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BiorefineryofInorganics

WileySeries in RenewableResources

SeriesEditor:

ChristianV.Stevens,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Belgium

TitlesintheSeries:

WoodModification:Chemical,ThermalandOtherProcesses

CallumA.S.Hill

Renewables-BasedTechnology:SustainabilityAssessment

JoDewulf,HermanVanLangenhove

Biofuels

WimSoetaert,ErikVandamme

HandbookofNaturalColorants

ThomasBechtold,RitaMussak

SurfactantsfromRenewableResources

MikaelKjellin,IngegärdJohansson

IndustrialApplicationsofNaturalFibres:Structure,PropertiesandTechnicalApplications JörgMüssig

ThermochemicalProcessingofBiomass:ConversionintoFuels,ChemicalsandPower

RobertC.Brown

BiorefineryCo-Products:Phytochemicals,PrimaryMetabolitesandValue-AddedBiomass Processing

ChantalBergeron,DanielleJulieCarrier,ShriRamaswamy

AqueousPretreatmentofPlantBiomassforBiologicalandChemicalConversiontoFuelsand Chemicals

CharlesE.Wyman

Bio-BasedPlastics:MaterialsandApplications

StephanKabasci

IntroductiontoWoodandNaturalFiberComposites

DouglasD.Stokke,QinglinWu,GuangpingHan

CellulosicEnergyCroppingSystems

DouglasL.Karlen

IntroductiontoChemicalsfromBiomass,2ndEdition

JamesH.Clark,FabienDeswarte

LigninandLignansasRenewableRawMaterials:Chemistry,TechnologyandApplications FranciscoG.Calvo-Flores,JoseA.Dobado,JoaquínIsac-García,FranciscoJ.Martin-Martínez

SustainabilityAssessmentofRenewables-BasedProducts:MethodsandCaseStudies JoDewulf,StevenDeMeester,RodrigoA.F.Alvarenga

CelluloseNanocrystals:Properties,ProductionandApplications

WadoodHamad

Fuels,ChemicalsandMaterialsfromtheOceansandAquaticSources

FrancescaM.Kerton,NingYan

Bio-BasedSolvents

FrançoisJérômeandRafaelLuque

NanoporousCatalystsforBiomassConversion Feng-ShouXiaoandLiangWang

ThermochemicalProcessingofBiomass:ConversionintoFuels,ChemicalsandPower,2nd Edition

RobertC.Brown

ChitinandChitosan:PropertiesandApplications

LambertusA.M.vandenBroekandCarmenG.Boeriu

TheChemicalBiologyofPlantBiostimulants

DannyGeelen,LinXu

ForthcomingTitles:

WasteValorization:WasteStreamsinaCircularEconomy

SzeKiLin,ChongLi,GuneetKaur,XiaofengYang

ProcessSystemsEngineeringforBiofuelsDevelopment

AdriánBonilla-Petriciolet,GadePanduRangaiah

BiobasedPackaging:Material,EnvironmentalandEconomicAspects MohdSapuanSalit,RushdanAhmadIlyas

Biorefineryof Inorganics

Editedby

ERIKMEERS

DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,GhentUniversity,Belgium

GERARDVELTHOF

WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,TheNetherlands

EVIMICHELS

DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,GhentUniversity,Belgium

RENÉRIETRA

WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,TheNetherlands

Thiseditionfirstpublished2020

©2020JohnWiley&SonsLtd

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TherightofErikMeers,GerardVelthof,EviMichelsandRenéRietratobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthe editorialmaterialinthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewithlaw

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Names:Meers,Erik,1976-editor.|Velthof,Gerard,1964-editor.|Michels,Evi,1980-editor.|Rietra, Rene,1967-editor.

Title:Biorefineryofinorganics:recoveringmineralnutrientsfrom biomassandorganicwaste/editedbyErikMeers,FacultyofBioscience Engineer,LaboratoryofAnalyticalChem,GerardVelthof,EviMichels,ReneRietra, WageningenUniversity.

Description:Firstedition.|Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,[2020] |Series:Wileyseriesinrenewableresources|Includesbibliographical referencesandindex.

Identifiers:LCCN2020005302(print)|LCCN2020005303(ebook)|ISBN 9781118921456(hardback)|ISBN9781118921463(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781118921470(epub)

Subjects:LCSH:Sewage–Purification–Nutrientremoval.|Factoryandtrade waste–Purification.|Nutrientpollutionofwater

Classification:LCCTD758.5.N58.B562020(print)|LCCTD758.5.N58 (ebook)|DDC631.8/69–dc23

LCrecordavailableat https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005302

LCebookrecordavailableat https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005303

CoverDesign:Wiley

CoverImage:©NataschaKaukorat/Shutterstock,Educationglobe©IngramPublishing/AlamyStockPhoto Setin10/12ptTimesLTStdbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India

PrintedandboundbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY 10987654321

SectionIGlobalNutrientFlowsandCyclinginFoodSystems1

1GlobalNutrientFlowsandCyclinginFoodSystems3 QianLiu,JingmengWang,YongHou,KimovanDijk,WeiQin,JanPeter Lesschen,GerardVelthof,andOeneOenema

1.1Introduction3

1.2PrimaryandSecondaryDrivingForcesofNutrientCycling4 1.3AnthropogenicInfluencesonNutrientCycling6 1.4TheGlobalNitrogenCycle7

1.5TheGlobalPhosphorusCycle9

1.6ChangesinFertilizerUseDuringtheLast50Years12

1.7ChangesinHarvestedCropProductsandinCropResiduesDuring theLast50Years14

1.8ChangesintheAmountsofNandPinAnimalProductsand Manures15

1.9ChangesintheTradeofFoodandFeed16

1.10ChangesinNutrientBalances16

1.11GeneralDiscussion17 References20

SectionIITheRoleofPolicyFrameworksintheTransition TowardNutrientRecycling23

2.1TowardaFrameworkthatStimulatesMineralRecoveryinEurope25 NicolasDeLaVegaandGregoryReuland

