Industrial Environmental Management
Engineering, Science, and Policy
Tapas K. Das
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Das, Tapas K., author.
Title: Industrial environmental management : engineering, science, and policy / Tapas K. Das.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019035347 (print) | LCCN 2019035348 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119591580 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119591559 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119591566 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Industrial management–Environmental aspects. | Industrial engineering–Environmental aspects. | Environmental management.
Classification: LCC HD30.255 .D37 2020 (print) | LCC HD30.255 (ebook) | DDC 658.4/083–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035347
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035348
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To our current and future students.
Contents
About the Author xxi
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgements xxv
About the Companion Website xxvii
1 Why Industrial Environmental Management? 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 ISO in Brief 2
1.1.2 ISO and the Environment 2
1.1.3 Benefits 2
1.2 Environmental Management in Industries 3
1.2.1 Environmental Challenges 3
1.3 Waste as Pollution 4
1.4 Defining Pollution Prevention 4
1.4.1 Resource Efficiency 5
1.5 The ZDZE Paradigm 5
1.6 Zero Discharge Industries 5
1.7 Sustainability, Industrial Ecology, and Zero Discharge (Emissions) 6
1.8 Why Zero Discharge Is Critical to Sustainability 8
1.9 The New Role of Process Engineers and Engineering Firms 9
1.10 Zero Discharge (Emissions) Methodology 10
1.10.1 Analyze Throughput 10
1.10.2 Inventory Inputs and Outputs 10
1.10.3 Build Industrial Clusters 10
1.10.4 Develop Conversion Technologies 11
1.10.5 Designer Wastes 11
1.10.6 Reinvent Regulatory Policies 11
1.11 Making the Transition 12
1.11.1 Recycling of Materials and Reuse of Products 12
1.11.2 Dematerilization 13
1.11.3 Investment Recovery 14
1.11.4 New Technologies and Materials 14
1.11.5 New Mindset 15
1.11.6 In the Full ZD (Emission) Paradigm 16
1.12 Constraints and Challenges 17
1.12.1 The Challenges in Industrial Environmental Management 18
1.12.2 Codes of Ethics in Engineering 18
1.13 The Structure of the Book 18
1.13.1 What Is in the Book? 18
Problems 21
References 22
2 Genesis of Environmental Problem Worldwide: International Environmental Regulations 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.1.1 Environmental History 25
2.2 Genesis of the Environmental Problem 25
2.3 Causes of Pollution and Environmental Degradation 26
2.3.1 Natural Causes 27
2.3.2 Man-Made Causes 27
2.3.3 Population Growth 27
2.3.4 Poverty 27
2.3.5 Urbanization 27
2.4 Industrialization and Urbanization in the United States 27
2.4.1 Mini Case Studies 28
2.4.2 The Electrical Grid and Improvements in Transportation 28
2.4.3 Structural Steel and Skyscrapers 30
2.4.4 The Assembly Line 31
2.4.5 The Origins of Mass Production 32
2.5 Important Technological Developments 33
2.6 Industrial Disasters 34
2.6.1 Bhopal: The World’s Worst Industrial Tragedy 34
2.7 Environmental Law 39
2.7.1 History of Environmental Law 39
2.8 Pollution Control Laws 39
2.8.1 Air Quality Law 39
2.8.2 Water Quality Law 39
2.8.3 Waste Management Law 40
2.8.4 Contaminant Cleanup Law 40
2.8.5 Chemical Safety Laws 40
2.8.6 Water Resources Law 40
2.8.7 Mineral Resources Law 40
2.8.8 Forest Resources Law 40
2.8.9 Wildlife and Plants Protection Laws 40
2.8.10 Fish and Game Laws 41
2.8.11 Principles 41
2.9 Resource Sustainability 41
2.9.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 41
2.9.2 Sustainable Development 41
2.9.3 Equity 41
2.9.4 Transboundary Responsibility 41
2.9.5 Public Participation and Transparency 41
2.9.6 Precautionary Principle 42
2.9.7 Prevention 42
2.10 Polluter Pays Principle 42
2.11 Theory/Environmental Law Debate 42
2.11.1 Environmental Impact Statement and NEPA Process 42
2.11.2 Purpose of NEPA 43
2.12 International Law 43
2.12.1 Africa 44
2.12.2 Asia 44
2.12.3 European Union 44
2.12.4 Middle East 44
2.12.5 Oceania 45
2.12.6 Australia 45
2.12.7 Brazil 45
2.12.8 Canada 45
2.12.9 China 45
2.12.10 Ecuador 45
2.12.11 Egypt 46
2.12.12 Germany 46
2.12.13 India 46
2.13 The Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection in India 47
2.13.1 Introduction 47
2.13.2 Legislation for Environmental Protection in India 47
