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Introduction to Professional Counseling (Counseling and Professional Identity) – Ebook PDF Version
In Chapter 2, “Professional Counseling Organizations, Licensure, Certification, and Accreditation,” by Joshua C. Watson, Bradley T. Erford, and Grafton T. Eliason, students are introduced to the American Counseling Association (ACA) and its divisions, branches, and professional partners so that students can become familiar with the wide array of professional associations advocating for counselors and clients. This chapter offers a glimpse of the many credentials that professional counselors can earn. An overview of state licensure, national certification, and counselor education program accreditation processes (e.g., CACREP and CORE) is provided to answer student questions early and to make students aware of the choices that exist for future professional credentialing. Various accountability mechanisms found at the state level for educational systems and mental health agencies are also reviewed.
Section One ends with Chapter 3, “Ethical and Legal Issues in Counseling,” by Lynn E. Linde and Bradley T. Erford. The chapter is a comprehensive introduction to ethical and legal issues in counseling practice, covering new editions of the ACA and ASCA ethical codes, confidentiality, privilege, subpoenas, malpractice, records and personal notes, child abuse, suicide, HIPAA, FERPA, minor consent, and ethical decision making. A professional counselor must always remember that how one conducts oneself personally and professionally reflects not only on oneself, but also on one’s colleagues.
Section Two, “Counseling Processes and Approaches,” provides an in-depth review of counseling theories, process, and skills. Chapter 4, “Theories of Counseling,” by Bradley T. Erford and Ann Vernon, portrays the nature and quality of the counseling relationship as more significant than any other factor in counseling. Regardless of the setting, and whether they are working with individuals, families, or groups, counselors have a professional responsibility to develop a foundation and clear rationale for their theoretical orientation to serve clients best. Professional counselors operate out of theories that best fit their personal philosophies of human change and the counseling process. Chapter 4 highlights the significance of theory to counseling practice and provides a brief overview of the major theoretical paradigms. Students will also explore their own beginning preferences for theoretical orientation with the intent of continuing their personal and professional exploration to discover their personal style.
Chapter 5, “The Counseling Process,” by Donna S. Sheperis, orients students to counseling processes and approaches, providing a brief overview of the stages of the counseling process and approaches to helping clients. The counseling process embodies the art and science of helping. Professional counselors bring their training, experience, and personalities into the process. Once initiated, counseling occurs over a series of stages that includes information gathering and the application of theory to generate relevant goals, treatment, assessment, and termination. In Chapter 5, students beginning the path to becoming professional counselors are encouraged to consider their fit with the process and profession of counseling.
Chapter 6, “Counseling Microskills,” by Joseph B. Cooper, provides an overview of the fundamental skills that constitute the key elements of effective helping relationships. The skills in this chapter focus on Ivey, Ivey, and Zalaquett’s’s (2013) microskills hierarchy. At the heart of this hierarchy is the basic listening sequence, an interrelated set of skills that not only fosters the development of rapport with clients, but also aids in the identification of interventions to help achieve a successful resolution to the clients’ presenting concerns. Examples of the skills in use, along with practice exercises to foster individual skill development, are provided.
Section Three, “Client Issues and Advocacy,” explores the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of the counselor when working with clients across the life span and with
common presenting problems (e.g., substance use, eating disorders, behavioral difficulties, crisis intervention), as well as multicultural competence, consultation, and supervision.
Chapter 7, “Crisis Prevention and Intervention,” by Judith Harrington and Charlotte Daughhetee, recognizes that crises, suicide and homicide continue to play increasingly important roles in American society and on the world stage. Suicide and homicide affect us personally as we, family members, friends, and those in extended social networks struggle with the ever-increasing challenges of modern life. The effectiveness of the care given by professional emergency first responders, as well as the effectiveness of ordinary people in responding to their own crises and the crises of those about whom they care, is improved by background knowledge involving current trends in and treatments for suicidal and homicidal impulses.
Chapter 8, “Mental Health and Rehabilitation Counseling,” by Catherine Y. Chang, Amy L. McLeod, and Nadine E. Garner, provides a broad overview of the general mental health settings and client issues (i.e., drug and alcohol counseling, mental health counseling, career counseling, and rehabilitation counseling). The field of counseling is becoming increasingly specialized, with certifications and licensures available for addictions counselors (National Certified Addictions Counselor [NCAC]; Master Addiction Counselor [MAC]), mental health counselors (Licensed Professional Counselor [LPC]—term may vary depending on the state), career counselors, and rehabilitation counselors (Certified Rehabilitation Counselor [CRC]). Although these areas are not distinct, and clients may enter counseling with a mental health, substance use, career, or rehabilitation issue, or any combination of the four, it is important for professional counselors to have a basic understanding of each area.
Chapter 9, “School, College, and Career Counseling,” by Nadine E. Garner, Jason Baker, and Molly E. Jones, describes the unique characteristics of working as a professional counselor in the increasingly multicultural settings of elementary and secondary schools; college and university campuses; and career counseling.
Chapter 10 “Human Development Throughout the Life Span,” by Bradley T. Erford briefly describes developmental characteristics of infancy and toddlerhood (birth to age 3 years); early childhood (ages 4 to 6 years); middle childhood (ages 6 to 11 years); early adolescence, midadolescence, and later adolescence (ages 11 to 24 years); young adulthood (ages 24 to 40 years); middle adulthood (ages 40 to 60 years); and later adulthood (ages 60 years and older). The information in these approximate age categories serves as a basis for examples of interventions that helping professionals can use to facilitate development at several of these stages.
In Chapter 11, “Multicultural Counseling,” by Geneva M. Gray, multicultural counseling applications are reviewed to help students integrate principles of cultural diversity into the counseling process from the beginning of their training. This chapter features multicultural applications of identity development and counselor competency (multicultural implications are highlighted throughout the other chapters of the text too). Cultural identity developmental processes and culturally specific information and intervention strategies are presented across the cultural dimensions of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, spirituality, ability level, and age.
Chapter 12, “Assessment, Case Conceptualization, Diagnosis, and Treatment Planning,” by Bradley T. Erford, reviews each of these major counseling tenets. Assessment is the systematic gathering of information to address a client’s presenting concerns effectively. A case conceptualization reflects how the professional counselor understands the nature of the presenting problems and includes a diagnostic formulation. Treatment plans outline counseling outcome expectations and interventions to meet these expectations.