2.1.1TheImportanceofManagingOrganicResidues25

2.1.2TheRiseofNutrientandCarbonRecycling26

2.1.3TheEuropeanFrameworkforNutrientRecoveryandReuse(NRR)27

2.1.4EUWasteLegislation27

2.1.5MovingfromWastetoProductLegislationandtheInterplaywith OtherEULegislation29

2.1.6ComplyingwithExistingEnvironmentalandHealth&Safety Legislation30

2.1.7Conclusion32 References32

2.2LivestockNutrientManagementPolicyFrameworkintheUnitedStates33 GeorgineYorgeyandChadKruger

2.2.1Introduction33

2.2.2TheLegal-RegulatoryFrameworkforManureNutrient Management34

2.2.3CurrentManure-ManagementPractices35

2.2.4PublicInvestmentsforImprovementofManure-Management Practices36

2.2.5TheRoleoftheJudicialProcessandConsumer-DrivenPreferences37

2.2.6LimitationsoftheCurrentFramework38

2.2.7Conclusion39 References40

2.3BiomassNutrientManagementinChina:TheImpactofRapidGrowth andEnergyDemand43 PaulThiers

2.3.1Introduction43

2.3.2TheImpactofEconomicLiberalizationPolicyinthe1980sand 1990s43

2.3.3EnvironmentalProtectionEffortsandUnintendedConsequences44

2.3.4RenewableEnergyPolicyandItsImpactonBiomassManagement46 2.3.5Conclusion49 References50

2.4NutrientCyclinginAgricultureinChina53 LinMa,YongHou,andZhaohaiBai

2.4.1Introduction53

2.4.2NutrientCyclinginChina54

2.4.3EffectsontheEnvironment55

2.4.4NutrientManagementPolicies57

2.4.5FuturePerspectives59

2.4.5.1NationalNutrientManagementStrategy59

2.4.5.2ChallengesofTechnologyTransferinManureManagement59

2.4.5.3EnvironmentalProtection60

2.4.6Conclusion61 References63

SectionIIIStateoftheArtandEmergingTechnologiesin NutrientRecoveryfromOrganicResidues65

3.1ManureasaResourceforEnergyandNutrients67

IvonaSigurnjak,ReinhartVanPoucke,CélineVaneeckhaute,EviMichels, andErikMeers

3.1.1Introduction67

3.1.2EnergyProductionfromAnimalManure68

3.1.2.1AnaerobicDigestion71

3.1.2.2ThermochemicalConversionProcess73

3.1.3NutrientRecoveryTechniques76

3.1.3.1PhosphorusPrecipitation77

3.1.3.2AmmoniaStrippingandScrubbing77

3.1.3.3MembraneFiltration78

3.1.3.4PhosphorusExtractionfromAshes79

3.1.4Conclusion79 References79

3.2MunicipalWastewaterasaSourceforPhosphorus83

AleksandraBogdan,AnaAlejandraRoblesAguilar,EviMichels, andErikMeers

3.2.1Introduction83

3.2.2PhosphorusRemovalfromWastewater84

3.2.3SludgeManagement84

3.2.4CurrentStateofPRecoveryTechnologies85

3.2.4.1PhosphorusSaltsPrecipitation85

3.2.4.2PhosphorusRecoveryViaWet-ChemicalProcesses87

3.2.4.3PhosphorusRecoveryViaThermalProcesses88

3.2.4.4ChoiceofPhosphorusTechnologiesToday89

3.2.5FuturePRecoveryTechnologies90

3.2.5.1PhosphorusSaltRecoveryUpgrades90

3.2.5.2ThermalProcesses91

3.2.5.3NaturalProcessfortheRecoveryofPhosphorus91

3.2.6Conclusion92 References92

3.3AmmoniaStrippingandScrubbingforMineralNitrogenRecovery95 ClaudioBrienza,IvonaSigurnjak,EviMichels,andErikMeers

3.3.1Introduction95

3.3.2AmmoniaStrippingandScrubbingfromBiobasedResources96

3.3.2.1AcidScrubbingofExhaustAir97

3.3.2.2StrippingandScrubbingfromManure97

3.3.2.3StrippingandScrubbingfromAnaerobicDigestate97

3.3.2.4ManureandDigestateProcessingbyEvaporation98

3.3.3AlternativeScrubbingAgents98

3.3.3.1OrganicAcids98

3.3.3.2NitricAcid98

3.3.3.3Gypsum99

3.3.4IndustrialCasesofStrippingandScrubbing99

3.3.4.1WasteAirCleaningViaAcidScrubbing99

3.3.4.2RawDigestateProcessingViaStrippingandScrubbingand RecirculationoftheN-DepletedDigestate99

3.3.4.3LiquidFractionDigestateProcessingViaStrippingand Scrubbing100

3.3.4.4LiquidFractionofDigestateProcessingViaMembrane SeparationandStrippingandScrubbing100

3.3.5ProductQualityofAmmoniumSulfateandAmmoniumNitrate100

3.3.5.1AmmoniumSulfate101

3.3.5.2AmmoniumNitrate102

3.3.6Conclusion102 References103

SectionIVInspiringCasesinNutrientRecoveryProcesses107

4.1StruviteRecoveryfromDomesticWastewater109 AdrienMarchi,SamGeerts,BartSaerens,MarjoleineWeemaes, LiesDeClercq,andErikMeers