2.13.3 General 48
2.13.4 Hazardous Wastes 50
2.13.5 International Agreements on Environmental Issues 51
2.13.6 An Assessment of the Legal and Regulatory Framework for Environmental Protection in India 52
2.13.7 Emerging Environmental Challenges 53
2.14 United States Environmental Law 55
2.14.1 Scope 55
2.14.2 History 55
2.14.3 Legal Sources 55
2.14.4 Federal Regulation 55
2.14.5 Judicial Decisions 56
2.14.6 Common Law 56
2.14.7 Administration 56
2.14.8 Enforcement 56
2.14.9 Education and Training 56
2.14.10 Vietnam 57
2.15 ISO 9000 and 14000 57
2.15.1 Green Accounting Practices and Other Quality Manufacturing and Business Management Paradigms 57
2.16 Current Environmental Regulatory Development in the United States: From End-of-Pipe Laws and Regulations to Pollution Prevention 60
2.16.1 Introduction 60
2.17 Greenhouse Gases 60
2.17.1 Nine Prominent Federal Environmental Statues 61 Examples (Multiple Choice) 64 Problems 65 References 65
3 Industrial Pollution Sources, Its Characterization, Estimation, and Treatment 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Wastewater Sources 71
3.2.1 Point Source 71
3.2.2 Nonpoint Source 71
3.3 Wastewater Characteristics 71
3.3.1 Physical Characteristics 72
3.3.2 Total Suspended Solids 72
3.3.3 Color 72
3.3.4 Odor 72
3.3.5 Temperature 72
3.4 Chemical Characteristics 73
3.4.1 Inorganic Chemicals 73
3.4.2 Organic Chemicals 73
3.4.3 Volatile Organic Compounds 73
3.4.4 Heavy Metal Discharges 73
3.4.5 Some Inorganic Pollutants of Concern 74
3.4.6 Organic Pollutants of Concern 75
3.4.7 Thermal Pollution 75
3.5 Industrial Wastewater Variation 75
3.5.1 Pollution Load and Concentration 75
3.5.2 Industrial Pretreatment 76
3.6 Industrial Wastestream Variables 77
3.6.1 Dilute Solutions 77
3.6.2 Concentrated Solutions 78
3.7 Concentration vs. Mass of the Pollution 78
3.7.1 Frequency of Generation and Discharge 78
3.7.2 Hours of Operation vs. Discharge 79
3.7.3 Discharge Variations 79
3.7.4 Continuous and Intermittent Discharges 79
3.7.5 Industrial Effluents 80
3.7.6 Wastewater Quality Indicators: Selected Pollution Parameters 80
3.8 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 82
3.8.1 Variation in Industrial Wastewaters 82
3.8.2 Pretreatment Program Purpose 83
3.8.3 Dental Waste Pretreatment Management 83
3.9 Air Quality 83
3.9.1 The Atmosphere 84
3.9.2 Unpolluted Air 85
3.9.3 Mobile Sources and Emission Inventory 85
3.9.4 Inventory Techniques 86
3.9.5 Data Reduction and Compilation 86
3.9.6 Major Sources of Air Emissions 86
3.9.7 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments 87
3.9.8 Introduction to Air Pollution Control and Estimating Air Emission Rates 87
3.10 The Ideal Gas Law and Concentration Measurements in Gases 94
3.11 Other Applications of the Ideal Gas Law 96
3.12 Gas Flow Measurement 97
3.13 Flow at Standard Temperature and Pressure 98
3.14 Gas Flowrate Conversion from SCFM to ACFM 98
3.15 Corrections for Percent O2 98
3.16 Boiler Flue Gas Concentrations Are Usually Corrected to 3% Oxygen 98
3.17 Air‐to‐Fuel Ratio and Stoichiometric Ratio 98
3.18 Material Balances and Energy Balances 99
3.19 Wastes in the United States 102
3.19.1 Industrial Wastes Management Approach 103
3.19.2 Waste as Pollution 103
3.19.3 Why Recycle? 103
3.19.4 Chemical Waste 103
3.19.5 Electronic Waste 104
3.20 Hazardous Waste 104
3.20.1 Hazardous Wastes in the United States of America 104
3.20.2 Hazardous Waste Mapping Systems 105
3.20.3 Universal Wastes 105
3.20.4 Final Disposal of Hazardous Waste 105
3.20.5 Recycling 105
3.20.6 Portland Cement 105
3.21 Incineration, Destruction, and WtE 105
3.22 Hazardous Waste Landfill (Sequestering, Isolation, etc.) 106
3.22.1 Pyrolysis 106
3.23 Radioactive Waste 106
3.23.1 Sources 106
3.23.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 106
3.24 Coal 107
3.24.1 Oil and Gas 107
3.25 Low‐Level Waste 108
3.25.1 Intermediate‐Level Waste 108
3.25.2 High‐Level Waste 108
3.25.3 Transuranic Waste 108
3.26 Nuclear Waste Management 109
3.26.1 Initial Treatment 109
Problems 110
References 111
4 Industrial Wastewater, Air Pollution, and Solid and Hazardous Wastes: Monitoring, Permitting, Sample Collections and Analyses, QA/QC, Compliance with State Regulations and Federal Standards 115
4.1 Introduction 115
4.2 Industrial Process Water 115
4.3 Common Elements, Radicals, and Chemicals in Water Analysis 115
4.4 Purposes and Objectives for Inspecting and Sampling 116
4.4.1 Analytical Methods 118
