Frontiers of Textile Materials
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Frontiers of Textile Materials Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques
Edited by Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed and Javed N. Sheikh
This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-62037-2
Cover image: Pixabay.Com
Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
3.2.7.1
3.2.7.3
3.2.7.4
3.2.7.5
3.4.2
3.5
3.6
4
4.1
4.5.1
4.5.3
4.5.4
Arif , Sapana Jadoun and Anurakshee Verma 5.1
5.2
5.2.1 Preparation of Chitosan Nano-Fibers
5.2.2 Preparation of Polyethylene Glycol Capped Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
5.2.3 Preparation of Silk Textile Nano-Composite Materials of TiO2 Nanoparticles
5.3 Synthesis of Nano-Fiber-Based Hydrogels (NFHGs)
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.4 Application of
5.5
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
8.2
7.5.2
8.3
8.2.1
8.2.8
8.3.1
8.3.1.4
8.3.2
8.3.2.1
8.3.2.2
8.3.2.3
8.3.3
(UV-VIS) Spectroscopy
8.3.3.1
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.3
8.3.3.4
8.3.4 Characterization of Textile Nanomaterial by
8.3.4.1
8.3.4.2
8.3.4.3 Determination of Absorbency by Wicking Test and Bending Length
8.3.4.4
8.4 Application of Textiles
8.4.1
8.4.1.1
8.4.1.2
8.4.1.3
8.4.1.4
8.4.1.5
8.4.1.6
8.4.1.7
8.4.1.8
8.4.2
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
8.4.2.4
8.5
8.6
9.1
9.2
10
11
11.4.1.3
11.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate: Functionalization Ways 249
11.5.1 Functionalization of PET with Basic Reagents 250
11.5.1.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized with Agents Having Basic Character 253
11.5.2 PET Functionalization with Alcohols 255
11.5.2.1 Multifunctionalized PET Dyeing with Alcohols 257
11.5.3 PET-Multifunctionalization with MCT-β-CD 260
11.5.4 Functionalization of the PET Surface with Plasma Treatment 261
11.5.4.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized by Means of Plasma and Grafting with Polyfunctional Compounds 264
11.6 Cotton: Multifunctionalization Ways 266
11.6.1 Surface Activation with Plasma Followed by Grafting with Polyfunctional Compounds 267
11.6.1.1 Dyeing of Multifunctionalized Cotton by Plasma and Grafting Treatments 269
11.6.2 Alkyl Chitosan Grafting on Cotton 269
11.6.2.1 Dyeing of Cotton Grafted with Alkyl Chitosans 273
11.6.3 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with Polyfunctional Compounds and Unconventional Dyeing 275
11.6.3.1 Functionalization of Cotton with Tetronic 701 and Chitosan 275
11.6.3.2 Functionalization of Cotton with a Tetrol (Tetronic 701) and MCT-β-CD 277
11.6.3.3
Successive Functionalization of Cotton with a Tetrol (Tetronic 701), Chitosan, and MCT-β-CD 277
11.6.4 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with Carbonyl Compounds and MCT-β-CD
11.7 Conclusions
12 Advanced Dyeing or Functional Finishing
Kunal Singha, Subhankar Maity and Pintu Pandit
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanism of Dyeing by Phase Separation
12.3 Advanced Dyeing and Finishing Techniques
12.3.1
12.3.9
K. Samanta, S. Basak and Pintu Pandit
Shahid Adeel, Shumaila Kiran, Tanvir Ahmad, Noman Habib, Kinza Tariq and Muhammad Hussaan
Preface
Humans have been using textiles since prehistoric times. Although initially used only to protect the body from environmental changes, those with high scientific knowledge and awareness are now focusing on multidimensional applications of textiles. To meet the needs of modern mankind, various modifications have already been implemented on textiles, ranging from simple coloration to advanced energy applications, and researchers are continuously exploring new frontiers in this field. Advancing conventional techniques with green and sustainable products that replace the harmful compounds in textile processing and the quest for advanced materials for functionalization of textiles are currently very much underway. All these developments have motivated us to compile this reference book with the help of eminent authors from around the world with expertise in textiles-related research areas.