4.1.1Introduction109

4.1.2ProcessDescription110

4.1.3AnalysesandTests111

4.1.3.1MassBalance111

4.1.3.2StruvitePurity112

4.1.4OperationalBenefits114

4.1.4.1EnhancedDewaterability114

4.1.4.2EnhancedRecoveryPotential115

4.1.4.3ReducedScaling115

4.1.4.4ReducedPhosphorusContentintheSludgePellets116

4.1.4.5ReducedPandNLoadintheRejectionWater116

4.1.5EconomicEvaluation116

4.1.6FutureChallenges117

4.1.6.1In-DepthQualityScreening117

4.1.6.2ImprovedCrystalSeparation117

4.1.7Conclusion118 References118

4.2MineralConcentratesfromMembraneFiltration121 PaulHoeksmaandFridtjofdeBuisonjé

4.2.1Introduction121

4.2.2ProductionofMineralConcentrates121

4.2.2.1GeneralSet-up121

4.2.2.2Solid/LiquidSeparation122

4.2.2.3Pre-treatmentoftheLiquidFraction(Effluentfrom MechanicalSeparation)123

4.2.2.4ReverseOsmosis123

4.2.2.4.1Full-ScalePilotProductionPlants124

4.2.3MassBalance124

4.2.4CompositionofRawSlurry,SolidFraction,andRO-Concentrate125

4.2.4.1RawSlurry125

4.2.4.2SolidFraction128

4.2.4.3RO-Concentrate128

4.2.4.3.1NutrientsandMinerals128

4.2.4.3.2SecondaryNutrientsandTraceElements129

4.2.4.3.3InorganicMicrocontaminants129

4.2.4.3.4OrganicMicrocontaminants129

4.2.4.3.5VolatileFattyAcids129

4.2.5QualityRequirements129

4.2.6Conclusion130 References130

4.3PyrolysisofAgro-Digestate:NutrientDistribution133 EvertLeijenhorst

4.3.1Introduction133

4.3.1.1Background133

4.3.1.2ThePyrolysisProcess133

4.3.1.3PyrolysisofAgro-Digestate134

4.3.2Investigation135

4.3.2.1MaterialsandMethods135

4.3.2.2ProductAnalysisandEvaluation136

4.3.3ResultsandDiscussion138

4.3.3.1FastPyrolysis:InfluenceofTemperature138

4.3.3.1.1ProductDistribution138

4.3.3.1.2NutrientRecovery138

4.3.3.1.3ProductComposition142

4.3.3.2InfluenceofHeatingRate143

4.3.3.2.1ProductDistribution143

4.3.3.2.2NutrientRecovery143

4.3.4Conclusion143 Acknowledgment145 References146

4.4AgronomicEffectivityofHydratedPoultryLitterAsh147 PhillipEhlert

4.4.1Introduction147

4.4.2EnergyProductionProcess147

4.4.3CompositionofHPLA149

4.4.4AgronomicEffectivityofHPLA149

4.4.5Phosphorus152

4.4.6Potassium154

4.4.7RyeGrass155

4.4.8Acid-NeutralizingValue157

4.4.9Efficacy157

4.4.10Conclusion158 References159

4.5BioregenerativeNutrientRecoveryfromHumanUrine:Closingthe LoopinTurningWasteintoWealth161 JayantaKumarBiswas,SukantaRana,andErikMeers

4.5.1Introduction161

4.5.2CompositionandFertilizerPotential162

4.5.3StateoftheArtofRegenerativePractices162

4.5.3.1HUinAgriculture162

4.5.3.2HUinAquaculture164

4.5.4Cautions,Concerns,andConstraints168

4.5.5Conclusion171 References172

4.6Pilot-ScaleInvestigationsonPhosphorusRecoveryfromMunicipal Wastewater177

Marie-EdithPloteau,DanielKlein,JohanteMarvelde,LucSijstermans, AndersNättorp,Marie-LineDaumer,HervéPaillard,CédricMébarki, AniaEscudero,OlePahl,Karl-GeorgSchmelz,andFrankZepke

4.6.1Introduction177

4.6.2EuropeanandNationalIncentivestoActonMarketDrivers178

4.6.3PilotInvestigations179

4.6.3.1AcidLeachingSolutionstoRecoverPhosphorusfrom SewageSludgeAshes179

4.6.3.2PilotDemonstrationofThermalSolutionstoRecover PhosphorusfromSewageSludge:TheEuPhoRe® Process180

4.6.3.3Demonstrationofstruvitesolutionwithbiological acidificationtoincreasethePrecoveryfromsewagesludge182

4.6.3.4InnovativeTechnicalSolutionstoRecoverPfrom Small-ScaleWWTPs:DownscalingStruvitePrecipitation forRuralAreas182

4.6.3.5Algal-BasedSolutionstoRecoverPhosphorusfrom Small-ScaleWWTPs:APromisingApproachforRemote, Rural,andIslandAreas184 References186

SectionVAgriculturalandEnvironmentalPerformanceof BiobasedFertilizerSubstitutes:OverviewofFieldAssessments189

5.1FertilizerReplacementValue:LinkingOrganicResiduestoMineral Fertilizers191

RenéSchils,JaapSchröder,andGerardVelthof

5.1.1Introduction191

5.1.2NutrientPathwaysfromLandApplicationtoCropUptake192

5.1.2.1Nitrogen195

5.1.2.2Phosphorus197

5.1.3FertilizerReplacementValue198

5.1.3.1CropResponse202

5.1.3.2ResponsePeriod202

5.1.4ReferenceMineralFertilizer202

5.1.4.1CropandSoilType202

5.1.4.2ApplicationTimeandMethod202

5.1.4.3AssessmentMethod203

5.1.5FertilizerReplacementValuesinFertilizerPlans204

5.1.6Conclusion205 References212

5.2AnaerobicDigestionandRenewableFertilizers:CaseStudiesin NorthernItaly215

FabrizioAdani,GiulianaD’Imporzano,FulviaTambone, CarloRiva,GabrieleBoccasile,andValentinaOrzi

5.2.1Introduction215

5.2.2AnaerobicDigestionasaTooltoCorrectlyManageAnimalSlurries216

5.2.3ChemicalandPhysicalModificationofOrganicMatterand NutrientsduringAnaerobicDigestion218

5.2.4FromDigestatetoRenewableFertilizers220

5.2.4.1N-FertilizerfromtheLFofDigestate220

5.2.4.2OrganicFertilizerfromtheSFofDigestate223

5.2.5EnvironmentalSafetyandHealthProtectionUsingDigestate224

5.2.6Conclusion227 References227

5.3NutrientsandPlantHormonesinAnaerobicDigestates: CharacterizationandLandApplication231 ShubiaoWuandRenjieDong

5.3.1Introduction231

5.3.2NutrientCharacterizationinAnaerobicDigestedSlurry233

5.3.2.1N,P,andKContents233

5.3.2.2BioactiveSubstances236

5.3.3UseofDigestatesasFertilizersforPlantGrowth237

5.3.4EffectofDigestateonSeedGermination238

5.3.5PositiveEffectsofDigestatesonSoil238

5.3.5.1EffectsonNutrientProperties238

5.3.5.2EffectsonMicrobialActivity239

5.3.5.3PotentialNegativeEffects240

5.3.6Conclusion243 References243

5.4EnhancingNutrientUseandRecoveryfromSewageSludgetoMeet CropRequirements247 RubenSakrabani