4.4.2 State Waste Discharge Permit 119
4.4.3 NPDES Wastewater Discharge Permit 119
4.4.4 General Wastewater Discharge Permit 120
4.5 Sampling and QA/QC Plan 120
4.5.1 QA/QC Procedures 121
4.5.2 QA Procedures for Sampling 121
4.5.3 QC Procedures for Sampling 122
4.5.4 Laboratory QA/QC 123
4.5.5 Sampling Location 124
4.5.6 Type of Sample 124
4.5.7 Continuous Monitoring 126
4.5.8 Sample Preservation and Holding Times 127
4.5.9 Sample Documentation 127
4.5.10 General Documentation Procedures 127
4.5.11 COC Procedures 128
4.5.12 Sample Identification and Labeling 129
4.5.13 Sample Packaging and Shipping 129
4.6 Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing 130
4.6.1 Introduction 130
4.6.2 The WET Testing 130
4.6.3 Toxicity Testing and Evaluation of Toxicity Test Results 130
4.6.4 Toxic Units 131
4.6.5 Application of Toxicity Test Results 132
4.6.6 Protection Against Acute Toxicity 132
4.6.7 Protection Against Chronic Toxicity 132
4.7 Flow Measurements 133
4.7.1 Open Channel Flow 133
4.7.2 Closed Channel Flow 137
4.7.3 Pitot Tube 138
4.7.4 Electromagnetic Flow Meter 139
4.8 The Point of Compliance with the Water Quality Standards 139
4.8.1 Mixing Zones 139
4.8.2 Streeter–Phelps Equation and DO Sag Curve in a River 141
4.8.3 Mixing of Wastewater in Rivers: Mass-Balance Approach 141
4.9 Water Quality Modeling 142
4.9.1 Formulations and Associated Constants 142
4.9.2 WWTP BOD, SS, and Fecal Coliform Removal Efficiencies: Meet Water Quality Standards 142
4.9.3 NPDES Wastewater Discharge Permits for Point Sources 143
4.10 Example NPDES Permits (for Refinery and Aluminum Smelter are shown in Section D.1) 145
4.10.1 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Rule 145
4.11 Air Pollution Perspective 146
4.11.1 Causes, Sources, and Effects 146
4.11.2 Air Toxics: Toxic Air Pollutants 147
4.12 Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Permitting Process 149
4.12.1 Introduction 149
4.12.2 The PSD Program Goals 149
4.13 An Overall Permitting Process 150
4.13.1 Who Needs a PSD Permit? 151
4.13.2 What Does the PSD Program Require of the Applicant? 151
4.14 Best Available Control Technology 152
4.14.1 Introduction 152
4.14.2 Control Technology Requirement Definitions 153
4.14.3 BACT Selection Strategy 154
4.14.4 Top-Down BACT Analysis 155
4.14.5 Identify Technologies 155
4.14.6 Determine Technical Feasibility 156
4.14.7 Rank Technically Feasible Alternatives 156
4.14.8 Evaluate Impacts of Technology 156
4.14.9 Plant-Wide Applicability Limitation 157
4.15 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling 157
4.15.1 Atmospheric Layers 158
4.16 Dispersion Models: Indoor Concentrations 159
4.16.1 Gaussian Dispersion Model 160
4.16.2 Modeling Protocol 161
4.16.3 Dispersion Model Selection 161
4.16.4 CALPUFF 162
4.16.5 Attainment and Non-Attainment Areas 162
4.17 State Implementation Plan 162
4.17.1 What National Standards must SIPs Meet? 162
4.17.2 What Is Included in a SIP? 163
4.17.3 Who Is Responsible for Enforcing a SIP? 163
4.18 Compliance 164
4.18.1 Compliance Requirements 164
4.19 CAA Enforcement Provisions 168
4.19.1 Administrative Penalty Orders 169
4.19.2 Issuing an Order Requiring Compliance or Prohibition 169
4.19.3 Bringing Civil Action in Court 169
4.19.4 Requesting the Attorney General to Bring Criminal Action 169
4.19.5 Emergency as a Defense 169
4.19.6 Section 114: Fact-Finding 170
4.19.7 Inspection Protocol 170
4.19.8 Continuous Emission Monitoring 171
4.19.9 QA and QC in Air Emission Rates 171
4.19.10 Performing Stack Tests 172
4.20 Industrial Solid Wastes and Its Management 173
4.20.1 Solid Waste Treatment: Some Perspectives on Recycling 173
4.20.2 Why Recycle? 173
4.20.3 What Is Recycling 173
4.20.4 A Brief Overview of Recycling in the United States and United Kingdom 174
4.20.5 Recycling Today 174
4.20.6 Recycling as a Route to Sustainable Productivity and Growth 175
4.20.7 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 175
4.20.8 Few RCRA Provisions: Cradle–to-Grave Requirements 177
4.20.9 TSDFs Permits 178
4.21 Hazardous Waste Landfill (Sequestering, Isolation, etc.) 180
4.21.1 Final Disposal of Hazardous Waste 180
4.22 Industrial Waste Generation Rates 181
4.22.1 Generator Requirements and Responsibilities 181
4.22.2 Environmental Audits 181
4.23 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund 182
4.23.1 History 182
4.23.2 Provisions 182
4.23.3 Procedures 183
4.23.4 Implementation 184
4.23.5 Hazard Ranking System 184
4.23.6 Environmental Discrimination 184