In Chapter 13, “Supervision and Consultation,” by Mark A. Young and Alan Basham, an introduction to supervision and consultation is provided to help students understand the theory and practical applications of these two essential counselor roles. In particular, the chapter helps counselors in training understand how to get the most out of their relationships with supervisors and understand what will be expected of them as future supervisors to the next generation of counselors in training. Models, techniques, types of activities, and important skills used to fulfill the role of consultant or supervisor are presented.
An innovative facet of this text is the integration of advocacy counseling and the introduction of professional advocacy strategies. Chapter 14, “Advocating for the Counseling Profession,” by Amy Milsom, answers important questions about advocacy counseling, including: “What does it mean to advocate for the counseling profession?” “Why is professional advocacy important?” “In what ways can professional counselors advocate for the profession?” Counselors can best serve their clients by advocating for a strong professional presence in the public and legislative venues. A positive view of the counseling profession by citizens and legislators helps remove barriers for clients and promotes the worth and dignity of diverse individuals.
In addition, obtaining social justice for clients demands that professional counselors understand and practice advocacy counseling according to the standards developed by the ACA. Chapter 15, “Advocacy Counseling: Being an Effective Agent of Change for Clients,” by Donna M. Gibson, proposes that the core purpose of advocacy counseling is to address external barriers that interfere with human development. Although this purpose can be met by advocating for the profession of counseling, it is often met by advocating at the individual client level. Through an examination of the advocacy competency domains (Ratts et al., 2015), specific guidelines are provided on how to increase clients’ empowerment and how to be a successful advocacy counselor.
Section Four, “The Effectiveness of Counseling,” addresses the crucial issues of accountability and outcome in counseling. The future of the counseling profession lies in the ability of counselors to show that counseling practices are effective in helping clients reach their stated goals. Counselors in training need to learn to conduct needs assessments, outcome studies, and program evaluation to determine what services are needed, and the effects of those services. Chapter 16, “Accountability in Counseling,” by Bradley T. Erford, proposes that accountability is a central responsibility of all professional counselors. At its core, accountability shows the effect that a professional counselor has in producing changes in clients and program stakeholders. The process of outcome studies is approached from traditional research methods perspectives and contemporary perspectives, including action research and single-subject research designs.
Counselors also need to realize that a great wealth of extant literature exists to inform their daily counseling practice with clients. This literature is reviewed in Chapter 17, “Outcome Research in Counseling,” by Bradley T. Erford, to bolster the students’ knowledge of what does and does not work in counseling, and so counselors can use effective counseling interventions. Professional counselors have an ethical responsibility to use counseling methods grounded in theory and empirically validated through research. It is now known that counseling is effective in many forms and for many client conditions. Chapter 17 reviews research on the effectiveness of counseling in several areas: client–counselor characteristics, individual approaches, group approaches, career intervention, and school-based student interventions. This body of information should be used by professional counselors to inform their practice and increase treatment efficacy.
Orientation to the Counseling Profession: Advocacy, Ethics, and Essential Professional Foundations provides a wealth of information on the most foundational and emerging issues of the counseling profession. It was specifically designed to orient counselors in training, regardless of specialty area, to the profession of counseling that we have all dedicated our careers and lives to improving. Enjoy!
suPPlemeNtal iNstructioNal features
Supplemental to this text are pedagogical tools helpful to counselor educators choosing to use this text as a course text. The companion Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank contains at least 50 multiple choice questions and 20 essay questions per chapter. Numerous case studies and activities included in the text can stimulate lively classroom discussions. PowerPoint® lecture outlines are also available. Instructor supplements can be downloaded from the Instructor Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com.
also available with mycouNseliNglab®
This title is also available with MyCounselingLab—an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed to work with the text to engage students and improve results. Within its structured environment, students see key concepts demonstrated through video clips, practice what they learn, test their understanding, and receive feedback to guide their learning and ensure they master key learning outcomes.
• Learning Outcomes and Standards measure student results. MyCounselingLab organizes all assignments around essential learning outcomes and national standards for counselors.
• Video- and Case-Based Exercises develop decision-making skills. Video- and Case-based Exercises introduce students to a broader range of clients, and therefore a broader range of presenting problems, than they will encounter in their own pre-professional clinical experiences. Students watch videos of actual client-therapist sessions or high-quality role-play scenarios featuring expert counselors. They are then guided in their analysis of the videos through a series of short-answer questions. These exercises help students develop the techniques and decision-making skills they need to be effective counselors before they are in a critical situation with a real client.
• Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for certification. Automatically graded, multiple-choice Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for their certification examinations, master foundational course content, and improve their performance in the course.
• Video Library offers a wealth of observation opportunities. The Video Library provides more than 400 video clips of actual client-therapist sessions and high-quality role plays in a database organized by topic and searchable by keyword. The Video Library includes every video clip from the MyCounselingLab courses plus additional videos from Pearson’s extensive library of footage. Instructors can create additional assignments around the videos or use them for in-class activities. Students can expand their observation experiences to include other course areas and increase the amount of time they spend watching expert counselors in action.
All of the contributing authors are to be commended for lending their expertise in the various topical areas. As always, Kevin Davis of Pearson has been wonderfully responsive and supportive. At Aptara, thanks go to the production team (Sudip Sinha, Production Project Manager; Ramesh Rawat, Production Lead). Finally, special thanks go to the outside reviewers whose comments helped to provide substantive improvement to the original manuscript: Maria D. Avalos, University of Texas of the Permian Basin; Laura Choate, Louisiana State University; Pit Kolodinsky, Northern Arizona University; Kara P. Ieva, Rowan University; and Waganesh Zeleke, Duquesne University.