5.4.1TrendsinSewageSludgeManagementinAgriculture247

5.4.2OrganomineralFertilizerUseinCaseStudies249

5.4.3CaseStudy1:FieldTrialUsingOMF(Broxton)250

5.4.4CaseStudy2:FieldTrialUsingOMF(Silsoe)252

5.4.5Conclusion255 Acknowledgments255 References255

5.5ApplicationofMineralConcentratesfromProcessedManure259 GerardVelthof,PhillipEhlert,JaapSchröder,JantinevanMiddelkoop,Wim vanGeel,andGerardHolshof

5.5.1Introduction259

5.5.2ProductCharacterization260

5.5.3AgronomicResponse261

5.5.3.1PotExperiments261

5.5.3.2FieldExperiments262

5.5.4RiskofNitrogenLosses263

5.5.4.1AmmoniaEmission263

5.5.4.2NitrousOxideEmission264

5.5.4.3NitrateLeaching266

5.5.5Conclusion267 References267

5.6LiquidFractionofDigestateandAirScrubberWaterasSourcesfor MineralN271 IvonaSigurnjak,EviMichels,andErikMeers

5.6.1Introduction271

5.6.2MaterialsandMethods272

5.6.2.1ExperimentalDesign272

5.6.2.2FertilizerSampling274

5.6.2.3PlantandSoilSampling275

5.6.2.4StatisticalAnalysis275

5.6.2.5NitrogenUseEfficiency276

5.6.3ImpactofFertilizationStrategiesonCropProduction276

5.6.4ImpactofFertilizationStrategiesonSoilProperties279

5.6.5AdjustedNitrogenUseEfficiency279

5.6.6Conclusion281 References281

5.7EffectsofBiocharProducedfromWasteonSoilQuality283 KorZwart

5.7.1Introduction283

5.7.2BiocharProductionandProperties284

5.7.2.1Pyrolysis284

5.7.2.2BiocharFeedstock285

5.7.2.3BiocharComposition286

5.7.2.4BiocharStructure287

5.7.2.5FunctionalGroups288

5.7.3EffectofBiocharonSoilFertility288

5.7.3.1FactorsDeterminingSoilFertility288

5.7.3.2EffectsofBiocharonSoilFertilityFactors289

5.7.3.2.1SoilTextureandStructure289

5.7.3.2.2SoilOrganicMatter290

5.7.3.2.3WaterAvailability291

5.7.3.2.4NutrientAvailability291

5.7.3.2.5CationExchangeCapacity292

5.7.3.3BiocharasaFertilizerorSoilConditioner293

5.7.4TrendsinBiocharResearch294 References295

5.8AgronomicEffectofCombinedApplicationofBiocharandNitrogen Fertilizer:AFieldTrial301 WeiZhengandBrajendraK.Sharma

5.8.1Introduction301

5.8.2MaterialsandMethods303

5.8.2.1Biochars303

5.8.2.2SoilandSiteDescription303

5.8.2.3FieldExperimentalDesign303

5.8.2.4MeasurementsandAnalyses304

5.8.3ResultsandDiscussion305

5.8.3.1EffectofBiocharApplicationonAgronomicYields305

5.8.3.2EffectofBiocharasaSoilAmendmentonSoilQuality306 Acknowledgments308 References308

SectionVIEconomicsofBiobasedProductsandTheirMineral Counterparts311

6.1EconomicsofBiobasedProductsandTheirMineralCounterparts313 JeroenBuysseandJuanTurCardona

6.1.1Introduction313

6.1.2FertilizerDemand314

6.1.2.1CropDemand316

6.1.2.2DriversoftheIncreasedUseofMineralFertilizers317

6.1.2.3DriversofBiobasedFertilizerDemand318

6.1.2.4ImportanceofFertilizerUseintheCostofProduction319

6.1.3FertilizerSupply320

6.1.3.1GlobalProduction:StatisticsandRegionalDistribution320

6.1.3.2LinkBetweenFood,Fertilizer,andFuelPrices320

6.1.3.3ConcentrationandMarketPower322

6.1.3.4ImpactofaStrongFertilizerIndustryontheProductionof BiobasedFertilizers324

6.1.4Conclusion325 References326

SectionVIIEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentonthe ProductionandUseofBiobasedFertilizers329

7.1EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentontheProductionandUseof BiobasedFertilizers331 LarsStoumannJensen,MylesOelofse,MarieketenHoeve, andSanderBruun

7.1.1Introduction331

7.1.2LifeCycleAssessmentofBiobasedFertilizerProductionandUse332

7.1.2.1LifeCycleAssessment332

7.1.2.2TheFourPhasesofLCA333

7.1.2.2.1GoalandScope333

7.1.2.2.2InventoryAnalysis335

7.1.2.2.3ImpactAssessment336

7.1.2.2.4Interpretation339

7.1.3EnvironmentalImpactsfromtheProductionandUseofBiobased Fertilizers339

7.1.3.1ClimateChangeandGlobalWarmingPotential339

7.1.3.2Eutrophication340

7.1.3.3Acidification341

7.1.3.4Eco-andHumanToxicity341

7.1.3.5ResourceUse343

7.1.3.6LandUse:DirectandIndirectLandUseChange344

7.1.3.7OtherImpacts,IncludingOdor344

7.1.4BenefitsandValueofBiobasedFertilizersinAgriculturaland Non-AgriculturalSectors345

7.1.4.1CropYield,NutrientUseEfficiency,andSubstitutionof MineralFertilizers345

7.1.4.2SubstitutionofPeat-BasedProducts346

7.1.4.3SoilQualityEnhancement347

7.1.5IntegrativeComparisonsofSyntheticandBiobasedFertilizers347

7.1.5.1SyntheticFertilizers347

7.1.5.2UnprocessedAnimalManures348

7.1.5.3MechanicallySeparatedandProcessedAnimalManures351

7.1.5.4Manure-BasedDigestatesandPost-ProcessingProducts352

7.1.5.5MunicipalSolidWasteandWastewaterBiosolids ProcessedbyADorComposting353

7.1.5.6MineralConcentrates,Extracts,Precipitates,Chars,and AshesfromOrganicWastes356

