastripledinthattime(seeFigure18)In2013,38and43percentofBlackandLatinxstudents,respectively, attendedschoolswherethestudentbodywas90to100percentminoritizedstudentsForGaryOrfieldandhiscolleaguesattheUCLACivilRightsProject, theseshiftsrepresenta“striking”andconsequentialriseinsegregationbyraceandpovertyforAfricanAmericanandLatinxstudentsinschoolsthat“rarely attainthesuccessfuloutcomestypicalofmiddleclassschoolswithlargelyWhiteandAsianstudentpopulations”93Thisincreasedracialandsocioeconomic separationisfollowedbyunequalaccesstoeducationalresources,opportunities,andoutcomes

UnequalSpending

In2014,per-pupilspendingrangedfromahighof$18,165inNewYorktoalowof$5,838inIdahoInbothhigh-andlow-spendingstates,however,schools typicallyspendlessonlow-incomechildrenandchildrenofcolorthantheyspendoneconomicallyadvantagedandWhitestudents94

Figure18Percentageof90–100PercentWhiteSchoolsand90–100PercentNon-WhiteSchoolsintheUnitedStates1988–2013

Individualstatesvarygreatly;somearemuchbetter,andsomearemuchworseAhandfulofstatesDelaware,Minnesota,NewJersey,and MassachusettshavegenerallyhighfundinglevelsandalsoprovidesignificantlymorefundingtodistrictswherestudentpovertyismoreprevalentTwentyonestates,however,providelessfundingtoschooldistrictswithhigherconcentrationsoflow-incomestudentsInWyoming,high-povertydistrictsreceive 70centsforeverydollarallottedtolow-povertydistrictsInNevada,high-povertydistrictsreceiveonly59centstothatdollar95

ConceptTable11Per–StudentFundingGapsAddUp

Forexample,whenyouconsiderthe cost–adjustedper–studentfundinggap forlow–incomestudentsin

Betweentwotypical classroomsofstudents,that translatesintoadifference of

Betweentwotypicalelementaryschoolsof schoolsof400students,thattranslatesthat translatesintoadifferenceof

Betweentwotypicalhighschoolsof schoolsof1,500students,that translatesintoaintoadifferenceof

Source:TheEducationTrust,TheFundingGap,2006,wwwedtrustorg/dc/publication/the-funding-gap-O/

TheEducationTrust,anadvocacyandresearchorganization,calculatedtheimpactofthefundinggapforindividualschools(SeeConceptTable11)It foundthatinNewYork,almost$58,000lessperyearwouldbespentonaclassroomoftwenty-fivestudentsinahigh-povertydistrict,almost$1millionless peryearwouldbespentatahigh-povertyelementaryschoolof400students,andover$34millionlessperyearwouldbespentatahigh-povertyhigh schoolof1,500students96TheEducationTrustasksanobviousandimportantquestion:“Considerthedailystruggleforprogressthatoccursinmanyofour poorestschoolsWhatcouldthoseschoolsdowithanother$1millionperyearresourcesthattheirmorewealthypeersalreadyenjoy?”97

Althoughthisanalysisisatleastadecadeold,thepatternsstillholdWhilepostrecessionspendinghasincreasedoverallinmanystates,asnotedabove, twenty-onestatescontinuetospendlessinhigh-povertyschooldistricts

UnequalOpportunitiestoLearn

Thefifth-gradeclasswasrelocatedintoportablesinOctoberTheportablesarehalfthesizeoftheregularclassroomThereisbarelyenoughroomtowalkaroundbecauseallbooks andsuppliesarenestledaroundtheperimeteroftheroomonthefloorTherearenocabinetsTherearenowindowsThedistrictisinsuchdirefinancialstraitsthattheteachers can’tmakephotocopies;wedon’thaveoverheadprojectors,nordowehaveenoughspaceforthechildren

StevenBranch First-yearteacher,grade5

Theboys’andgirls’bathroomshadbeenfloodedforovertwomonthsAftertwomonthsofsickeningsmellandslimyscum(literally,thestudentswerewalkinginslime),the bathroomswerefixedFortwodaysalldaylong,therewasajackhammergoingoffinthebackofmyroomCouldn’ttheyhavedonethisworkafter2PM?Orduringrecessand lunchtime?OrgivenmesomeadvancenoticesothatIcouldhavemadesomeoutdoorplans?Ilosttwodaysoflearning

JenniferHaymore First-yearteacher,grade4

StevenBranch’sandJenniferHaymore’sexperiencesincityschoolsystemsarenotuniqueJonathanKozol’swrenchingaccountfromtheearly1990s, SavageInequalities,portraysinequalitiesthatmanystudieshavesincedocumentedKozolfoundthatBlackandLatinxstudentsinCamden,NewJersey, werelearningkeyboardingwithoutcomputers,sciencewithoutlaboratories,andothersubjectswithoutenoughtextbookstogoaroundSevenminutesaway intheWhite,affluentcommunityofCherryHill,studentsenjoyedwell-keptfacilities,includingagreenhouseforthoseinterestedinhorticulture,and abundantequipmentandsuppliesSincethepublicationofSavageInequalities,journalistsandscholarshaveincreasedthepublic’sawarenessofdisparities inschoolconditions,andactivistsinmanystateshavepursuedlegalactiontocorrectthem