brief coNteNts
sectioN oNe foundations of Professional counselor identity 1
Chapter 1 Becoming a Professional Counselor: Philosophical, Historical, and Future Considerations ■ Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi 3
Chapter 2 Professional Counseling Organizations, Licensure, Certification, and Accreditation ■ Joshua C. Watson, Bradley T. Erford, and Grafton T. Eliason 35
Chapter 3 Ethical and Legal Issues in Counseling ■ Lynn E. Linde and Bradley T. Erford 70
sectioN two counseling Processes and approaches 113
Chapter 4 Theories of Counseling ■ Bradley T. Erford and Ann Vernon 115
Chapter 5 The Counseling Process ■ Donna S. Sheperis 160
Chapter 6 Counseling Microskills ■ Joseph B. Cooper 192
sectioN three client issues and advocacy 217
Chapter 7 Crisis Prevention and Intervention ■ Judith Harrington and Charlotte Daughhetee 219
Chapter 8 Mental Health and Rehabilitation Counseling ■ Catherine Y. Chang, Amy L. McLeod, and Nadine E. Garner 249
Chapter 9 School, College, and Career Counseling ■ Nadine E. Garner, Jason Baker, and Molly E. Jones 280
Chapter 10 Human Development Throughout the Life Span ■ Bradley T. Erford 311
Chapter 11 Multicultural Counseling ■ Geneva M. Gray 337
Chapter 12 Assessment, Case Conceptualization, Diagnosis, and Treatment Planning ■ Bradley T. Erford 373
Chapter 13 Supervision and Consultation ■ Mark A. Young and Alan Basham 406
Chapter 14 Advocating for the Counseling Profession ■ Amy Milsom 435
Chapter 15 Advocacy Counseling: Being an Effective Agent of Change for Clients ■ Donna M. Gibson 458
sectioN four the effectiveness of counseling 487
Chapter 16 Accountability in Counseling ■ Bradley T. Erford 489
Chapter 17 Outcome Research in Counseling ■ Bradley T. Erford 520
coNteNts
About the Editor xxvi
About the Authors xxviii
sectioN oNe foundations of Professional counselor identity 1
chapter 1 becoming a Professional counselor: Philosophical, historical, and future considerations
■ Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi 3
Preview 3
Counseling and Professional Counselors: Where We Are 3
How Do Counselors Differ from PsyCHologists anD soCial workers? 6
The Philosophical Underpinnings of Counseling 7
How We Got Here: People, Issues, and Societal Forces That Have Shaped the Counseling Profession 9
1900–1920 9
1921–1940 15
1941–1960 17
1961–1980 18
1981–2000 19
2001–Present 20
Where We Are Going 22
eviDenCe-BaseD PraCtiCes, researCH-BaseD PraCtiCes, anD outComes researCH 22
manageD Care 23
multiCulturalism, Diversity, anD soCial JustiCe Counseling 24
teCHnology 25
gatekeePing 26
Professional aDvoCaCy anD soCial aDvoCaCy Counseling 26
mentoring anD leaDersHiP training 29
BonDing anD sPlintering of faCets of tHe Counseling Profession 29
Developing a Commitment to Career-long Wellness 30
Summary 34
chapter 2 Professional counseling organizations, licensure, certification, and accreditation
■ Joshua C. Watson, Bradley T. Erford, and Grafton T. Eliason 35
Preview 35
Professional Counseling Organizations 35
ameriCan Counseling assoCiation 36
American Counseling Association Divisions 39
ameriCan College Counseling assoCiation 40
ameriCan mental HealtH Counselors assoCiation 41
ameriCan reHaBilitation Counseling assoCiation 41
ameriCan sCHool Counselor assoCiation 41
assoCiation for aDult DeveloPment anD aging 41
assoCiation for assessment anD researCH in Counseling 42 assoCiation for CHilD anD aDolesCent Counseling 42 assoCiation for Counselor eDuCation anD suPervision 42
assoCiation for Creativity in Counseling 43 assoCiation for HumanistiC Counseling 43 assoCiation for lesBian, gay, Bisexual, anD transgenDer issues in Counseling 43
assoCiation for multiCultural Counseling anD DeveloPment 44 assoCiation for sPeCialists in grouP work 44 assoCiation for sPiritual, etHiCal, anD religious values in Counseling 44
Counselors for soCial JustiCe 45
international assoCiation of aDDiCtions anD offenDer Counselors 45
international assoCiation of marriage anD family Counselors 45
military anD government Counseling assoCiation 45
national Career DeveloPment assoCiation 46
national emPloyment Counseling assoCiation 46
American Counseling Association Regions and Branches 48
Other Essential Professional Counseling Organizations 50
ameriCan Counseling assoCiation founDation 50 CHi sigma iota 50
CounCil for aCCreDitation of Counseling anD relateD eDuCational Programs 51
CounCil on reHaBilitation eDuCation 51
national BoarD for CertifieD Counselors 51
Professional Development 51
Benefits of Joining Professional Counseling Organizations 52
aDDitional Benefits for Professional Counselor memBers 52
tHe ameriCan Counseling assoCiation memBer serviCes Committee 53
aDDitional Benefits for stuDent memBers 53
etHiCal stanDarDs 54
legislative aDvoCaCy 54
suPPorting tHe mission of tHe Profession 54
Relationship Between the American Counseling Association and the American Psychological Association 56
Some Key Challenges That Need to be Addressed by Counseling Professionals 56
National Accreditation 58
international efforts at Program registry 60
State Accreditation 60
State Professional Certification and Other Credentials 60
State Licensure 61
eDuCation 62
suPerviseD exPerienCe 62
examination 63
ameriCan assoCiation of state Counseling BoarDs 63
License Portability 64
CertifiCation/liCensure for Professional sCHool Counselors 64
Benefits anD DrawBaCks of Counseling liCensure 65
National Certification 65
Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification 66
Summary 68
chapter 3 ethical and legal issues in counseling
■ Lynn E. Linde and Bradley T. Erford 70 Preview 70
Ethical Standards and Laws 70
ameriCan Counseling assoCiation CoDe of etHiCs 72
tHe PraCtiCe of internet or teCHnology-assisteD DistanCe Counseling 83
ameriCan sCHool Counselor assoCiation etHiCal stanDarDs for sCHool Counselors 83
DeCision making using etHiCal stanDarDs 85
Additional Sources of Information and Guidance: Courts, Laws, and Regulations 91
Court system 91
statutory law 92
state anD loCal agenCies: regulations anD PoliCies 92
Making Decisions 93
Additional Legal Considerations 95
Professional ComPetenCe 95
“Can i Be sueD?” anD “wHat is malPraCtiCe?” 96
suBPoenas 98
Confidentiality 100
limits to ConfiDentiality 101
