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Textural Characteristics of World Foods
Textural Characteristics of World Foods
Edited by Katsuyoshi Nishinari
Professor, Hubei University of Technology Wuchang, Wuhan
China, 430068
Emeritus Professor at Osaka City University Japan
This edition first published 2020 © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Nishinari, Katsuyoshi, editor.
Title: Textural characteristics of world foods / [edited by] Prof. Katsuyoshi Nishinari, Wuchang, Wuhan, CH.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2019009266 (print) | LCCN 2019013982 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119430933 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119430797 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119430698 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Food texture.
Classification: LCC TX546 (ebook) | LCC TX546.T49 2019 (print) | DDC 641.3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019009266
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: © LIUDMILA ERMOLENKO/Shutterstock, © Rtstudio/Shutterstock, © 9091086/Shutterstock, © Valeria Aksakova/Shutterstock
Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
Dedicated to all the friends who love the conviviality that conquers the hate leading to the war.
Contents
List of Contributors xix
Preface xxiii
Foreword xxv
Introduction
I.1 Why/How/What Do we Eat? xxvii
I.2 Terms for Texture/Taste/Aroma Related to Diverse Foods/Recipes xxviii
I.3 Universality and Diversity xxi x
I.4 Wonderful Diversity of World Foods xxx
I.5 Some Pitfalls in Texture Studies xxxii
I.6 About This Book xxxiii References xxxiv
1 Food Texture – Sensory Evaluation and Instrumental Measurement 1 Kaoru Kohyama
1.1 Introduction: History of Food Texture Studies 1
1.2 Three Methods of Texture Evaluation 3
1.3 Methodologies in Sensory Evaluation of Texture 4
1.4 Instrumental Measurements of Food Texture 6
1.5 Sound Effects 8
1.6 Visual Cues and Flavor Release 9
1.7 Concluding Remarks 9 References 10
Part I North America 15
2 Food Textures in the United States of America 17 Alina Surmacka Szczesniak
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Texture and the American Consumer 17
2.3 Role of Texture in Food Quality and Acceptance 18
2.4 Factors Shaping Attitudes to and Acceptance of Texture 18
2.5 Liked and Disliked Textural Characteristics 20
2.6 Textural Contrast 23
2.7 Contemporary Trends 23
References 25
3
Texture Characteristics of US Foods: Pioneers, Protocols, and Attributes ‐ Tribute to Alina 27
Gail Vance Civille, Amy Trail, Annlyse Retiveau Krogmann, and Ellen Thomas
3.1 The Protocols for Developing a Texture Lexicon 27
3.2 Texture Profiles and Evaluation Protocols for Selected US Foods 30
3.3 Potato Chip Texture Example 31
3.3.1 Ser ving Protocol 31
3.3.2 Tasting Protocol 31
3.3.3 Potato Chip Texture Summary 31
3.4 Bacon Texture Example 32
3.4.1 Ser ving Protocol 32
3.4.2 Tasting Protocol 32
3.4.3 Bacon Texture Summary 33
3.5 Peanut Butter Texture Example 34
3.5.1 Ser ving Protocol 34
3.5.2 Tasting Protocol 34
3.5.3 Peanut Butter Texture Summary 34 References 35
4
Textural Characteristics of Canadian Foods: Influences and Properties of Poutine Cheese and Maple Products 37
Laurie‐Eve Rioux, Véronique Perreault, and Sylvie L. Turgeon
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Some Historical Perspectives 37