In1997,forexample,theLosAngelesTimespublishedahumiliatingstoryoftextbookshortagesinthecity’sschoolsFremontHighSchool,attended almostentirelybyLatinxyouth,reportedneeding7,200textbookssimplytocomplywithstatelawForits1,200tenthgraders,Fremontownedonly210 EnglishtextbooksAndFremontwashardlytheonlyhighschoolinthedistrictwrestlingwithseriousbookshortagesItisdifficulttoimaginethataschool ordistrictwithmostlyaffluentWhitestudents,anywhere,wouldeverfacesuchaproblemWithinafewweeksoftheexposé,thenewspaperwasfilledwith

reportsofschooldistrictmoney,privatedonations,andactionatthestatelevel,alongwithlargephotosshowingstacksofnewbooksatFremont98Yetthese stopgapmeasuresonbehalfofoneschooldidlittletoaddressthebroadersetofinequitiesfacingsomanyofthecity’sstudents

In2000,someangryCaliforniansaskedthecourtstoremedysuchinequitiesAgroupofyoungpeopleandtheirparentsfiledsuitinthenameofEliezer Williams,anAfricanAmericanstudentataSanFranciscomiddleschoolNearlyalloftheforty-eightstudentplaintiffsnamedinthecasewereBlack, Latinx,orAsian/PacificIslander,andtheyallattendedschoolsfilledwithfellowstudentsofcolorfromlow-incomecommunitiesTheysuedCalifornia’s governor,thestateboardofeducation,andthesuperintendentofpublicinstruction

TheWilliamsplaintiffsclaimedthatthey,andmanystudentslikethem,attended“schoolsthatshocktheconscience”99Theyprovidedevidencethat schoolsacrossthestatelacked“trainedteachers,necessaryeducationalsupplies,classrooms,evenseatsinclassrooms,andfacilitiesthatmeetbasichealth andsafetystandards”Theyalsoshowedthattheseschoolingbasicsweresystematicallylessavailabletolow-incomestudentsofcolor,andthataschool experiencingoneoftheproblemswasmuchmorelikelytoexperiencemoreorallofthemTheWilliamsstudentsarguedthat,bypermittingsuchschools, California’seducationalsystemfailedtomeetitsconstitutionalobligationtoeducateallstudentsandtoeducatethemequallyIn2004,thegovernorof Californiaagreedtosettlethecase,allocating$1billionanddevelopingstandardsrequiringthatallstudentshavequalifiedteachers,instructionalmaterials, anddecentandsafeschoolbuildings

SuchschoolinginequalitieswerenotthenandarenotnowconfinedtoCalifornia,norweretheyentirelyremediedeveninCaliforniaAcrossthenation, studentsathigh-povertyschoolshavefewerwell-qualifiedteachersthantheirWhitecounterpartsinaffluent,suburbanschoolsTheirschoolsalsosuffer moreteachingvacancies,whichprincipalsthenhaveatoughertimefilling

Inpartbecauseofthescopeoftheseissuesnationwide,theUSDepartmentofEducationrequiredin2015thateachstatefileanequityreport documentingthedistributionofteachersacrossvariousstudentpopulationsThosereportsrevealedthat,acrossthecountry,unqualified,inexperienced,or out-of-fieldteacherswerefoundindisproportionatelyhighnumbersinhigh-povertyschoolsand/orschoolsservingstudentsofcolorFigure19showsthe numbersofstateswhereaccesstoqualifiedteachersremainsaseriousproblem

Intotal,fortystatesreportedinequitableaccesstoexperiencedteachersforlow-incomestudentsandstudentsofcolorLikewise,twenty-ninestates reportedthatunqualifiedteachersmoreoftenteachlow-incomeand/orminoritizedstudents100

Lessqualifiedteachersareaparticularproblembecausestudyafterstudyshowsthat,ofalltheresourcesschoolsprovide,highlyqualifiedteacherswith expertiseintheirsubjectareasarethemostimportantforstudentlearning,andunderqualifiedteachersareparticularlydamagingforchildrenwhoalsoface inequitiesoutsideofschool

Figure19QualifiedTeachers:NumberofStatesWhereAccessIsProblematic

Source:USDepartmentofEducation,OfficeofElementaryandSecondaryEducation,StatePlanstoEnsureEquitableAccesstoExcellentEducators,2015, www2edgov/programs/titleiparta/resourceshtml

Moreover,havingenoughteachersalsomattersInfact,childrenfromlow-incomefamilieshavehigherratesofachievement,andsufferlessofan achievementgap,whentheirstatestargetstaffingincreasestotheirown(highest-needs)schools101

It’snotjustwhoteachersare,buthowtheyteachthatmattersforstudentlearningInschoolsservinglow-incomecommunitiesandcommunitiesofcolor, teacherswhomayhavelessexperienceandexpertise,givenstaffingissuesaddressedabovetendtoplacelessemphasisoninquiryandproblem-solving skillsandofferfeweropportunitiesforactivelearning102This,too,putsstudentsinthoseschoolsatadisadvantage

Furthermore,whatistaughtmatters,tooSchoolsattendedpredominantlybyBlackandLatinxstudentsoftenofferfewercriticalcollege“gatekeeping” coursessuchasadvancedmathematicsandscienceFigure110showsthedisparitiesamongschoolswithdifferentpopulationsinadvancedmiddleandhigh schoolmathematicsNotably,thereisa30percentgapbetweenlow-andhigh-povertyschoolswhenitcomestoseventhandeighthgraders’accessto algebra

Advancedplacement(AP)coursesthatenhancestudents’college-goingopportunitiesarealsounevenlydistributedIn1999,RashedaDaniel,aworkingclassAfricanAmericanteenager,suedherschooldistrictandthestateofCaliforniabecauseherhighschooldidnotoffertheadvancedclassesthatshe neededtoattendthestate’suniversityasasciencemajorNobodythoughtshewaswrong,andnobodythoughtshewasanisolatedcaseDaniel’ssuit promptedthestatelegislaturetoprovidenewfundingtoschoolslikeherssotheycouldbeginofferingtherequisiteadvancedcourses