ConfiDentiality anD PrivilegeD CommuniCation 102
Minor-Consent Laws 103
Records and Personal Notes 104
eDuCational reCorDs 104
Personal notes 108
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 109
Child Abuse 109
Suicide 110
Summary 112
sectioN t wo counseling Processes and approaches 113
chapter 4 theories of counseling
■ Bradley T. Erford and Ann Vernon 115
Preview 115
The Significance of Theory 115
etHiCs of aPPlying Counseling tHeory 116
wHat makes a gooD tHeory? 117
Theoretical Paradigms 117
PsyCHoDynamiC ParaDigm 121
HumanistiC/existential ParaDigm 125
BeHavioral/Cognitive-BeHavioral ParaDigm 127 family systems ParaDigm 136 emergent tHeories 142
Applying Theory to Practice 151 view of Human nature 152 goals of Counseling 153 role of tHe Professional Counselor 153 teCHniques anD aPProaCHes 153 flexiBility 154
Theoretical Integration 155 integrative versus eCleCtiC Counseling 155 wHy an integrative aPProaCH? 156 Summary 159
chapter 5 the counseling Process
■ Donna S. Sheperis 160
Preview 160
The Professional Counselor 160
Counselor CHaraCteristiCs 161
Common issues for tHe Beginning Counselor 162
Client CHaraCteristiCs 164
Cross-Cultural Counseling ComPetenCe 165
BasiC Counseling ParaDigm 166
tHe Counseling ProCess anD stages of CHange 166
The Helping Process—The Helping Relationship 168
tHe art of HelPing 168
HelPing as a sCienCe 169
Common faCtors in HelPing 170
What Brings Clients to Counseling? 171
Initiating Counseling 174
Counseling environment 174
HelPing relationsHiP 175 role of tHeory 177
Structure of Counseling 178
informeD Consent 178
information gatHering 179
Exploring and Working Together 180
goal setting anD Positive Counseling outComes 182
wHat HaPPens wHen CHange Does not HaPPen? 183
Integration and Termination 185
Becoming a Professional Counselor 188
Personal strengtHs anD CHallenges 188
Summary 191
chapter 6 counseling microskills
■ Joseph B. Cooper 192
Preview 192
Essential Counseling Microskills 192
Attending Skills 193
eye ContaCt 193
BoDy Position 194
voCal tone 195
Basic Listening Sequence 196
oPen anD CloseD questions 197
refleCting skills 201
How to refleCt meaning 210
Summary 216
sectioN three client issues and advocacy 217
chapter 7 crisis Prevention and intervention
■ Judith Harrington and Charlotte Daughhetee 219
Preview 219
Crisis Theory 219
ConCePts 222
resilienCe anD Post-traumatiC growtH 224
Counselor Safeguards: Professional Burnout, Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Traumatic Stress, Vicarious Trauma, and Transcrisis 227
Crisis Counseling 232
How Does Crisis Counseling Differ from traDitional Counseling? 232
etHiCal ConsiDerations 232
Risk Assessment: Suicide and Homicide 234
signifiCanCe of tHe ProBlem 234
PrinCiPles of assessment 236
suiCiDe risk assessment 237
CliniCal interview moDality 237
HomiCiDe assessment 238
intimate Partner violenCe 243
CHilD anD elDer aBuse 243
Special Topics in Crisis Intervention and Prevention 244
Community Disasters 244
sCHool system aDaPtions 245
safety ConCerns 247
Summary 248
chapter 8 mental health and rehabilitation counseling
■ Catherine Y. Chang, Amy L. McLeod, and Nadine E. Garner 249
Preview 249
Counseling Career Choices 249
Counseling in Mental Health Settings 250
BaCkgrounD 250
Community/agenCy setting 251
HosPitals 252
CorreCtions 254
Private PraCtiCe 255
marriage anD family Counselors 257
Pastoral Counseling 257
wilDerness tHeraPy 258
Mental Health Counseling Issues 259
DePression 259
anxiety 261
eating DisorDers 262
aDDiCtions 263
Drug anD alCoHol treatment aPProaCHes 264
alCoHol anD Drug use issues in sPeCial PoPulations 266
Rehabilitation Counseling 269
summary of reHaBilitation laws 270
DisaBility eligiBility anD DemograPHiCs 272
aDaPtation to DisaBility 274
reHaBilitation Counseling anD teCHnology 274
voCational reHaBilitation Counseling 275
multiCultural anD soCial JustiCe issues in reHaBilitation
Counseling 276
Summary 278
chapter 9 school, college, and career counseling
■ Nadine E. Garner, Jason Baker, and Molly E. Jones 280 Preview 280
Counseling in the Schools 280
BaCkgrounD 280
elementary Counseling 281
miDDle sCHool/Junior HigH Counseling 282
HigH sCHool Counseling 283
Current issues affeCting all sCHool Counseling settings 283
multiCultural anD soCial JustiCe issues in sCHools 286
College/University Counseling and Student-Life Services 289
BaCkgrounD 289
College anD university Counseling 290
stuDent-life serviCes 293
Counseling College anD university stuDents wHo Have a DisaBility 296
multiCultural anD soCial JustiCe issues in College Counseling anD stuDent-life serviCes 297
Career Counseling Issues 298
maJor tHeories of Career DeveloPment 299
teCHnology use anD Career resourCes 308
soCial JustiCe issues in Career Counseling 309
Summary 310
chapter 10 human development throughout the life span
■ Bradley T. Erford 311
Preview 311
Counseling and Human Development: A life span perspective 311
Infancy and Toddlerhood 314
motor DeveloPment in infanCy anD toDDlerHooD 314
emotional DeveloPment in infanCy anD toDDlerHooD 315
Cognitive/language DeveloPment in infanCy anD toDDlerHooD 315
Early Childhood 316
soCial DeveloPment in early CHilDHooD 316
emotional DeveloPment in early CHilDHooD 316
Cognitive DeveloPment in early CHilDHooD 317
DeveloPmental interventions in early CHilDHooD 318
Middle Childhood 319
soCial DeveloPment in miDDle CHilDHooD 319
emotional DeveloPment in miDDle CHilDHooD 319
Cognitive DeveloPment in miDDle CHilDHooD 320
DeveloPmental interventions in miDDle CHilDHooD 321
Adolescence 321
early aDolesCenCe 321
DeveloPmental interventions in early aDolesCenCe 323 miDaDolesCenCe 324
DeveloPmental interventions in miDaDolesCenCe 325
late aDolesCenCe (emerging aDultHooD) 326
DeveloPmental interventions in late aDolesCenCe (emerging aDultHooD) 327
Early Adulthood 328
tHe worker in early aDultHooD 328
tHe Partner in early aDultHooD 328
tHe Parent in early aDultHooD 329
DeveloPmental interventions in early aDultHooD 329
Middle Adulthood 330
PHysiCal CHanges in miDDle aDultHooD 330
Cognitive CHanges in miDDle aDultHooD 330
key DeveloPmental tasks in miDDle aDultHooD 331
DeveloPmental interventions in miDDle aDultHooD 332
Later Adulthood 332
aCCePting life in later aDultHooD 333
reDireCting energy to new roles anD aCtivities in later aDultHooD 333