7.1.6Conclusion356 Acknowledgments357 References357

7.2CaseStudy:AcidificationofPigSlurry363

LarsStoumannJensen,MylesOelofse,MarieketenHoeve, andSanderBruun

7.2.1Introduction363

7.2.2Conclusion367 Acknowledgments368 References368

7.3CaseStudy:CompostingandDrying&PelletizingofBiogasDigestate369 KatarzynaGolkowska,IanVázquez-Rowe,DanielKoster,ViooltjeLebuf, EnricoBenetto,CélineVaneekhaute,andErikMeers

7.3.1Introduction369

7.3.2TunnelComposting vs BaselineScenario370

7.3.3DryingandPelletizing vs BaselineScenario371

7.3.4AssumptionsandCalculationsRelatedtoBiomassFlow372

7.3.4.1CharacteristicsoftheInputandOutputStreams372

7.3.4.2Storage,Transport,andSpreading373

7.3.4.3SupportingData373

7.3.5Goal,Scope,andAssessmentMethods374

7.3.6Results374

7.3.6.1TunnelComposting377

7.3.6.2DryingandPelletizing377

7.3.6.3EcosystemQuality378

7.3.6.4Energy,Transport,andSpreading378

7.3.7Conclusion378 Acknowledgments379 References379

SectionVIIIModelingandOptimizationofNutrientRecovery fromWastes:AdvancesandLimitations381

8.1ModelingandOptimizationofNutrientRecoveryfromWastes: AdvancesandLimitations383 CélineVaneeckhaute,ErikMeers,EvangelinaBelia, andPeterVanrolleghem

8.1.1Introduction383

8.1.2FertilizerQualitySpecifications386

8.1.2.1GenericFertilizerQualityRequirements386

8.1.2.2PointsofAttentionforBiobasedProducts388

8.1.3ModelingandOptimization:AdvancesandLimitations388

8.1.3.1AnaerobicDigestion389

8.1.3.2PhosphorusPrecipitation/Crystallization390

8.1.3.3AmmoniaStrippingandAbsorption391

8.1.3.4AcidicAirScrubbing393

8.1.4ModelingObjectivesandFurtherResearch394

8.1.4.1DefinitionofModelingObjectives394

8.1.4.2TowardaGenericNutrientRecoveryModelLibrary394

8.1.4.3NumericalSolution396

8.1.5Conclusion397 Acknowledgments397 References397

8.2SoilDynamicModels:PredictingtheBehaviorofFertilizersintheSoil405 MariusHeinen,FalentijnAssinck,PietGroenendijk,andOscarSchoumans

8.2.1Introduction405

8.2.2SoilNandPProcesses406

8.2.2.1MainDynamicProcesses406

8.2.3OtherRelatedStateandRateVariables407

8.2.3.1WaterFlow407

8.2.3.2SoilWaterContent407

8.2.3.3SoilTemperature407

8.2.3.4SoilpH408

8.2.3.5GasTransport408

8.2.3.6CropGrowthandNutrientDemand408

8.2.3.7DynamicSimulation408

8.2.4OrganicMatter409

8.2.4.1Multi-PoolModelswithConstantDecomposition RateFactor410

8.2.4.2ModelswithaTime-DependentDecompositionRateFactor411

8.2.4.3EnvironmentalResponseFactors413

8.2.5Nitrogen414

8.2.5.1AdsorptionandDesorption414

8.2.5.2Nitrification415

8.2.5.3Denitrification415

8.2.5.4Leaching416

8.2.5.5GaseousNLosses416

8.2.6Phosphorus417

8.2.6.1Adsorption,Desorption,Fixation,andPrecipitation418

8.2.6.2CalculationofSoil-AvailableP419

8.2.6.3Leaching419

8.2.7IndicesofNutrientUseEfficiency420

8.2.8OtherNutrients420

8.2.9OverviewofProcessesinSelectedSoilDynamicsModels421

8.2.10ModelParameterizationofBiobasedFertilizers424

8.2.11Conclusion426 References429

ListofContributors

FabrizioAdani GruppoRicicla,Lab.-UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano,DISAA,AgricolturaeAmbiente,Milano,Italy

FalentijnAssinck WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

ZhaohaiBai CenterforAgriculturalResourcesResearch,InstituteofGeneticand DevelopmentalBiology,CAS,Shijiazhuang,Hebei,China

EvangelinaBelia PrimodalInc.,Québec,Canada

EnricoBenetto LuxembourgInstituteofScienceandTechnology(LIST),EnvironmentalResearchandInnovation(ERIN),Luxemburg

JayantaKumarBiswas DepartmentofEcologicalStudies,UniversityofKalyani,West Bengal,India

InternationalCentreforEcologicalEngineering,UniversityofKalyani,WestBengal,India

GabrieleBoccasile RegioneLombardiaDG-Agricoltura,Milan,Italy

AleksandraBogdan DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

ClaudioBrienza DepartmentGreenChemistryandTechnology,FacultyofBioscience Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

SanderBruun DepartmentofPlantandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofCopenhagen,Denmark

FridtjofdeBuisonjé WageningenLivestockResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,WageningenTheNetherlands

JeroenBuysse DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Belgium

JuanTurCardona DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Belgium

LiesDeClercq DepartmentofPhysicalandAnalyticalChemistry,GhentUniversity, Ghent,Belgium

GiulianaD’Imporzano GruppoRicicla,Lab.-UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano, DISAA,AgricolturaeAmbiente,Milano,Italy

Marie-LineDaumer Institutnationalderechercheensciencesettechnologiespour l’environnementetl’agriculture,Rennes,France

KimovanDijk WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,TheNetherlands SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUR,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

RenjieDong KeyLaboratoryofCleanUtilizationTechnologyforRenewableEnergyin MinistryofAgriculture,CollegeofEngineering,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing, PRChina

PhillipEhlert WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

AniaEscudero GlasgowCaledonianUniversity,Glasgow,Scotland

WimvanGeel WageningenPlantResearch,WageningenUniversity&Research, Wageningen,TheNetherlands

SamGeerts Aquafinn.v.,Aartselaar,Belgium

KatarzynaGolkowska LuxembourgInstituteofScienceandTechnology(LIST), EnvironmentalResearchandInnovation(ERIN),Luxemburg