The 14 chapters of Frontiers of Textile Materials: Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques cover various research areas dealing with modification of textile materials. Following an introductory chapter on materials (polymers, nanomaterials, enzymes, etc.) for textile modification, the initial chapters are devoted to the construction and functional finishing of textile materials using polymers. The first few chapters explore nanomaterials for the textile industry, fabrication and characterization of nanomaterials, application on textiles and functionalities achieved on them. Two of the chapters focus on flexible electronics dealing with the incorporation of nanogenerators and solar cells into the matrix of textiles to design wearables. Further chapters discuss advanced dyeing and dyeing materials (biomordants, plasma and radiations) for sustainable and eco-friendly coloration.
This book contains informative chapters from authors specializing in fields encompassing materials, dyeing, functional finishing and flexible electronics. Thus, the editors hope that students, researchers and academicians of various fields, such as textiles chemistry and dyeing, chemical engineering, environmental science, and materials science, will find this
Preface
book to be of great interest and useful in their curriculum. We expect this book will definitely be helpful in inspiring new ideas in textiles research, leading to interdisciplinary research collaborations.
At this time, we would like to thank those who have been supportive of this book in any way. We acknowledge the great efforts of the eminent authors without whom this book would have been unimaginable. We also appreciate the support of the publisher in showing interest in the compilation of such a reference book.
Shakeel
Ahmed
Javed N Sheikh January 2020
Mohd Shabbir
1 Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials
Mohd Shabbir1* and Javed N. Sheikh2†
1Department of Chemistry, NIET, Greater Noida, UP, India
2Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
Abstract
Textile is one of the basic needs of the human being, and the modern human being has a lot of choices for their clothing. Textiles have various characteristics depending on the fibers they are made from, such as wool, silk, cotton, viscose, nylon, polyester, etc. and the finishing applied on them via materials such as finishing chemicals, nanoparticles, polymers, enzymes, etc. Thus, so many materials are available which can be utilized in the development of functional and smart textiles. In the era of technology (miniaturization of this world), flexible electronics based on textiles are gaining momentum. The chapter presents the emerging materials in the field of textiles with a major focus on the functionalization of textiles. In the next chapters of this book, all these are reviewed in great detail.
Keywords: Textiles, viscose, polyester, polymers, nanomaterials
1.1 Introduction
The textile industry is of great importance to the economies of every country in terms of trade, employment, investment, and revenue. Simultaneously, the chemical processes associated with textile production generate a lot of waste, greenhouse gases, and consume a large amount of water [1]. Innovative research and developments are very much needed
*Corresponding author: shabbirmeo@gmail.com
†Corresponding author: jnsheikh@textile.iitd.ac.in
Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed, and Javed N. Sheikh (eds.) Frontiers of Textile Materials: Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques, (1–12) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC
2
Frontiers of Textile Materials
for the textile industry to minimize waste production and maximize clothing production simultaneously. A series of steps are involved from textiles manufacturing to finishing and dyeing, need the attention of textile chemists as well as environmentalists. Technological advancements for functional finishing have emerged in recent years. Textile materials from the natural origin such as cotton, wool, and silk are prone to microbes, so antimicrobial finishing technologies are developed via application of polymers, nanomaterials, and dyes [2, 3].
This chapter overviews the advanced structural and finishing materials for textiles. All textiles fibers are polymers e.g. silk and wool are proteins made up of polymeric chains of amino acids, cotton is made up of glucose monomeric units and synthetic fibers Nylon and polyesters are the synthetic polymers. Chitosan, sericin, and tannins are a few examples of natural polymers used for functional finishing of textiles. Nanomaterials are considered as both present and future of every technological advancement including textiles. Various conventional methods of finishing have been replaced with new and technologically advanced techniques. In the next chapters of this book, all these aspects of the textiles industry are reviewed in great detail.