4.3 Canadian Eating Habits 38
4.4 Poutine 39
4.4.1 History of Canadian Cheese Making 40
4.4.2 Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese 41
4.4.3 Cheddar Cheese Composition and Textural Properties 42
4.5 Maple Products 43
4.5.1 History of Making Canadian Maple Products 43
4.5.2 Manufacture of Maple Products 44
4.5.2.1 Transforming Sap into Syrup 44
4.5.2.2 Transforming Syrup into Delights of Various Textures 45
4.5.3 Maple Products Composition and Textural Properties 47
4.5.3.1 Maple Syrup 47
4.5.3.2 Maple Taffy 47
4.5.3.3 Maple Butter 47
4.5.3.4 Maple Sugar Products 48
4.5.3.5 Other Maple Products 49
4.6 Conclusion 49 References 49
Part II Middle and South America 53
5 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Mexican Foods 55 Alberto Tecante
5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Tortillas 55
5.2.1 Corn Tortillas 56
5.2.2 Wheat Tortillas 56
5.2.3 Mechanical Tests 57
5.2.3.1 Rollability 57
5.2.3.2 B ending 59
5.2.3.3 Stress Relaxation in Uniaxial Tension 60
5.2.3.4 Tensile Strength 60
5.2.3.5 Penetration or Puncture 61
5.2.3.6 Kramer Cell 61
5.3 Alegría (Amaranth Seed Sweet) 62
5.4 Ate (Fruit Paste) 62
5.5 Pan de Muerto (Bread of the Dead) 64
5.6 Queso Cotija (Cotija Cheese) 64
5.7 Conclusions 66 References 66
6 Textural Characteristics of Brazilian Foods 69 Angelita da Silveira Moreira and Patrícia Diaz de Oliveira
6.1 Formation of Food Habits in Brazil 69
6.1.1 Indigenous Inf luence 70
6.1.2 Portuguese Influence 70
6.1.3 African Influence 70
6.2 Main Raw Materials and Derived Foods 71
6.2.1 Cassava 71
6.2.1.1 Cassava Flours, Puba Mass, Manipueira, and Tucupi (ABIAP 2018) 72
6.2.2 Amylaceous Derivatives – Sweet Cassava Starch, Tapioca, Tapioca Flour, and Artificial Sago 75
6.2.3 Rice 76
6.2.4 B eans 78
6.3 Trends in Dietary Restrictions 82 References 83
7 Textural Characteristics and Viscoelastic Behavior of Traditional Argentinian Foods 89 Gabriel Lorenzo, Natalia Ranalli, Silvina Andrés, Noemí Zaritzky, and Alicia Califano
7.1 Introduction 89
7.2 Empanadas 90
7.2.1 Viscoelastic Behavior of Commercial Wheat Dough for Empanadas 91
7.2.2 Gluten Replacement in Empanadas: A Complex Task to Cover a Larger Population 93
Contents x
7.2.3 Final Remarks on Empanadas Dough 97
7.3 Dulce de Leche 98
7.3.1 Commercial Varieties of Dulce de Leche 99
7.3.2 Dulce de Leche Texture 99
7.3.3 Dulce de Leche‐like Product Enriched with Emulsified Pecan Oil 101
References 103
Part III Asia 107
8 Textural Characteristics of Japanese Foods 109 Katsuyoshi Nishinari and Tooru Ooizumi
8.1 Rice 111
8.2 Tofu 113
8.3 Gomatofu (Sesame Tofu) 114
8.4 Some Foods with Mucilaginous Texture 115
8.5 Food for Persons with Mastication Difficulty 115
8.6 Seafood in Japan 115
8.6.1 Sashimi and Marinated Products 117
8.6.2 Surimi Seafood Products 118
8.6.3 Dried Products 121
References 121
9 Textural Characteristics of Chinese Foods 125 Long Huang
9.1 Regional Cuisine/Foods in China 125
9.1.1 Shandong Cuisine (Lu Cuisine) 125
9.1.2 Canton/Guangdong Cuisine (Yue Cuisine) 125
9.1.3 Szechwan/Sichuan Cuisine (Chuan Cuisine) 126
9.1.4 Hunan Cuisine (Xiang Cuisine) 126
9.1.5 Jiangsu Cuisine (Su Cuisine) 127
9.1.6 Zhejiang Cuisine (Zhe Cuisine) 127
9.1.7 Fujian Cuisine (Min Cuisine) 127
9.1.8 Anhui Cuisine (Hui Cuisine) 127
9.1.9 Cuisines in Autonomous Regions of Tibet and Xinjiang‐Uyghur 127
9.2 Texture Descriptive Terms in Chinese 128