PietGroenendijk WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,theNetherlands

MariusHeinen WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,theNetherlands

PaulHoeksma WageningenLivestockResearch,WageningenUniversity&Research, WageningenTheNetherlands

MarieketenHoeve DepartmentofPlantandEnvironmentalSciences,Universityof Copenhagen,Denmark

GertjanHolshof WageningenLivestockResearch,WageningenUniversity&Research, Wageningen,TheNetherlands

YongHou SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUniversity&Research,Wageningen, TheNetherlands

CollegeofResourcesandEnvironmentalSciences,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity

YongHou CollegeofResourcesandEnvironmentSciences,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing,China

LarsStoumannJensen DepartmentofPlantandEnvironmentalSciences,University ofCopenhagen,Denmark

DanielKlein Lippeverband,Essen,Germany

DanielKoster LuxembourgInstituteofScienceandTechnology(LIST),Environmental ResearchandInnovation(ERIN),Luxemburg

ChadKruger CenterforSustainingAgric&NaturalResources,WA,USA

ViooltjeLebuf FlemishCoordinationCentreforManureProcessing,Belgium

EvertLeijenhorst BTGBiomassTechnologyGroupB.V.Enschede,TheNetherlands

JanPeterLesschen WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

QianLiu SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUniversity&Research,Wageningen, TheNetherlands

LinMa CenterforAgriculturalResourcesResearch,InstituteofGeneticandDevelopmentalBiology,CAS,Shijiazhuang,Hebei,China.

AdrienMarchi Aquafinn.v.,Aartselaar,Belgium

JohanteMarvelde Lippeverband,Essen,Germany

ErikMeers DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

EviMichels DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

JantinevanMiddelkoop WageningenLivestockResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

AndersNättorp SchoolofLifeSciencesFHNW,Muttenz,Switzerland

MylesOelofse DepartmentofPlantandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofCopenhagen,Denmark

OeneOenema SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenEnvironmentalResearch, WageningenUniversity&Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

ValentinaOrzi GruppoRicicla,Lab.-UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano,DISAA,AgricolturaeAmbiente,Milano,Italy

OlePahl GlasgowCaledonianUniversity,Glasgow,Scotland

HervéPaillard VéoliaEnvironnement,Aubervilliers,France

MarieEdithPloteau Lippeverband,Essen,Germany

ReinhartVanPoucke DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

WeiQin SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUniversity,TheNetherlands CollegeofResourcesandEnvironmentalSciences,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity

SukantaRana InternationalCentreforEcologicalEngineering,UniversityofKalyani, WestBengal,India

GregoryReuland EuropeanBiogasAssociation,RenewableEnergyHouse,Belgium DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,Ghent University,Ghent,Belgium

CarloRiva GruppoRicicla,Lab.-UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano,DISAA,Agricoltura eAmbiente,Milano,Italy

AnaRobles DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscienceEngineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

BartSaerens Aquafinn.v.,Aartselaar,Belgium

RenéSchils WageningenUniversity&Research,WageningenPlantResearch, WageningenUniversity&Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

Karl-GeorgSchmelz Emschergenossenschaft,Essen,Germany

OscarSchoumans WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,theNetherlands

JaapSchröder WageningenPlantResearch,WageningenUniversity&Research, Wageningen,TheNetherlands

BrajendraK.Sharma IllinoisSustainableTechnologyCenter,UniversityofIllinoisat Urbana-Champaign,Champaign,Illinois,USA

IvonaSigurnjak DepartmentofGreenChemistry&Technology,FacultyofBioscience Engineering,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

LucSijstermans SlibverwerkingNoord-Brabant,Moerdijk,theNetherlands

FulviaTambone GruppoRicicla,Lab.-UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano,DISAA,AgricolturaeAmbiente,Milano,Italy

PaulThiers DepartmentofPoliticalScience,WashingtonStateUniversity–Vancouver, VancouverUSA

IanVázquez-Rowe PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadelPerú,DepartmentofEngineering,PeruvianLCANetwork,Peru UniversityofSantiagodeCompostela,DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Santiagode Compostela,Spain

CélineVaneeckhaute BioEngine,ResearchTeamonGreenProcessEngineeringand Biorefineries,ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversitéLaval,Quebec,Canada

PeterVanrolleghem BioEngine,ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversitéLaval, Québec,Canada

NicolasDeLaVega EuropeanBiogasAssociation,Brussels,Belgium

GerardVelthof WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity& Research,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

JingmengWang SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUniversity&Research, Wageningen,TheNetherlands

MarjoleineWeemaes Aquafinn.v.,Aartselaar,Belgium

ShubiaoWu KeyLaboratoryofCleanUtilizationTechnologyforRenewableEnergyin MinistryofAgriculture,CollegeofEngineering,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing, PRChina

GeorgineYorgey CenterforSustainingAgric&NaturalResources,WA,USA

FrankZepke EuPhoReGmbH,Telgte,Germany

WeiZheng IllinoisSustainableTechnologyCenter,UniversityofIllinoisat Urbana-Champaign,Champaign,Illinois,USA

KorZwart WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,WageningenUniversity&Research, TheNetherlands

SeriesPreface

Renewableresources,theiruseandmodificationareinvolvedinamultitudeofimportant processeswithamajorinfluenceonoureverydaylives.Applicationscanbefoundinthe energysector,paintsandcoatings,andthechemical,pharmaceutical,andthetextileindustry,tonamebutafew.

Theareainterconnectsseveralscientificdisciplines(agriculture,biochemistry, chemistry,technology,environmentalsciences,forestry,...),whichmakesitverydifficult tohaveanexpertviewonthecomplicatedinteraction.Therefore,theideatocreateaseries ofscientificbooksthatwillfocusonspecifictopicsconcerningrenewableresourceshas beenveryopportuneandcanhelptoclarifysomeoftheunderlyingconnectionsinthisarea.

Inaveryfastchangingworld,trendsarenotonlycharacteristicforfashionandpolitical standpoints;scienceisnotfreefromhypesandbuzzwords.Theuseofrenewableresources isagainmoreimportantnowadays;however,itisnotpartofahypeorafashion.Asthe livelydiscussionsamongscientistscontinueabouthowmanyyearswewillstillbeableto usefossilfuels-opinionsrangingfrom50to500years-theydoagreethatthereserveis limitedandthatitisessentialnotonlytosearchfornewenergycarriersbutalsofornew materialsources.