4.23.7 Case Studies in African American Communities 184
4.23.8 Case Studies in Native American Communities 185
4.24 Industrial Waste Management in India: Shifting Gears 185
4.24.1 Integrated Solid Waste Management 185
4.24.2 Hazardous Waste Handling and Management Rule 186
4.24.3 Biomedical Waste Rule 186
4.24.4 E-Waste Rule 186
4.24.5 Plastic Nonhazardous Waste Rule 186 Problems 187 References 189
5 Assessment and Management of Health and Environmental Risks: Industrial and Manufacturing Process Safety 193
5.1 Health Risk Assessment 193
5.1.1 Air Pollution 193
5.1.2 Problem Formulation 194
5.1.3 Exposure Assessment 195
5.1.4 Toxicity Assessment 199
5.1.5 Risk Characterization 200
5.2 Assessing the Risks of Some Common Pollutants 201
5.2.1 NOx, Hydrocarbons, and VOCs: Ground‐Level Ozone 202
5.2.2 Carbon Monoxide 203
5.2.3 Lead and Mercury 204
5.2.4 Particulate Matter 205
5.2.5 SO2, NOx, and Acid Deposition 206
5.2.6 Air Toxics 207
5.3 Ecological Risk Assessment 207
5.3.1 Technical Aspects of Ecological Problem Formulation 208
5.3.2 Ecological Exposure Assessment 211
5.3.3 Ecological Effects Assessment 213
5.3.4 Additional Components of Ecological Risk Assessments 214
5.3.5 Tropospheric Ozone Pollution and Its Effects on Plants 215
5.3.6 Toxicity Testing 216
5.4 Risk Management 217
5.4.1 Valuation of Ecological Resources 218
5.4.2 Modeling Risk Management 220
5.4.3 Other Considerations for Risk Characterization 220
5.4.4 Conceptual Bases for De Minimis Risks 221
5.4.5 Ecological Risk Assessment of Chemicals 221
5.5 Communicating Information on Environmental and Health Risks 227
5.5.1 From Concern to Outrage: Determinants of Public Response 228
5.5.2 Sustainable Strategies for Environmental and Health Risk Communication 228
5.5.3 Case Study: Environmental and Health Risk Communication Neglected Until After an Accident 230
5.5.4 Lessons Learned 231
5.6 Environmental Information Access on the Internet 231
5.6.1 Internet Sources 232
5.6.2 Implications and Limitations of Using the Internet 233
5.7 Health and Occupational Safety 234
5.7.1 Occupational Safety and Health Administration 234
5.8 Industrial Process Safety System Guidelines 235
5.8.1 Types of Safety Systems 236
5.9 Industrial Hygiene 236
5.9.1 Toxicology 236
5.9.2 TLVs and Exposure Limits 237
5.10 Atmospheric Hazards 237
5.10.1 Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere 237
5.10.2 Toxic Atmosphere 237
5.10.3 Chronic Industrial Exposure 238
5.10.4 Accidental Chlorine Gas Release: Case Study 238
5.10.5 Determination of Toxic Endpoint Distance 239
5.10.6 Determination of Exposed Population to this Scenario 239
5.10.7 Chronic Industrial Exposure: TWA and TLV 239
5.11 Safety Equipment 241
5.11.1 Personal Protective Equipment 241
5.11.2 Personal Protective Clothing 242
5.12 Communication Devices 243
5.12.1 Air Monitoring Devices 243
5.12.2 Ventilation Devices 244
5.12.3 Safety Harness and Retrieval System 244
5.12.4 Respirators 245
5.12.5 Confined Space Entry 245
5.12.6 Safety Training 246
5.13 Noise 246
5.13.1 Occupational Noise Exposure 246
5.13.2 Basics of Occupational Noise and Hearing Protection 247
5.13.3 Noise: Physical Principles 247
5.13.4 Noise Exposure and Noise Protection 248
5.13.5 Noise Control 248
5.14 Radiation 249
5.14.1 Definition 249
5.14.2 Different Sources of Radiation 249
5.14.3 External Exposure and Internal Exposure 249
5.14.4 Radionuclide Decay 250
5.14.5 Radiation Dose 250
5.14.6 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 250
5.14.7 Radiation Protection Principles 251
5.15 Effects of Global Warming: Climate Change – The World’s Health 253
5.15.1 The Greenhouse Effect 253
5.15.2 Greenhouse Gases 254
5.15.3 Are the Effects of Global Warming Really Concerns for Our Future? 255
5.15.4 More Frequent and Severe Weather 255
5.15.5 Higher Death Rates 256
5.15.6 Dirtier Air 256
5.15.7 Higher Wildlife Extinction Rates 256
5.15.8 More Acidic Oceans 256
5.15.9 Higher Sea Levels 256
5.15.10 Effects of Global Warming on Humans 256
5.16 Key Vulnerabilities 257
5.16.1 Health 257
5.16.2 Extreme Weather Events 257
5.16.3 Environment 257
5.16.4 Temperature 257
5.16.5 Water 257
5.16.6 Social Effects of Extreme Weather 257
5.17 Energy Sector 258
5.17.1 Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas 258
5.17.2 Nuclear 258
5.17.3 Hydroelectricity 258
5.17.4 Transport 258 Problems 259 References 260
6 Industrial Process Pollution Prevention: Life-Cycle Assesvsment to Best Available Control Technology 265
6.1 Industrial Waste 265