PHysiCal CHanges in later aDultHooD 333
Cognitive CHanges in later aDultHooD 334
Dealing witH loss in later aDultHooD 334
DeveloPmental interventions in later aDultHooD 334
Summary 336
chapter 11 multicultural counseling
■ Geneva M. Gray 337
Preview 337
Multiculturally Competent Counseling 337
Key Issues in Multicultural Counseling 340
etiC versus emiC DeBate 340
How muCH of Counseling is multiCultural? 340
assessment anD treatment 341
eviDenCe-BaseD PraCtiCes in multiCultural Counseling 342
Cultural Identity Development and Multicultural Counseling 342
chapter 12 assessment, case conceptualization, diagnosis, and treatment Planning
■ Bradley T. Erford 373
Preview 373
A Comprehensive Approach to Understanding Client Issues and Designing Plans to Help 373
Assessment 374
testing anD tHe Counseling Profession 375
wHy sHoulD Professional Counselors know aBout testing? 376
Categories of tests 376
tyPes of tests 377
qualities to ConsiDer wHen evaluating tests 379
Cultural fairness 381
teCHnology anD testing 381
etHiCal ConsiDerations 381
testing resourCes 382
intake interviews 382
wHat is a mental status examination? 383
wHat are tHe elements of a suiCiDe assessment anD an exPloration of intent to Harm otHers? 384
BeHavioral oBservation 386
environmental assessment 386
DeveloPmental ConsiDerations 387
Case Conceptualization 390
Diagnosis 394
soCial JustiCe Counseling anD assessment, Diagnosis, anD treatment 396
Benefits of Diagnosis 397
DrawBaCks of Diagnosis 398
Treatment Planning 398
treatment Plans 399
ComPreHensive moDels of assessment anD treatment Planning 402
Summary 404
chapter 13 supervision and consultation
■ Mark A. Young and Alan Basham 406
Preview 406
Use of Supervision and Consultation in Counseling 406
Supervision 409
moDels of suPervision 410
suPervision formats 412
suPervision interventions 414
suPervisory relationsHiP 418
Consultation 423
moDels of Consultation 424
Consultant roles 426
Consultation skills 428
Consultation settings 429
Summary 432
chapter 14 advocating for the counseling Profession
■ Amy Milsom 435
Preview 435
Defining Advocacy 435
Brief History of Counselors Advocating for the Profession 436
Current Counseling Advocacy Agendas 437
Why Advocate? 439
Prerequisites to Effective Advocacy 444
Process of Advocacy 446
iDentify tHe ProBlem 447
assess tHe availaBility of resourCes 447
engage in strategiC Planning aCtivities 448 train Professional Counselors to aDvoCate 449
imPlement a Plan of aCtion 450
CeleBrate aCComPlisHments 451
Ways to Advocate 451
iDentifying yourself as a Professional Counselor 451 serve your Community 452
use tHe meDia 454
teCHnology 454
target PoliCy makers 456
Summary 456
chapter 15 advocacy counseling: being an effective agent of change for clients
■ Donna M. Gibson 458
Preview 458
Advocacy Counseling 458
wHen to aDvoCate 459
aDvoCaCy Counseling anD intervention ComPetenCies 461
Counseling anD aDvoCaCy intervention ComPetenCies: Community 469
Counseling anD aDvoCaCy interventions ComPetenCies: PuBliC PoliCy 477
Counseling anD aDvoCaCy intervention ComPetenCies: international anD gloBal affairs 483
Summary 485
sectioN four the effectiveness of counseling 487
chapter 16 accountability in counseling
■ Bradley T. Erford 489
Preview 489
Accountability 489
Using a Counseling Program Advisory Committee 491
Conducting a Needs Assessment 492
Data-Driven neeDs assessment 492
PerCePtions-BaseD neeDs assessment 497
Evaluating Programs 504
serviCe assessment 505
Outcome or Results Evaluation 506
imPortant assessment terms 507
PraCtiCal Program evaluation ConsiDerations 508
aggregateD outComes 508
Designing outCome stuDies 510
single-suBJeCt researCH Design 513
aCtion researCH 516
Reporting Results 516
aCCountaBility anD soCial JustiCe Counseling 518
aCCountaBility anD teCHnology 518
Summary 518
chapter 17 outcome research in counseling
■ Bradley T. Erford 520
Preview 520
How Research Assists Counselors: The Importance of and Barriers to Conducting Outcome Research 520
How Effective is Counseling? 527
faCets of Counseling tHat ContriBute to outComes 528
Which Client and Professional Counselor Factors Contribute to Successful Outcomes? 531
The Effectiveness of Individual Counseling 533
The Effectiveness of Group Counseling 535
ProCess issues in grouP outCome researCH 535
grouP Counseling witH CHilDren 536
The Effectiveness of School-Based Interventions for Children and Adolescents 538
sPeCifiC tyPes of sCHool-BaseD interventions 539
Implications for the Future of Professional Counseling 542
CollaBorate witH researCHers 542
aDvoCate for outCome researCH funDing 544
inCrease knowleDge anD use of outCome literature 544
Putting it all togetHer: working for tHe future 546
Summary 547
References 549
Credits 578
Index 585
about the editor
Bradley T. Erford, PhD, LCPC, NCC, LPC, LP, LSP, is a professor in the school counseling program of the Education Specialties Department in the School of Education at Loyola University Maryland. He was the 61st President of the American Counseling Association (ACA) for 2012-2013. He is the recipient of the ACA Research Award, ACA Extended Research Award, ACA Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished Professional Service Award, ACA Professional Development Award, ACA Thomas J. Sweeney Award for Visionary Leadership and Advocacy, and ACA Carl D. Perkins Government Relations Award. He was also inducted as an ACA Fellow. In addition, he has received the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) AACE/MECD Research Award, AACE Exemplary Practices Award, AACE President’s Merit Award, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision’s (ACES) Robert O. Stripling Award for Excellence in Standards, Maryland Association for Counseling and Development (MACD) Maryland Counselor of the Year, MACD Counselor Advocacy Award, MACD Professional Development Award, and MACD Counselor Visibility Award. He is the editor of numerous texts including: Orientation to the Counseling Profession (Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014, 2018), Crisis Intervention and Prevention (Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014, 2018), Group Work in the Schools (Routledge, 2016), Clinical Experiences in Counseling (Pearson