Inthisrespect,renewableresourcesareacrucialareainthesearchforalternatives forfossil-basedrawmaterialsandenergy.Inthefieldofenergysupply,biomassand renewable-basedresourceswillbepartofthesolution,alongsideotheralternativessuch assolarenergy,windenergy,hydraulicpower,hydrogentechnologyandnuclearenergy. Inthefieldofmaterialsciences,theimpactofrenewableresourceswillprobablybeeven bigger.Integralutilizationofcropsandtheuseofwastestreamsincertainindustrieswill growinimportance,leadingtoamoresustainablewayofproducingmaterials.

Althoughoursocietywasmuchmore(almostexclusively)basedonrenewableresources centuriesago,thisdisappearedintheWesternworldinthenineteenthcentury.Nowitistime tofocusagainonthisfieldofresearch.However,thisshouldnotmeana‘retouràlanature’, butitshouldbeamultidisciplinaryeffortonahighlytechnologicalleveltoperformresearch towardsnewopportunities,todevelopnewcropsandproductsfromrenewableresources. Thiswillbeessentialtoguaranteealevelofcomfortforagrowingnumberofpeopleliving onourplanet.Itis‘the’challengeforthecominggenerationsofscientiststodevelopmore sustainablewaystocreateprosperityandtofightpovertyandhungerintheworld.Aglobal approachiscertainlyfavoured.

Thischallengecanonlybedealtwithifscientistsareattractedtothisareaandare recognizedfortheireffortsinthisinterdisciplinaryfield.Itis,therefore,alsoessentialthat consumersrecognizethefateofrenewableresourcesinanumberofproducts.

Furthermore,scientistsdoneedtocommunicateanddiscusstherelevanceoftheirwork. Theuseandmodificationofrenewableresourcesmaynotfollowthepathofthegenetic

engineeringconceptinviewofconsumeracceptanceinEurope.Relatedtothisaspect,the serieswillcertainlyhelptoincreasethevisibilityoftheimportanceofrenewableresources.

Beingconvincedofthevalueoftherenewablesapproachfortheindustrialworld,aswell asfordevelopingcountries,Iwasmyselfdelightedtocollaborateonthisseriesofbooks focusingondifferentaspectsofrenewableresources.Ihopethatreadersbecomeawareof thecomplexity,theinteractionandinterconnections,andthechallengesofthisfieldand thattheywillhelptocommunicateontheimportanceofrenewableresources.

IcertainlywanttothankthepeopleofWiley’sChichesteroffice,especiallyDavid Hughes,JennyCosshamandLynRoberts,inseeingtheneedforsuchaseriesofbookson renewableresources,forinitiatingandsupportingit,andforhelpingtocarrytheprojectto theend.

Lastbutnotleast,Iwanttothankmyfamily,especiallymywifeHildeandmychildren PaulienandPieter-Jan,fortheirpatienceandforgivingmethetimetoworkontheseries whenotheractivitiesseemedtobemoreinviting.

ChristianV.Stevens, FacultyofBioscienceEngineering GhentUniversity,Belgium SeriesEditor,‘RenewableResources’ June2005

Preface

TheRecoveryandUseofNutrientsfromOrganic Residues

Inthetransitionfromafossil-basedtoacircularandbiobasedeconomy,ithasbecome animportantchallengetomaximallyclosethenutrientcyclesandmigratetoamoresustainableresourcemanagement,bothfromaneconomicalperspectiveandfromanecologicalone.Nutrientresourcesarerapidlydepleting,significantamountsoffossilenergyare usedfortheproductionofchemicalfertilizers,andthecostsofenergyandfertilizersare increasing.Biorefinery(i.e.therefiningofchemicals,materials,energy,andproductsfrom biobased[waste]streams)isgainingmoreandmoreinterest.

Theaimofthisbookistopresentthestateoftheartregardingtherecoveryanduse ofmineralnutrientsfromorganicresidues,withafocusonuseinagriculture.ContributorscomefromEurope,theUnitedStates,Canada,India,andChina.Thetargetgroups arestudents(MScandPhD),scientists,policyadvisors,andprofessionalsinthefieldsof agriculture,wastetreatment,environment,andenergy.

Theintroductorysection(SectionI)givesinsightsintotheglobalnutrientflowsinfood systems,withafocusonnitrogen(N)andphosphorus(P)flowsandbalances.

Thetransitionfromafossil-basedtoacircularandbiobasedeconomyisdifficult,dueto obstaclesinlegislativesystems,lackofintegrationofinstitutionalandgovernancestructures,andlackofcoordinationbetweenthedifferentstakeholders.Thelegislative,socioeconomic,andtechnicalconstraintstotheuseofrecoverednutrientsintheEuropeanUnion, UnitedStates,andChinaaredescribedinSectionII.

Aseriesofemergingtechnologiesintherecoveryofnutrientsfromlivestockmanure, wastes,wastewater,andhumanexcretaarepresentedinSectionIII.Casesofnutrient recoveryprocessesin(agro-industrial)practiceareillustratedinSectionIV,including struviterecoveryfromdomesticwastewater,mineralconcentratesfrommanures,biochar fromagro-digestates,andtheuseofmineralsfromtheashproducedbyincinerationof chickenmanure.

SectionsV–VIIdealwithagronomic,environmental,andeconomicassessmentsofthe recoveryofnutrientsandtheuseofbiobasedproducts.Fieldassessmentsofagricultural andenvironmentalperformanceofbiobasedfertilizersubstitutesaredescribedinSection V.Aneconomicassessmentofbiobasedproductsincomparisontocurrentfossil-based counterpartsisgiveninSectionVI.Environmentalimpactassessmentsoftheproduction anduseofbiobasedmineralfertilizersaredescribedinSectionVII.

Mathematicalmodelshavebecomeimportanttoolsforthedesignandoptimizationof waste-treatmentfacilities.Moreover,modelsareusedtoextrapolateresultsobtainedunder controlledconditionstoalargerscale.SectionVIIIdealswiththemodelingofnutrient recoveryfromwaste(water)flowsanddynamicmodelingofnutrientcyclinginsoils. Wegratefullyacknowledgealltheauthorsfortheircontributionstothisbook.