1.2 Polymers
Textiles and polymers are the interconnected materials and all textiles fibers are polymers. Apart from this, polymers play an important role in textile processing and are utilized for various applications like sizing agents, thickeners for textile printing, finishing chemicals, coating chemicals, etc. As far as applications of polymers in finishing are concerned, they are widely utilized in various finishing treatments ranging from softening finish, stiffening finish, repellent finishes, antimicrobial finishes, flame retardant finishes, and abrasion-resistant finish. The conventional silicones are widely consumed polymers in textile finishing. Silicone softeners show various advantages over other types of softeners and the proper chemistry of silicones can be selected to fine-tune the properties of finished textile materials. Fluorochemicals supported on acrylic backbones are used for imparting water repellent finishing to textile materials. Starch, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetates are used for imparting stiffness.
With the development of technical textiles, the demand for functional textiles is increased which resulted in the development of functional finishes for textiles. The properties of polymers were tailor-made by selecting the suitable monomers and such polymers were utilized in the functional finishing of textiles. Textile coating and lamination have opened a new area
of modification of textiles which has further enhanced the scope of polymers in textile finishing. The polymers like polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), acrylic polymers, silicones, fluoro-polymers, rubbers (both natural and synthetic) find applications in the functional coating of textiles. The resultant film of a coated polymer can also be suitably modified using the various layers of a coating or by addition of fillers. The coating has an added advantage of higher add-on of functional chemical on fabric which can show enhanced functionalities as compared to low add-on involved in the conventional padding-based finishing process.
The increase in awareness regarding health and hygiene and the requirement of protection against pathogenic microbes resulted in development of various polymers, which can act as antimicrobial finishes for textiles. Such polymers include natural polymers like chitosan, sericin and tannins, synthetic polymers like quaternized polymers, polymers with N-halamine moieties, biguanide-based polymers, and conjugated polymers such as polypyrrole and polyaniline.
Chitosan is an interesting functional biopolymer, which is widely researched for its applications in textile finishing. The various reports regarding application of chitosan and its derivatives in antimicrobial finishing, flame retardant finishing, and multifunctional finishing are available in the literature.
Smart textile and apparels are developed in recent times and led to the development of stimuli-sensitive polymers (SSPs), which show a reversible transformation from one state to another as a response to various stimuli from the environment [4]. The stimulus includes temperature, electric field, pH, light, pressure, sound, etc. Shape memory polymer is another important class of polymers, which can be integrated into textile substrates to obtain thermal and moisture control, self-adaptability of shape, shape retention, and smart wettability [5]. Even though smart polymers are available for textile applications, their integration/application in/on textiles is a big challenge. A continuous research in this area is expected to solve the technical issues in the application of such smart materials on textiles.
1.3 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are defined as the materials of size in the range 1–100 nm. Nanomaterials are expected to have a higher efficiency than bulk materials owing to their larger surface area–mass ratio. Size and shape are the primary characteristics of nanomaterials responsible for the efficacies of the functional properties imparted by them. Designing of nanomaterials is widely studied under nanotechnology. The way of synthesis or fabrication
methods and the reducing or stabilizing agents determine the shape and size of nanomaterials which lead to their specific characteristics [6]. Today nanotechnology plays an important role in almost every aspect of life, having a wide range of applications such as biomedical, environmental, and textiles. The demand for high-quality textiles is highly increased nowadays with the rising population and developed clothing sense of human being, and the textile industry is highly pressurized to manufacture the best quality textiles [7]. Nanoscience and nanotechnology play an important role not only for textile functionalization but also for the remediation of textile effluent to keep water ecosystem clean. Both metal (Ag, Au, Cu, etc.) and metal oxide (ZnO, TiO2, etc.) nanomaterials had been explored toward textile functionalization in recent past. Some of these nanoparticles like silver, gold, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide are widely studied for imparting antimicrobial, self-cleaning, hydrophobic, and UV protection abilities to textiles [8–10].