Merrill, 2015), Group Work: Process and Applications (Pearson Merrill, 2011), Transforming the School Counseling Profession (1st through 4th editions; Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015), Professional School Counseling: A Handbook of Principles, Programs and Practices (1st - 3rd editions, pro-ed, 2004, 2010, 2016), Assessment for Counselors (1 st & 2 nd editions, Cengage, 2007, 2012), Research and Evaluation in Counseling (1 st & 2nd editions, Cengage, 2008, 2015), and The Counselor’s Guide to Clinical, Personality and Behavioral Assessment (Cengage, 2006); and co-author of eight more books: Mastering the NCE and CPCE (Pearson Merrill, 2011, 2015), 35 Techniques Every Counselor Should Know (Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 1st & 2nd editions, 2010, 2015), Free Access Assessment Instruments for Common Mental Health and Addiction Issues (Routledge, 2013), Educational Applications of the WISC-IV (Western Psychological Services, 2006) and Group Activities: Firing Up for Performance (Pearson Merrill, 2007). He is also the General Editor of The American Counseling Association Encyclopedia of Counseling (ACA, 2009). His research specialization falls primarily in development and technical analysis of psycho-educational tests and has resulted in the publication of more than 70 refereed journal articles, 100 book chapters, and a dozen published tests. He was a representative to the ACA Governing Council and the ACA 20/20 Committee: A Vision for the Future of Counseling. He is a past president and past treasurer of AACE, past chair and parliamentarian of the American Counseling Association - Southern (US) Region; past-chair of ACA’s Task Force on High Stakes Testing; past chair of ACA’s Standards for Test Users Task Force; past chair of ACA’s Interprofessional Committee; past chair of the ACA Public Awareness and Support Committee; chair of the Convention and past chair of the Screening Assessment Instruments Committees for AACE; past president of the Maryland Association for Counseling and Development (MACD); past president of Maryland Association for Measurement and Evaluation (MAME); past president of Maryland Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (MACES); and past president of the Maryland Association for Mental Health Counselors (MAMHC). He is a senior associate editor and past associate
editor for quantitative research for the Journal of Counseling & Development. Dr. Erford has been a faculty member at Loyola since 1993 and is a Licensed Clinical Professional Counselor, Licensed Professional Counselor, Nationally Certified Counselor, Licensed Psychologist and Licensed School Psychologist. Prior to arriving at Loyola, he was a school psychologist/counselor in the Chesterfield County (VA) Public Schools. He maintains a private practice specializing in assessment and treatment of children and adolescents. A graduate of The University of Virginia (Ph.D.), Bucknell University (M.A.), and Grove City College (B.S.), he teaches courses in counseling assessment, lifespan development, research and evaluation in counseling, school counseling, and stress management (not that he needs it).
about the authors
Jason Baker, PhD, LPC, is an associate professor and program coordinator of the master’s program in school counseling in the Department of Psychology at Millersville University. He received his doctorate in counselor education and supervision from Regent University. His areas of research interest include rural school counseling, technology in counseling and counselor education, and sustainability efforts and issues in K-12 and higher education settings.
Gerta Bardhoshi PhD, CSC, LPC, is an assistant professor in the counselor education and supervision program in the Department of Rehabilitation and Counselor Education at the University of Iowa. She received her doctorate in counselor education and supervision from the George Washington University. Her areas of research pertain to counselor burnout, school counselor self-efficacy, and program development and evaluation.
Alan Basham, MA, is a retired counselor educator at Eastern Washington University, where he taught in CACREP-accredited school counseling and mental health counseling programs. He is past president of the Washington Counseling Association and the Association for Spiritual, Ethical and Religious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC), a division of the ACA. Alan has written chapters in several texts, co-authored a volume on leadership ethics and teamwork, drafted the ACA’s Code of Leadership, and contributed to the ACA’s position papers on High Stakes Testing and Test User Qualifications. He is especially interested in integrating spirituality into the counseling process, in applying Native American perspectives, and in creating support systems on university campuses for military veterans and their families as they adjust to college and civilian life.
Catherine Y. Chang, PhD, is an associate professor and program coordinator of the counselor education and practice doctoral program in the Department of Counseling and Psychological Services at Georgia State University. She received her doctorate in counselor education from The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her areas of research interest include multicultural counseling and supervision, professional and social advocacy in counseling, Asian and Korean concerns, and multicultural issues in assessment.
Joseph B. Cooper, PhD, LPC, NCC is an assistant professor in the department of counseling at Marymount University in Arlington, Virginia. He received his doctorate in counselor education from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, and has over 16 years of experience providing individual, family, and group substance abuse and mental health counseling services in the agency, school, and private practice settings. His current research interests include attachment theory, intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy, and neurophysiology. He maintains a private practice in Washington, DC, and is a guest faculty member for the intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy program at the Washington School of Psychiatry.