ErikMeers UniversityofGhent,Belgium

GerardVelthof WageningenUniversity&Research,TheNetherlands

EviMichels UniversityofGhent,Belgium

RenéRietra WageningenUniversity&Research,TheNetherlands November2019

SectionI

GlobalNutrientFlowsandCyclingin FoodSystems

GlobalNutrientFlowsandCycling inFoodSystems

QianLiu1,3 ,JingmengWang1,3 ,YongHou1,3 ,KimovanDijk1,2 , WeiQin1,3 ,JanPeterLesschen2 ,GerardVelthof2 ,and OeneOenema1,2

1 SoilQualityDepartment,WageningenUniversity,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

2 WageningenEnvironmentalResearch,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

3 CollegeofResourcesandEnvironmentalSciences,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing,China

1.1Introduction

Plantsrequire14nutrientelements(N,P,K,Mg,Ca,S,Fe,Mn,Zn,Cu,B,Mo,Cl,and Ni)inspecificamountsforgrowthanddevelopment,inadditiontocarbondioxide(CO2 ), water(H2 O),andphotosyntheticactiveradiation(sunlight).Thegrowthanddevelopment ofplantsaredistortedwhenthesupplyofoneormoreofthesenutrientelementsissuboptimal[1].Forgrowth,development,reproduction,andmaintenanceofbodyfunctions, animalsandhumansrequiresome22nutrients(N,P,K,Mg,Ca,S,Fe,Mn,Zn,Cu,Mo, Cl,Co,Na,Se,I,Cr,Ni,V,Sn,As,andF)inspecificamountsinadditiontowater,carbohydrates,aminoacids(protein),andvitamins[2–4].Thehealth,growth,production,and reproductionofanimalsaredistortedwhenthesupplyofoneormoreofthesenutrientsis suboptimal.Over-optimalsupplyofnutrientsmayleadtotoxiceffectsandimbalancesin nutrientsupply,andtherebyalsotomalfunctioning.

Thesupplyofnutrientsinmostsoilstoplantrootsislimited,andthatiswhyfarmers applyanimalmanuresandfertilizerstocropland.Themostlimitingelementsarenitrogen (N),phosphorus(P),andpotassium(K),butotherelementsmayalsolimitplantgrowthand

BiorefineryofInorganics:RecoveringMineralNutrientsfromBiomassandOrganicWaste,FirstEdition. EditedbyErikMeers,GerardVelthof,EviMichelsandRenéRietra. ©2020JohnWiley&SonsLtd.Published2020byJohnWiley&SonsLtd.

development.Excessiveorinappropriateuseofnutrientsincropandanimalproduction leadstolargenutrientlossestothewiderenvironmentandcreatesarangeofunwanted environmentaleffectsandpossiblenegativehumanhealtheffects[5].ExcessPinsurface watersisassociatedwithwaterpollution,eutrophication,andbiodiversityloss.LossesofN createacascadeofthreatstowater,air,andsoils,affectingbiodiversity,climate,andpotentiallyhumanhealth[6].ThecurrentlossesofNandPtotheatmosphereandsurfacewaters exceedtheso-calledsafeplanetaryboundaries[7].Transgressingaboundaryincreases theriskthathumanactivitiescouldinadvertentlydrivetheEarthSystemintoamuch lesshospitablestate,damagingeffortstoreducepovertyandleadingtoadeteriorationof humanwellbeinginmanypartsoftheworld,includingwealthycountries.Thisindicates thatlossesofNandPtotheenvironmenthavetobedecreasedbypropermanagement. Nutrientmanagementisgenerallydefinedbyacoherentsetofactivitieswiththeobjective ofachievingbothagronomictargets(foodproductionandquality,aswellasincomefor farmers)andenvironmentalones(minimallossesofnutrientstothewiderenvironment).

Nutrientmanagementhastoconsideralsothatthegeologicalreserves(e.g.phosphorus, potassium,magnesium,copper,zinc,selenium-richrocks)usedtomanufacturefertilizers andnutrientsupplementsarefiniteandmaybecomedepletedwithinafewgenerations [8,9].Thisindicatesthatactionsareneededtoreducenutrientlosses,torealigncurrent nutrientuse,torecoverandrecyclenutrientsfromwastes,andpossiblytoredefinefood systems[10].Thisisalsothebackgroundtothechapterspresentedinthisbook:which techniques,technologies,andmanagementsareavailableandcanbeusedtoimprovethe utilizationofnutrientsfromanimalmanures,residues,andwastes?

Thisintroductorychapterbrieflysummarizesthedrivingforcesofnutrientcycling andthechangesinglobalnutrientflowsandbalancesinagriculturalsystemsand foodsystemsduringthelastcoupleofdecades.TheemphasisisonNandPinfood production–consumptionsystems;thesenutrientsmostlimitglobalfoodproduction amongessentialnutrientelements,whilelossesofNandPtothewiderenvironmenthave significantnegativehumanhealthandecologicaleffects[5,11].

1.2PrimaryandSecondaryDrivingForcesofNutrientCycling

Interrestrialsystems,nutrientscyclebetweensoils,plants,andanimalsandthenbackto soilsagain.Somenutrientsalsocyclethroughtheatmosphere(e.g.NandS),whilefractionsofbasicallyallnutrientsaretransportedtogroundwaterbodiesortheseaandthento sediments.

Fourprimary energy sourcesaredistinguishedinnaturalsystems(Figure1.1).These fuelanumberofsecondarydrivingforces,whichsubsequentlyfuelnutrienttransformation andtransportprocesses.Sunlightfuelsphotosynthesis,thehydrologicalcycle(evapotranspiration),andwindandwatercurrents(incombinationwithgravitationalenergyand internalparticleenergy).Naturalgravityandtheinternalenergyofparticlesgovernthe earthmotion(seasonalanddiurnalcycles),thephysicalinteractionbetweenelementary particles(includingdiffusion),andthephysicaltransportofparticles,followingthelaws ofthermodynamics.Theheat(energy)inthecoreoftheearthgovernstectonicupliftand volcanicactivity[12].