9.3 Textural Characteristics of Typical Chinese Foods 128
9.3.1 Crust of Mooncake (Yue Bing, Geppei) 128
9.3.2 Chinese Dumpling (Jiaozi, Gyoza, Shao‐Mai, Shumai) 130
9.3.3 Texture Modification to Flour‐Based Chinese Foods, Especially Noodle and Glutinous Dumpling 133 References 136
10 Textural Characteristics of Indonesian Foods 137 Oni Yuliarti
10.1 Geographical 137
10.2 Characteristic of Indonesian Diets 138
10.3 Textural Properties of Indonesian Foods 139
10.3.1 Gel‐Like Foods – Green Jelly Leaves 139
10.3.1.1 B otanical 139
10.3.1.2 Rheological Properties of the Gel 140
10.3.1.3 The Production of the Gel 143
10.3.2 Gel‐Like Foods – Seaweeds 143
10.3.2.1 B otanical 143
10.3.2.2 Gelation and Rheology of Pudding Rumput Laut 144
10.3.2.3 Production of Pudding Rumput Laut 146
10.3.3 Soy‐Based Foods – Tempeh (Fermented Soybeans) 146
10.3.3.1 Texture Properties of Tempeh 148 References 149
11 Textural Characteristics of Thai Foods 151
Rungnaphar Pongsawatmanit
11.1 Introduction 151
11.2 Historical and Geographical Background of Thai Food 152
11.3 Selected Food Samples with Sensory Evaluation and Instrumental Measurement 156
11.4 Health Benefit of Thai Food 160 References 163
12 Textural Characteristics of Malaysian Foods: Quality and Stability of Malaysian Laksa Noodles 167 Lai Hoong Cheng, Yan Kitt Low, A’firah Mohd Sakri, Jia Shin Tai, and Abd Karim Alias
12.1 Introduction 167
12.2 Chemical Composition 168
12.3 Organoleptic Quality 168
12.4 Textural Quality 169
12.5 Factors Affecting Textural Quality of Laksa Noodles 170
12.5.1 Rice Grain 175
12.5.2 Aged Rice 175
12.5.3 Milling Method 175
12.5.4 Particle Size of Rice Flour 175
12.5.5 Steaming Process 176
12.5.6 Blending of Other Starch/Starches 176
12.5.7 Extrusion and Boiling 176
12.5.8 Washing 176
12.6 Storage Stability 176
12.7 Nutritional Quality 178
12.7.1 Gluten Free 178
12.7.2 Low‐Fat Carbohydrate Choice 178
12.8 Conclusion 178
Acknowledgments 178 References 179
Part IV Oceania 181
13 Textural Characteristics of Australian Foods 183 Andrew Halmos, Lita Katopo, and Stefan Kasapis
13.1 Introduction 183
13.2 Importance of Mouthfeel and Its Recognition 184
13.3 De velopments in Mouthfeel and Texture Terms 184
13.4 Typical Meals with Descriptors for the Australian Palate 185
13.5 Breakfast 186
13.5.1 Toasted Bread 186
13.5.2 Cereals with Milk 186
13.5.3 Coffee 187
13.5.4 Fried Tomatoes 188
13.5.5 Steak, Sausages, or Chops 188
13.5.6 Eggs 188
13.5.7 Bacon 188
13.5.8 Spreads 188
13.6 Lunch or Mid‐Day Meal 189
13.6.1 Sandwiches with Fillings 189
13.6.2 Pie, Sausage Roll, or Pastry 189
13.6.3 Potato Products 189
13.6.4 Boiled or Steamed Vegetables 189
13.6.5 Vegetables with Roux 189
13.6.6 Salads and Dressings 190
13.6.7 Meat 190
13.7 Dinner 190
13.7.1 Soup 190
13.7.2 Meat in the Form of Chops or Steak 190
13.7.3 Seafood 190
13.7.4 Fish 191
13.7.5 Rice 191
13.7.6 Vegetables 191
13.7.7 Chinese‐Style Food 191
13.7.8 Cheeses 192
13.7.9 Sweets 192
13.7.10 Ice Cream 193
13.7.11 Snacks 193
13.8 Conclusions 193 References 193
Part V Central Asia Middle East 197
14 Textural Characteristics of Indian Foods: A Comparative Analysis 199 Amardeep Singh Virdi and Narpinder Singh
14.1 Introduction 199
14.2 Chapati 201
14.3 Gluten‐Free Chapatis 205
14.4 Biscuits and Cookies 205
14.5 Gluten‐Free Cookies and Biscuits 207
14.6 Noodles 208
14.7
Gluten‐Free Noodles 210
14.8 Bread 211
14.9 Gluten‐Free Bread 212
14.10 Muffins and Cakes 213