Charlotte Daughhetee, PhD, is a professor of counseling at the University of Montevallo and serves as the Chair of the Counseling, Family Consumer Sciences, & Kinesiology Department. She received her B.S in Early Childhood Education from Indiana University in 1980, her M.Ed. in Counseling from the University of South Carolina in 1988 and her Ph.D. in Counselor Education from the University of South Carolina in 1992. She is a Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC), Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist (LMFT) and a National Certified Counselor (NCC) with over 27 years of clinical counseling
experience. She has worked in K12, university, and private practice settings with clients of all ages. Her research interests include counselor trainee evaluation and crisis intervention.
Grafton T. Eliason, EdD, LPC, NCC, is a professor in the Department of Counselor Education at California University of Pennsylvania. He has published on the topics of career counseling, death, dying, and spirituality, and has a special interest in existential philosophy and religion. He received his doctorate in counselor education and supervision from Duquesne University, and he is an ordained Presbyterian minister.
Nadine E. Garner, EdD, LPC, is an associate professor in the Psychology Department and graduate program coordinator of the School Counseling program at Millersville University of Pennsylvania. She is co-author of A School with Solutions: Implementing a Solutionfocused/Adlerian-based Comprehensive School Counseling Program . Dr. Garner provides training in solution-focused counseling to counselors and educators both nationally and abroad. She also consults with school districts that seek to implement a solution-focused approach into their comprehensive developmental counseling curriculum. As a former K–12 professional school counselor at Scotland School for Veterans’ Children, Dr. Garner developed a comprehensive conflict resolution/peer mediation program.
Donna M. Gibson, PhD, LPC, NCC, completed her doctorate in counseling and counselor education at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and is an associate professor in the counselor education programs at the University of South Carolina. She has served as Member-at-Large for Membership and President of AACE. Her research interests include pedagogical issues in teaching assessment, K–12 career assessment, leadership in school counseling and counselor education, professional identity development in counseling and counselor education, and relational/cultural theory.
Geneva M. Gray, PhD, LPC, is an assistant professor at Argosy University–Atlanta Campus. She received her doctoral degree in Counselor Education and Practice from Georgia State University in 2007. She is a licensed professional counselor in Georgia and provides clinical services for children, adolescents, and families. She has completed research in the areas of addictions, LGBT issues in counseling, and multiculturalism. In addition, Dr. Gray served as past president and past-secretary of the International Association for Addiction and Offender Counselors (IAAOC).
Judith Harrington, PhD, LPC, LMFT, is an assistant professor at the University of Montevallo, AL, and also in full time private practice for 30 years in Birmingham, AL, providing counseling and consultation to individual, couples & families, groups and agencies. She is an approved trainer for assessing and managing suicidal risk curriculum for mental health professionals on behalf of the Suicide Prevention Resource Center at SAMHSA and the American Association of Suicidology. Since 2008, she has instructed the graduate counselor education curriculum on suicide for the University of Alabama at Birmingham and the University of Montevallo. She served for five years on the Standards, Training, and Practices Committee for the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at SAMHSA. She has served the suicidally bereaved community by facilitating the SOS Bereavement Group for 14 years, and was the first- and twice-elected president of the nonprofit Alabama Suicide Prevention and Resources Coalition (ASPARC). Her state and ASPARC was awarded a three year Garrett Lee Smith Youth Suicide Prevention grant for which, among its many initiatives, she developed the Comprehensive Suicide Prevention Resource Directory for mental health professionals and concerned citizens, found at www.legacy.montevallo.edu.
Molly E. Jones is a graduate student in the School Counseling M.Ed. and certification programs at Millersville University of PA and the graduate assistant for the School
Counseling program and the Center for Sustainability. She holds an undergraduate degree in Psychology from Elizabethtown College
Lynn E. Linde, EdD, is the Senior Director of Professional Affairs at the American Counseling Association. She formerly was the Coordinator of Clinical Experiences in the school counseling program at Loyola University Maryland. She received her doctorate in counseling from The George Washington University. She is a former Branch Chief for Pupil Services at the Maryland State Department of Education. She was the 2009–2010 President of the American Counseling Association and 2012–2103 Treasurer. She was the Southern Region representative to the ACA Governing Council, Past Chair of the ACA–Southern Region, and Past President of the Maryland Association for Counseling and Development, and has served on numerous committees and task forces, including the 2014 ACA Ethics Revision Task Force. She is an ACA Fellow, a recipient of the Carl Perkins Award, and a number of awards from ACA, its entities, and from the State of Maryland.
Amy L. McLeod, PhD, LPC, NCC, is an assistant professor and co-director of training in the Counseling Department at Argosy University–Atlanta. Her research interests include multicultural issues in counselor education and supervision, assessment and diagnosis, women’s issues, and crisis and trauma counseling.
Amy Milsom, DEd, NCC, LPC-S, is an associate professor at Clemson University. She earned her doctorate from Pennsylvania State University and is a former middle and high school counselor. Her primary research interests are in the areas of students with disabilities, postsecondary transitions and college readiness, and school counselor preparation.
Donna S. Sheperis, earned her PhD in counselor education from the University of Mississippi. A core faculty member in the mental health counseling program of Lamar University, Dr. Sheperis is a licensed professional counselor, national certified counselor, and approved clinical supervisor with more than 20 years of experience in community counseling and private practice settings. Her primary areas of interest include counselor development, ethics, and supervision.
Ann Vernon, PhD, NCC, LMHC, is professor emeritus and former coordinator of counseling at the University of Northern Iowa; she is also a counselor in private practice, where she works extensively with children, adolescents, and their parents. Dr. Vernon is the former director of the Midwest Center for REBT and vice president of the Albert Ellis Board of Trustees. She is the author of numerous texts, chapters, and articles, including Thinking, Feeling, Behaving and What Works When with Children and Adolescents.
Joshua C. Watson, PhD, LPC, NCC, ACS, completed his doctoral study at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and is an associate professor in the counselor education program at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi, with primary teaching responsibilities in assessment and educational statistics courses. His research interests include counseling student-athletes, wellness, and counselor-training issues. He is a past president of the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) and ACA Governing Council representative.