Various fabrication and application processes on textile materials have been developed to get optimum benefits from nanoparticles. Eco-friendly fabrication of nanoparticles was also reported via in situ synthesis and simultaneous application on textiles using various plant extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. Fabrication methods, characterization of nanomaterials, and application on textiles are discussed in detail in the coming chapters of this book.
1.4 Enzymes
Textile chemical processing is water-intensive and generates large quantities of effluent, which necessitates the shifting to more eco-friendly enzymatic processes. Some of the enzymes are commercially exploited, which offers numerous advantages in textile chemical processes. Although some technical issues were witnessed for complete shifting to enzyme-based processes, the ongoing collaborative research in the field of biotechnology and textile processing might answer such issues. The ideologies of Green Chemistry [11] are truly followed by enzyme technology which being sustainable and hence can be a prudent choice.
In the quest of the development of eco-friendly chemicals and processes for chemical processing of textiles, the increased interest has been shown by the research community in the exploration of new products through industrial biotechnology [12–15]. This resulted in the replacement of harsh chemicals and the development of some new alternatives providing a reduction in manufacturing cost and ecological problems. Enzymes are widely utilized in textile chemical processing including pre-treatments for
removal of impurities, denim finishing like bio-washing, and also in the treatment of the effluents arising from textile industries. The rate of enzymatic reactions is dependent on various factors including pH, temperature, concentrations of enzyme and substrate, and presence of any activators or inhibitors/retarder [16]. Enzymes are ideal for chemical reactions because of their specificity for the substrate as per the reaction [17].
Some of the dominant processes where enzymatic technology is already established are pre-treatments of denim, bio-washing of denim, desizing, scouring and bio-polishing of cotton. Denim is a popular textile substrate among the people of all age groups. The denim garments with faded–abraded look are widely demanded, which were traditionally produced using washing with pumice stones which can cause deterioration of treated garment along with the machine damages [18, 19]. Such issues can be solved by the use of a variety of cellulases, working at broad temperature ranges and pH, which can be used alone or in combination with other enzymes [20–22]. Two critical issues are associated with bio-washing of denim like degradation of cotton fiber in case of uncontrolled treatment and indigo back-staining/ re-deposition on the uncolored back side of denim [23]. These issues can be solved by controlling the bio-washing to the surface and the selection of proper cellulase. The efficient after-wash using soap, soda, peroxide, and optical brightening agent is generally done to remove the back-staining [24]. Bio-polishing is another important finishing process, which reduces hairiness by removing the protruding micro hairs of cotton and pilling of cellulose fabric leading to velvety, slicker feel, and brighter color [25]. This can also be achieved by using cellulase, which can hydrolyze cellulosic micro-fibrils [22, 26–29]. Agitation is an important factor, which facilitates the cellulolytic attack, which necessitates the use of textile machineries capable of producing agitation, like jet dyeing machines [26, 27, 30, 31]. Both bio-washing and bio-polishing involve two important aspects, viz. removal of fibrils and their suspension in aqueous treatment media thus preventing redeposition on the fabric. The accurate control of parameters, suitable agitation, the use of suitable dispersing agents/anti-redeposition agents based on polyvinylpyrrolidone and acrylates are therefore necessary to prevent redeposition of fuzz on fabric and achieve efficient bio-polishing. Apart from the actual application of enzymes in finishing, several enzymes like amylase, pectinase, catalase, and glucose oxidase are used in preparatory processes. Even though these are not directly used in finishing, these are used to remove impurities from the fabric, which also affects the efficiency of further coloration and finishing processes.
The functional finishing of textiles is an upcoming area where enzymes can be explored. Laccase-mediated grafting of polyphenols on textile fibers
Frontiers
Materials
for functionalization is reported widely in the literature. Immobilization of enzymes, use of advanced techniques like ultrasound, and combined textile processes using a mixture of enzymes are the latest developments in the area of enzymatic textile processing.