6.1.1 Waste as Pollution 265
6.1.2 Pollution Prevention in Industries 265
6.1.3 Defining Process Pollution Prevention (P3) 267
6.2 What Is Life Cycle Assessment? 267
6.2.1 Benefits of Conducting an LCA 268
6.2.2 Limitations of LCAs as Tools 268
6.2.3 Conducting an LCA 268
6.2.4 Life Cycle Inventory 271
6.2.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 273
6.2.6 Life Cycle Interpretation 277
6.3 LCA and LCI Software Tools 280
6.3.1 ECO-it 1.0 280
6.3.2 EcoManager 280
6.3.3 Eco Bat 2.1 280
6.3.4 GaBi 4 281
6.3.5 IDEMAT 281
6.3.6 EIOLCA 281
6.3.7 LCAD 281
6.3.8 LCAiT 281
6.3.9 REPAQ 281
6.3.10 SimaPro 7 282
6.3.11 TEAM (Tool for Environmental Analysis and Management) 282
6.3.12 TRACI: A Model Developed by the USEPA 282
6.3.13 Umberto NXT CO2 282
6.3.14 International Organizations and Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment 282
6.4 Evaluating the Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Chemical-, Mechanical-, and Bio-Pulping Processes 282
6.4.1 Introduction 282
6.4.2 Application of LCA 283
6.4.3 The Pulping Processes 283
6.5 Evaluating the Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Two Disinfection Technologies 291
6.5.1 The Challenge 292
6.5.2 The Chlorination (Disinfection) Process 292
6.5.3 Dechlorination with Sulfur Dioxide 293
6.5.4 UV Disinfection Process 295
6.6 Case Study: LCA Comparisons of Electricity from Biorenewables and Fossil Fuels 299
6.6.1 Results 299
6.6.2 Sensitivity Analysis 302
6.6.3 Summary and Conclusions 302
6.7 Best Available Control Technology (for Environmental Remediation) 303
6.7.1 What Is “Best Available Control Technology”? 303
6.8 BACT: Applications to Gas Turbine Power Plants 304
6.8.1 Importance of Energy Efficiency 305
6.8.2 NOx BACT Review 306
6.8.3 CO BACT Review: Combustion Turbines and Duct Burners 309
6.8.4 BACT Evaluation for PM/PM10 Emissions 310
6.8.5 VOC Control Technologies 311
6.8.6 BACT Evaluation for SO2 and H2SO4 Emissions 311 Problems 312 References 312
7 Economics of Manufacturing Pollution Prevention: Toward an Environmentally Sustainable Industrial Economy 317
7.1 Introduction 317
7.2 Economic Evaluation of Pollution Prevention 317
7.2.1 Total Cost Assessment of Pollution Control and Prevention Strategies 317
7.2.2 Economics of Pollution Control Technology 318
7.3 Cost Estimates 318
7.3.1 Elements of Total Capital Investment 318
7.3.2 Elements of Total Annual Cost 320
7.4 Economic Criteria for Technology Comparisons 321
7.5 Calculating CF 321
7.5.1 Achieving a Responsible Balance 323
7.6 From Pollution Control to Profitable Pollution Prevention 323
7.6.1 Life Cycle Costing 324
7.6.2 Total Cost Assessment 325
7.6.3 Economic Consideration Associated with Pollution Prevention 325
7.7 Resource Recovery and Reuse 325
7.8 Profitable Pollution Prevention in the Metal-Finishing Industry 326
7.8.1 National Metal Finishing Strategic Goals Program 327
7.8.2 The Role of Pollution Prevention Technologies 328
7.8.3 Value-Added Chemicals from Pulp Mill Waste Gases 332
7.8.4 Recovery and Control of Sulfur Emissions 333
7.9 Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater as Power Plant Cooling System Makeup Water: Tertiary Treatment vs. Expanded Chemical Regimen for Recirculating Water Quality Management 335
7.9.1 Introduction 335
7.9.2 Key Points 336
7.9.3 The World’s First Zero Effluent Pulp Mill at Meadow Lake: The Closed-Loop Concept 337
7.9.4 Successful Implementation of a Zero Discharge Program 339
7.9.5 Conclusions 340
7.10 Consequences of Dirty Air: Costs–Benefits 340
7.10.1 Public Health 341
7.10.2 Visibility 341
7.10.3 Ecosystems 341
7.10.4 Economic Consequences 341
7.10.5 Global Climate Change 341
7.10.6 Quality of Life 341
7.10.7 Costs–Benefits Analysis 341
7.11 Some On-Going Pollution Prevention Technologies 341
7.11.1 Economic Performance Indicators 343
7.11.2 Estimates of Environmental Costs 343
7.11.3 Total Annualized Cost for BACT 345
7.11.4 Cost Per Ton (T) of Pollutant Removal 345
7.12 Cost Indices and Estimating Cost of Equipment 348
7.12.1 Equipment Costs 348
7.13 Waste-to-Energy 350
7.13.1 Methods 350
7.13.2 Other Technologies 350
7.13.3 Global Developments 351
7.13.4 Examples of WtE Plants 351
7.13.5 Case Study: Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste: Profitable Pollution Prevention at the City of Spokane, Washington (see Appendix G) 352
7.14 Sustainable Economy and the Earth 354
7.14.1 What Is a Sustainable Economy? 354