14.11 Gluten‐Free Muffins and Cakes 214
14.12 Conclusion 215
Acknowledgments 216
References 216
15 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Foods 223 Mahmut Doğan, Duygu Aslan, and Fatima Tahseen Miano
15.1 Introduction 223
15.2 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Meat‐Based Food Products 224
15.2.1 Sucuk (Turkish‐Type Fermented Sausage) 224
15.2.2 Pastırma (A Traditional Dry‐Cured Meat Product) 225
15.3 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Cheeses 227
15.4
Textural Characteristics of Traditional Turkish Desserts 231
15.4.1 Turkish Delight (Lokum) 231
15.4.2 Helva 232
References 234
16 Textural Characteristics of Iranian Foods: Cuisine Signifies Old Historical Identities 237
Bahareh Emadzadeh and Behrouz Ghorani
16.1 Iran Geography at a Glance 237
16.2 The Impact of Geography and History 237
16.3 Distinctive Features of Persian Cuisine 239
16.4 Bread 239
16.4.1 Sangak 240
16.4.2 Barbari 240
16.4.3 Taftoon 241
16.4.4 L avash 241
16.5 Rice 242
16.5.1 Rice‐Based Foods 242
16.5.2 Rice Cooking 242
16.5.2.1 Stewing of Rice by Steam 243
16.5.3 Rice‐Based Sweets and Desserts 243
16.6 Kebabs 243
16.7 Lighvan Cheese 244
16.8 Gaz: A Well‐Known Confectionary 245
16.9 Doogh: A Fermented Dairy‐Based Drink 246
16.10
Conclusion 246
References 247
17
Part VI Russia 251
Textural Characteristics of Traditional Russian Foods 253
Nataliia Ptichkina and Nataliia Nepovinnykh
17.1 Introduction 253
17.2 Formation History of Russian Cuisine 253
17.3 Textural Characteristics of Some Traditional Products 255
17.4 Bread from Rye Flour 255
17.5 Jellies from Meat and from Fish (Kholodets) 257
17.6 Soup‐Purée Based on Pumpkin Powder 258
17.7 Sauces 259
17.8 Curd Cheese Dishes 261
17.9 Kissels and Jellied Desserts 262
17.10 Aerated Desserts 263
Acknowledgments 265
References 265
Part VII Europe 269
18
Textural Characteristics of Italian Foods 271
Rossella Di Monaco, Nicoletta Antonella Miele, Sharon Puleo, Paolo Masi, and Silvana Cavella
18.1 Introduction 271
18.2 Cheese 271
18.2.1 Pasta Filata Cheese 274
18.2.2 Cooked Curd Cheeses 275
18.2.3 Other Italian Cheeses 277
18.3 Salumi 277
18.3.1 Italian Dry‐Cured Ham 278
18.3.2 Salami 281
18.3.3 Mortadella 282
18.4 Bread 282
18.5 Conclusions 285 References 286
19
Textural Characteristics of Greek Foods 293 Stefan Kasapis
19.1 Background 293
19.1.1 Olive Oil 293
19.2 Traditional Greek Cheeses 296
19.2.1 Feta 297
19.3 Health Conscious Feta Manufacturing 298
19.3.1 Texture Profile Analysis of Feta 298
19.3.2 Full and Low Fat Greek Yogurts 299
19.4 Popular Emulsion‐Type Meat Products 300
19.5 Conclusions 301 References 301
20 Textural Characteristics of British Foods 305
Andrew J. Rosenthal and Tim J. Foster
20.1 Introduction – What Are British Foods? 305
20.2 Roast Beef and Yorkshire Pudding 306
20.2.1 Culinar y Background to the Dish 306
20.2.2 Nature of the Raw Materials 306
20.2.3 Textural Considerations 307
20.3 Fish and Chips 307
20.3.1 Culinar y Background to the Dish 307
20.3.2 Nature of the Raw Materials 308
20.3.3 Textural Considerations 309
20.4 Conclusions 310 References 311
21 Textural Characteristics of Traditional French Foods 313
Bernard Launay
21.1 Introduction 313
21.2 Change in Texture Awareness: What and Why? 314
21.2.1 The “Ne w Cuisine” Style 314
21.2.2 Restaurants of Foreign Cuisine 314
21.2.3 Fast‐Food Restaurants 314