Mark A. Young, PhD, LMHC, NCC, completed his doctorate at Idaho State University and is currently an assistant professor and director of the marriage and family counseling program at Gonzaga University. His teaching and research interests are in couples and family counseling, supervision, and professional development.
Foundations of Professional Counselor Identity
Section One, “Foundations of Professional Counselor Identity,” provides an in-depth look at the foundational issues in counseling, covering historical and future issues, professional identity, associations, credentialing, and legal and ethical dimensions of practice. Chapter 1, “Becoming a Professional Counselor: Philosophical, Historical, and Future Considerations,” explores the definition and philosophical underpinnings of the terms counseling and professional counselor. Key to this understanding is the development of a firm foundation in the knowledge of the numerous historical events and key people that gave rise to the counseling profession. Important issues facing counselors as the profession moves into the future are identified and discussed, including outcomes-based research, managed care, multiculturalism, social justice counseling and advocacy, technology, and gatekeeping. Finally, wellness practices within the counseling profession are given a special focus.
In Chapter 2, “Professional Counseling Organizations, Licensure, Certification, and Accreditation,” students are introduced to the American Counseling Association (ACA) and its divisions, branches, and professional partners so that students can become familiar with the wide array of professional associations advocating for counselors and clients. This chapter offers a glimpse of the many credentials that professional counselors can earn. An overview of state licensure, national certification, and counselor education program accreditation processes (i.e., CACREP and CORE) is provided to answer student questions early and to make students aware of the choices that exist for future professional credentialing. Various accountability mechanisms found at the state level for educational systems and mental health agencies are also reviewed.
Section One ends with Chapter 3, “Ethical and Legal Issues in Counseling.” The chapter is a comprehensive introduction to ethical and legal issues in counseling practice, covering new editions of the ACA and ASCA ethical codes, confidentiality, privilege, subpoenas, malpractice, records and personal notes, child abuse, suicide, HIPAA, FERPA, minor consent, and ethical decision making. A professional counselor must always remember that how one conducts oneself personally and professionally reflects not only on oneself, but also on one’s colleagues.
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Becoming a Professional Counselor
Philosophical, Historical, and Future Considerations
Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
Preview
This initial chapter explores the definition and philosophical underpinnings of the terms counseling and professional counselor. Development of a firm foundation in the numerous historical events and key individuals who gave rise to the counseling profession is vital to understanding it. Important issues facing professional counselors as the profession moves into the future are identified and discussed, including outcome-based research, licensure portability, managed care, multiculturalism, social justice, technology, and gatekeeping. Finally, a section on counselor wellness addresses important self-care practices for optimizing personal and professional functioning.
Counseling and Professional Counselors: where we are
A thorough understanding of the counseling profession’s origin and historical progression provides a framework within which the counseling student can increase his or her identification with the profession, gain a sense of pride in the profession, develop an identity as a professional counselor, understand where that identity fits within the professional circles, and be armed with knowledge necessary to advocate for the profession. Perhaps even more important, this understanding ensures the next generation of professional counselors will continue to move forward, not mistaking innovation for history; will anticipate how events will impact the profession; and will be likely to make important contributions to the profession.
In the 1990s, authors (e.g., Gladding, 1996; Heppner et al., 1995) warned that the field of counseling could cease as a specialty or become obsolete if specialization and preparedness did not advance in step with society’s needs. Understanding the history of counseling along with its current status seems an appropriate and necessary place to begin, and no better way exists to gain such awareness than first to understand where they came from and how they arrived at this place. A profession without a known history lacks direction and trajectory, and for this reason, counseling students and new professionals must gain a complete understanding of the profession they have chosen. This chapter discusses what counseling is today, the philosophy underlying counseling, the history of the profession, current trends within the field, and the importance of wellness and counselor self-care.
Before delving into the past, a look at the counseling profession’s current status, meaning, and philosophy is warranted. While the practice of offering counsel has probably always occurred in some fashion in human society, counseling as a distinct helping profession is relatively new when compared to other mental health disciplines. In addition, the general public, as well as professional counselors, is often perplexed by and has difficulty ascertaining the true meaning, purpose, and intention of what counseling is, what it is not, and how it differs from other closely related helping professions.
The meaning of counseling can be ambiguous for several reasons. First, the word counseling has been used broadly to refer to everything from financial consultants and lawyers to home designers and wedding planners. Second, the word has carried different connotations over the years, even within the counseling profession. Finally, the word counseling describes many different activities a counselor actually does (e.g., educate, coordinate, advocate, assess). For the sake of clarity, counseling is defined as specific, specialized, and distinguishable from other mental health disciplines by its philosophy, its evolution, and its focus.
About a half century ago, the purpose of a counselor was said “to facilitate wise choices and decisions” or “to promote adjustment or mental health” (Tyler, 1969, p. 10). Clearly, two agendas were represented. This is because counseling largely evolved from the guidance movement and actively differentiated itself from psychotherapy. Historically, guidance referred to guiding or helping others make choices about vocation, lifestyle, or education. In contrast, psychotherapy assumed a medical model, meaning the person receiving help was somehow ill. The goal of psychotherapy was to alleviate the sickness, with the therapist as expert using information about the client’s past to provide insight into thoughts previously kept out of awareness. As can be seen even in this brief discussion, guidance and psychotherapy were concerned with very different things (pro-developmental and remedial, respectively), though they had much in common as well. From these two agendas, modern counseling evolved, its roots grounded in both foundations while its boughs reached into new therapeutic directions. Table 1.1 provides some distinctions between the modern conceptions of counseling and psychotherapy.
The Association for Specialists in Group Work (2007) provides a helpful differentiation between definitions of counseling and psychotherapy in the group work context that carries over nicely to work with individual clients and families. Psychotherapy involves an in-depth, long-term commitment (i.e., 12–50+ sessions) requiring advanced therapeutic training and expertise and addressing serious, long-term, and enduring conditions, such
Long-term (up to 2 years)Short-term (less than 6 months)
Medical model
Alleviate symptoms
Past is most important
Goal of insight
Therapist as expert
Wellness model
Improve quality of life
Focus on the here and now
Goal of change
Counselor as collaborator
TABLE 1.1 Historical Distinctions Between Counseling and Psychotherapy