7.14.2 Costs of Manufacturing Various Biobased Products and Energy 355 Problems 357 References 359
8 Lean Manufacturing: Zero Defect and Zero Effect: Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing 363
8.1 Introduction 363
8.2 Engineering Data Summary and Presentation 364
8.2.1 Sample Mean 364
8.2.2 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram 365
8.2.3 Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf Display 366
8.2.4 Application 366
8.2.5 Histogram 366
8.2.6 Pareto Diagram 367
8.2.7 Boxplots 368
8.2.8 Statistical Tools for Experimental Design: Process and Product Development 369
8.3 Time Series: Process over Time 369
8.3.1 Basic Principles 370
8.4 Process Capability 371
8.4.1 Statistical Process Control 372
8.4.2 Control Charts for Variables 372
8.4.3 PC Analysis 374
8.5 Lean Manufacturing 374
8.5.1 Overview 375
8.5.2 History: Pre-Twentieth Century 376
8.5.3 Toyota Develops TPS 379
8.5.4 Tata Group 379
8.6 Types of Waste 380
8.7 Six Sigma in Industry 381
8.8 Lean Implementation Develops from TPS 381
8.8.1 Lean Leadership 381
8.8.2 Differences from TPS 382
8.8.3 Lean Services 383
8.8.4 Goal and Strategy 383
8.8.5 Examples: Lean Strategy in the Global Supply Chain and Its Crisis 383
8.8.6 Steps to Achieve Lean Systems 384
8.8.7 Measure 384
8.8.8 Implementation Dilemma 385
8.9 Manufacturing System Characteristics: Process Planning Basics 385
8.10 Design for Life Cycle 386
8.11 Sustainable Design and Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing 387
8.11.1 Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing 387
8.11.2 Green Manufacturing Pipeline 387
8.11.3 Sustainable Manufacturing: Is Green Equivalent to Sustainable? 388
8.11.4 Manufacturing Technology Wedges 389
8.12 Lean Six Sigma 390
8.12.1 Introduction 390
8.12.2 The History of Six Sigma: 1980s–2000s 390
8.12.3 5S 392
8.13 Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing 392
8.13.1 Comparing the Two Methodologies 392
8.14 Cost vs. Quality Analysis 393
8.14.1 Considerations 395
8.15 Assessing and Reducing Risk in Design: Cost to Manufacturer 395
8.16 The Heart and Soul of the Toyota Way: Lean Processes 396
8.16.1 Fourteen Principles of the Toyota Way 396
8.16.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) 397
8.16.3 Cost of Quality: Poor vs. Good Quality 397
8.16.4 Cost of Quality: Not Only Failure Cost 397
8.16.5 COPQ: Internal Failure Costs 398
8.16.6 COPQ: External Failure Costs 398
8.16.7 Cost of Good Quality: Prevention Costs 398
8.16.8 Cost of Good Quality: Appraisal Costs 398
8.16.9 The Six Sigma Philosophy of Cost of Quality 398
8.16.10 Energy-Efficiency Plan for Lean Manufacturing 399
8.16.11 Become ISO 50001 Ready 400
8.16.12 A Ten-Step Outline for Energy Analysis: Understand the Energy Used to Transform Raw Material into Finished Product to Enhance Energy Efficiency (Stowe 2018) 400
8.17 Essential Roles of Industrial Environmental Managers 400
8.18 Goals of IEMs 401
8.19 Environmental Compliance and Compliance Assurances 401
8.20 Waste Reduction 401
8.20.1 Reuse and Recycling Processes 402
8.20.2 Benefits of Waste Minimization 402
8.20.3 Key Features: Industrial Environmental Management Process 402 Problems 403 References 405
9 Industrial Waste Minimization Methodology: Industrial Ecology, Eco-Industrial Park and Manufacturing Process Intensification and Integration 409
9.1 Introduction 409
9.2 Industrial Ecology 409
9.2.1 What Is EIP? 410
9.2.2 EIP Development 412
9.2.3 EIPs – The Ebara Process: Mini Case Study 9.1 in Japan 412
9.2.4 Mini-Case Study 9.2: Seshasayee Paper and Board Ltd. in India 414
9.2.5 Mini-Case Study 9.3: Materials and Energy Flow in an EIP in North Texas, USA 415
9.2.6 Mini-Case Study 9.4: EIP Including Numerous Symbiotic Factories for Manufacturing Very Large Scale Photovoltaic System 415
9.3 Water–Energy Nexus 417
9.3.1 Technology Roadmaps and R&D 420
9.3.2 Circular Economy 421
9.3.3 Rethink the Business Model 424
9.3.4 Biomimicry 425
9.4 CE Indicators in Relation to Eco-Innovation 426
9.4.1 Development of the Concept of the CE 426
9.5 Process Intensification and Integration Potential in Manufacturing 427
9.5.1 What Is PI? 427
9.5.2 Case Study 9.5: Elimination of Dioxin and Furans by Alternative Chemical PI 428
9.5.3 Mini-Case Study 9.2: Multi-Pollutants Capture and Recovery of SOx, NOx, and Mercury in Coal-Fired Power Plant 428
9.6 Manufacturing Process Integration 432
9.6.1 Process Integration Technique Has Few Possible Applications 432