1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles
Plasma is considered to be the fourth state of matter and can be utilized for activation, cleaning, surface deposition and functionalization of textiles. Applications of radiations are widely researched for the performance enhancement of various processes used in textile processing. Natural dyeing of textiles goes through various steps from the extraction of dyes to the application on textile materials. The first step starts from extraction, which is of high importance in term of getting the higher quantity of dyeing compounds in the extracts which ultimately affects the color strength of dyed textiles. Dyers usually go for aqueous extraction, which needs higher time and energy. Researchers nowadays are focusing to find efficient and innovative techniques to obtain natural dye compounds, which could provide better yield, minimize extraction time and solvent consumption [32]. Microwave-assisted and ultrasound-assisted extraction techniques already have been utilized and proved to be highly efficient. Microwave energy is considered more efficient for heating as it provides uniform heating in a reaction mixture unlike the ordinary methods of heating. It enables the heating of all particles at the same time with its easy penetration property into the particles of the matter and thus the solution is regularly heated to quickly attain the high temperature [33]. Microwave-assisted extraction was carried on Eucalyptus robusta leaves to get an optimal yield of total phenolic compounds and results were in accordance to prove it as a good eco-friendly alternative to conventional extraction [34]. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) modelling were applied in association with microwave-assisted extraction of dyeing compounds from pomegranate rind and application of microwave irradiation method proved to be a rapid and improved technique for dye extraction with improved yield and significantly reduced extraction time [35]. Plasma and radiations further have been utilized for improving dye absorptivity, disinfestation and imparting other functionalities on textiles [36–39]. Drábková et al. [40] studied the influence of gamma radiations for disinfestation of paper and textiles (silk and cotton), but their results suggested some structural changes in cellulosic and proteinaceous materials due to the treatment. Fabrics of polyester and polyamide were treated with
atmospheric pressure plasma to successfully improve the wettability of fabrics after plasma treatment, while dryability was not improved significantly [41]. Samanta et al. [42] improved water and oil absorbency of textile substrates by treating them with atmospheric pressure cold plasma. Several studies were discussed about non-thermal plasma treatment of textiles for various functional characteristics by Morent et al. [43].
1.6 Flexible Electronics
Miniaturization of things is leading to the development of countless tiny devices in our daily life use. Textiles can be a matrix to install them on clothing to function for various application areas from fashion and functional clothing to healthcare and interior design. Conducting yarns and fibers are very much popular in today’s research for integrating electronic devices in textiles. Materials such as conjugated polymers (e.g., polypyrrole (PPy), polyaniline (PANI), and poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)), carbon nanotubes, graphene, etc., have been explored for this purpose of making the smart textiles. A lot of research has been focused for the envisaged functionalities, such as sensing, data processing and storage, as well as energy harvesting, e.g., by using the piezoelectric, thermoelectric, triboelectric, or photovoltaic effect and a lot to be explored in future. Processing and development of conducting yarns and textiles are well discussed in a review paper by Lund et al. [44]. In one of the studies, cotton was turned into conducting textiles with high porosity and excellent toughness by coating metal oxide on the cotton and subsequent pyrolysis [45]. Various formulations and inks have also been developed to make conducting fibers. Islam et al. [46] reported a simple, low cost, and highly scalable fabrication method of functional Carbon Black ink from dry charcoal, and it was then coated on cotton by pad–dry–cure method to get durable electrically and thermally conductive cotton E-textiles. In another study, a dense and thin layer of polypyrrole (PPy) was deposited onto the fabric surface by an improved in situ polymerization method. Some woven and knitted fabrics were then transformed into conductive electrodes of high electrical conductivity without compromising their breathability, flexibility, and comfortability [47]. Ye et al. [48] reported a scalable dip-coating strategy to construct conductive silk fibers (CSFs). Natural silk fibers were coated by a tailor-made carbon nanotube (CNT) paint without destroying the internal structure of the fibers. The CSFs developed possess characteristics such as high mechanical performance, super-hydrophobicity, solvent resistance, and thermal sensitivity. Polyurethane-coated Ni–Ti alloy fiber-based pressure sensors were
fabricated for real-time sitting posture correction and tested for durability aspects in terms of washing and sit-down numbers [49].
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