9.7 New Sustainable Chemicals and Energy from Black Liquor Gasification Using Process Integration and Intensification 433
9.7.1 Introduction 433
9.7.2 Black Liquor Gasification (BLG): Introduction 435
9.8 Chemical Recovery and Power/Steam Cogeneration at Pulp and Paper Mills 436
9.8.1 The Pulp and Paper Industry 436
9.8.2 Black Liquor Gasification Combined Cycle Power/Recovery 437
9.8.3 Biorefinery 437
9.8.4 Liquid Fuels Synthesis 439
9.8.5 Dimethyl Ether 439
9.8.6 Pressurized Chemrec BLG 440
9.8.7 Catalytic Hydrothermal Gasification of Black Liquor 440
9.8.8 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 441
9.8.9 Mixed Alcohols 441
9.8.10 “WTW” Environmental Impact of Black Liquor Gasification 441
9.8.11 Water and Solid Waste 443
9.8.12 Mill-Related Air Emissions 443
9.8.13 Tomlinson Boiler Air Emissions 443
9.8.14 Economic Development Opportunities 444
9.8.15 Cost-Benefit Analysis 445
9.9 Conclusions 445
9.9.1 Summary 447
Problems 447
References 448
10 Quality Industrial Environmental Management: Sustainable Engineering in Manufacturing 453
10.1 Introduction: Industry and the Global Environmental Issues 453
10.1.1 Industry Role and Trends 453
10.1.2 Code of Ethics for Engineers 454
10.1.3 Sustainable Engineering Design Principles 455
10.1.4 Design for Environmental Practices 459
10.1.5 Why Do Firms Want to Design for the Environment? 460
10.1.6 How Does a Business Design for the Environment? 460
10.1.7 Design for Environment 460
10.1.8 Design for Regulatory Compliance 461
10.1.9 Design for Testability 461
10.1.10 Design and Test for Service and Maintenance 461
10.1.11 Design for Manufacturing 461
10.1.12 Design for Assembly 461
10.1.13 Design for Disassembly 462
10.1.14 Design for Sustainable Manufacturing 462
10.1.15 Design for Sustainability 462
10.2 Integrating LCA in Sustainable Product Design and Development 463
10.3 Green Chemistry: The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry 464
10.3.1 The Principles of Green Chemistry 465
10.4 The Hannover Principles 467
10.4.1 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 467
10.5 Sustainable Industries and Business 468
10.5.1 Eco-Efficiency 469
10.5.2 Sustainable Supply Chain Systems 469
10.5.3 Sustainable Green Economy 469
10.6 Six Essential Characteristics 470
10.7 Social Services 471
10.8 Environmental Regulatory Law: Command and Control Market Based, and Reflexive 471
10.9 Business Ethics 472
10.9.1 The Two Traditional Issues Involved with Ethics 472
10.10 International Issues 473
10.11 Ethical Sustainability 473
10.12 Social Sustainability 474
10.13 Conclusions 475
10.13.1 Business 475
10.13.2 Corporate Sustainability 476
10.14 Strategy for Corporate Sustainability 476
10.14.1 Business Case for Sustainability 476
10.14.2 Transparency 476
10.14.3 Stakeholder Engagement 476
Problems 477
References 477
Appendix A Conversion Factors 481
Appendix B International Environmental Law 483
Appendix C Air Pollutant Emission Factors: Stationary Point and Area Sources 487
Appendix D Frequently Asked Questions and Answers: Water Quality Model, Dispersion Model and Permits 493
Appendix E Industrial Hygiene Outlines 511
Appendix F Environmental Cost-Benefit 513
Appendix G Resource Recovery: Waste-To-Energy Facility, City of Spokane, Washington, USA 515
Appendix H The Hannover Principles 519
Appendix I Environmental Goals and Business Goals Are Not Two Distinct Goal Sets 521
Appendix J Sample Codes of Ethics and Guidelines 523
Index 527
About the Author
Tapas K. Das, PhD, PE, BCEE, is a chemical and environmental engineer; a Fellow member of the American Institute of Engineers; Past Chair of the AIChE’s Environmental Division; former Chair of the Air Pollution Control Committee of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Board of Trustee with the Academy; American Academy Who’s Who in Environmental Engineering from 2002 to the present; former environmental engineer at the Washington Department of Ecology; as an adjunct faculty member, Dr. Das has been teaching several undergraduate and graduate courses in Civil, Environmental, and Mechanical Engineering programs at Saint Martin’s University School of Engineering, Washington; formerly assistant professor in the College of Natural Resources and Paper Science and Engineering at the University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point; and recipient of the Professor S. K. Sharma Medal and CHEMCON
Distinguished Speaker Award for 2007 given by the Development Organization for Sustainable Transformation (DOST), Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers. Dr. Das holds a BS in Chemical Engineering from Jadavpur University in Kolkata, India, and PhD from Bradford University, Bradford, England. Dr. Das was a postdoctoral fellow at London’s Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medicine and a visiting scientist at Princeton University. He has wide practical and theoretical experience in various areas, including air toxics and aerosols, industrial wastewater treatment for water reuse, solid waste management and combustion, profitable process pollution prevention, reuse, recycle, redesign, sustainable engineering, and sustainability. Dr. Das is a registered professional engineer in the state of Washington. Dr. Das is the author of the book Toward Zero Discharge: Innovative Methodology and Technologies for Process Pollution Prevention (Wiley, 2005).
Preface
Recently, I taught a similar course titled “Industrial Environmental Management” to senior engineering students and found out that there isn’t a single textbook available to cover the depth and breadth of this subject matter. That alone motivated me to write this textbook with real‐world examples, challenging problems, and solutions provided for each chapter.
Tomorrow’s and today’s sustainable products and processes require engineers to carefully consider environmental, economic, social factors, while using sustainable feedstocks, renewable energy, water, chemicals, and materials in creating their design. Some quantitative tools for incorporating sustainability concepts into engineering designs and performing metrics are highlighted in the text; sustainable engineering and its principles introduce these tools and show how to apply them in lean manufacturing. In general, engineers and managers working in manufacturing industries find valuable and up‐to‐date information about lean manufacturing, Six Sigma, workers’ health and safety issues and environmental regulations, monitoring, reporting, and compliance. Also, consulting engineers will find useful information about sustainable design principles and methodology, plus best
available control technologies for environmental remediation in cost‐effective ways.
This book is dedicated to undergraduate and graduate students. This book is designed to be a textbook that is prepared primarily for junior‐level and senior‐level students in multidisciplinary engineering fields including, but not limited to, aerospace, chemical, civil, environmental, industrial and manufacturing, materials science and engineering, mechanical, paper science and engineering, petroleum engineering, and business management. The subject matters covered in this textbook will be suitable for offering a course in multiple engineering disciplines within colleges and schools of engineering programs. This book has 10 chapters. I have written the text for Chapters 1 through 8 for students in clear and simple language. Theories, real‐world problems, and applications are embedded throughout these first eight chapters so that students can check their understanding before continuing on to new sections. Chapters 9 and 10 are more suitable for a graduate‐level course in sustainable engineering, sustainable manufacturing, or related topics.
4 June 2019
Tapas K. Das Olympia, WA, USA
Acknowledgments
This book publication wouldn’t have been successful without the helping hands of many individuals. I would like to thank John Berg, Clint Bowman, Jae Chung, Meghasree Dey, Dibyendu Narayan Ghosh, Linn Hergert, Clint Lamoreaux, Joseph Mailhot, Robert Peters, Katherine Porter, Selma Thagard, Sandra Tully, and staff members at the Timberland Regional Library in the City of Lacey, Washington, who helped to prepare the manuscript, proofread the text, provided reference materials, figures, graphics for the book, and made the book more readable for students. Also,
I want to acknowledge my teachers, professors, and my classmates in India, my doctoral and postdoctoral advisors, mentors, and colleagues in England and United States for their encouragement, noble efforts, dedication and integrity to their professions, and exemplary lifestyle. Finally, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Bob Esposito, Associate Publisher at Wiley for accepting the idea of this textbook; Beryl Mesiadhas, Senior Project Editor; Devi Ignasi, Production Editor; Michael Leventhal; and the entire editorial and publishing team at Wiley.
www.wiley.com/go/Das/IEM_1e