21.2.4 Changes Attributable to the Development of Industrial Food Products 315
21.2.5 Texture Measurement in Industry and Research Labs 315 Acknowledgment 318 References 318
22 Textural Characteristics of Spanish Foods: Dry‐Cured Ham 319
Susana Fiszman and Amparo Tarrega
22.1 Introduction 319
22.2 Production of Dry‐Cured Ham 320
22.2.1 Salting/Post‐Salting 320
22.2.2 Ripening 321
22.3 Sensory Quality of Dry‐Cured Ham 321
22.4 Sensory Assessment of Dry‐Cured Ham 322
22.4.1 Texture Attributes 323
22.4.2 Appearance Attributes 324
22.4.2.1 Color 324
22.4.2.2 Odor and Flavor Attributes 325
22.4.3 Other Sensory Techniques 325
22.4.4 Factors Affecting the Sensory Features of Dry‐Cured Ham 325
22.5 Instrumental Texture Techniques for Dry‐Cured Ham 326
22.5.1 Instrumental TPA 326
22.5.2 Warner‐Bratzler Test 327
22.5.3 Other Instrumental Methods for Measuring Texture Features 327
22.6 Instrumental Methods for Determining Sensory Features Other than Texture 328
22.7 Health‐Related Aspects of Dry‐Cured Ham 328
22.8 Final Remarks 330 Acknowledgments 330 References 330
23 Textural Characteristics of German Foods: The German Würstchen 335
Norbert Raak, Klaus Dürrschmid, and Harald Rohm
23.1 Introduction 335
23.2 Basic Technologies of Sausage Manufacture 336
23.2.1 Rohwurst 336
23.2.2 Brühwurst 337
23.2.3 Kochwurst 337
23.3 Sausage‐Related Culture, Stories, and Recent Trends 337
23.4 Evaluation of Texture and Rheological Properties of Sausages 342
23.5 Typical Sausage Side Dishes and Condiments 346 References 348
24 Textural Characteristics of Traditional Finnish Foods 353 Liisa Lähteenmäki and Karin Autio
24.1 Introduction 353
24.2 Rye Bread 354
24.2.1 Sensory Attributes 354
24.2.2 Textural Measurements 354
24.2.3 The Effect of Ingredients and Processing Conditions on Structural Properties 356
24.3 Oat β‐Glucan 356
24.3.1 Sensory Attributes 356
24.3.2 Rheological Properties 357 References 358 Part VIII Africa 361
25 Textural Characteristics of Nigerian Foods 363 Matthew Olusola Oluwamukomi and Olaide Samuel Lawal
25.1 Introduction 363
25.2 Classification of Foods Based on Their Rheological/Textural Characteristics 364
25.3 Foods That Flow and Do Not Require Any Chewing During Oral Processing (Newtonian and Non‐Newtonian Fluids) 364
25.3.1 Newtonian Fluids 364
25.3.1.1 Palm Wine 365
25.3.1.2 Pito 365
25.3.1.3 Kunun from Cereal 365
25.3.1.4 Nunu from Milk 365
25.3.1.5 Otika 366
25.3.1.6 Burukutu 366
25.3.2 Non‐Newtonian Fluids 366
25.3.2.1 Ketchup 366
25.3.2.2 Draw Soups: (Ogbono, okra, ewedu) 366
25.4 Semisolid Foods That Are Processed in the Mouth by Squeezing the Tongue and Palate 367
25.4.1 Pasting Properties of Starch Pastes (Ogi, Tuwo, Amala, Lafun, or Pupuru) 367
25.4.1.1 Ogi/Akamu Porridge/Agidi from Maize 369
25.4.1.2 Tuwo from Maize 370
25.4.1.3 Gari / Eba from Cassava 370
25.4.1.4 Pounded Yam (iyan) or Yam Fufu from Yam 372
25.4.1.5 Amala (Amala isu) from Yam 372
25.5 Soft‐Solid Foods That Require Chewing but Do Not Have “Crispy” Attributes 373
25.5.1 Akara from Cowpeas 373
25.5.2 Warankasi from Milk 375
25.6 Hard‐Solid Foods Are Crispy and Associated with a Crunchiness 375
25.6.1 Ipekere Agbado (Maize Fritters) 376
25.6.2 Maize Kokoro 376
25.7 Conclusion 377 References 377
Index 385
List of Contributors
Abd Karim Alias
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Silvina Andrés
Center for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
Duygu Aslan
Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
Karin Autio
VTT Technical Research Center, Otaniemi, Espoo, Finland
Alicia Califano
Center for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
Silvana Cavella
Center of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
Lai Hoong Cheng
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Gail Vance Civille
Sensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA
Rossella Di Monaco
Center of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
Patrícia Diaz de Oliveira
Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Mahmut Doğan
Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
TAGEM Food Analysis Center Co., Erciyes University Technopark, Kayseri, Turkey
Klaus Dürrschmid
Institute of Food Science, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Vienna, Austria
Bahareh Emadzadeh
Research Institute of Food Science and Technology, Mashhad, Iran
Susana Fiszman
Spanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain
Tim J. Foster
School of Biosciences, Nottingham University, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, United Kingdom
Behrouz Ghorani
Research Institute of Food Science and Technology, Mashhad, Iran
Andrew Halmos
School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Long Huang
Guangxi Neober Food Sci-Tech Co Ltd, Hezhou, Guangxi, China
Changzhou Neober Biotech Co Ltd, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China
Stefan Kasapis
School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Lita Katopo
School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Kaoru Kohyama
Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Annlyse Retiveau Krogmann
Sensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA
Liisa Lähteenmäki
Department of Management, MAPP, Research on Value Creation in the Food Sector, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Bernard Launay
Department of Science and Engineering for Food and Bioproducts, AgroParisTech, Centre de Massy, France
Olaide Samuel Lawal
Department of Chemistry, The Federal University Oye Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria
Peter Lillford
University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Gabriel Lorenzo
Center for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
Yan Kitt Low
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Paolo Masi
Center of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
Fatima Tahseen Miano
Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
Institute of Food Science and Technology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tando Jam, Sindh, Pakistan
Nicoletta Antonella Miele
Center of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), and Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
Nataliia Nepovinnykh
Saratov State Agrarian University, Saratov, Russia
Katsuyoshi Nishinari
Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Matthew Olusola Oluwamukomi
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Tooru Ooizumi
Department of Marine Science and Technology, Fukui Prefectural University, Obama, Fukui, Japan
Véronique Perreault
Quebec Institute of Tourism and Hotel Management (ITHQ), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
GastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ
Rungnaphar Pongsawatmanit
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Nataliia Ptichkina
Saratov State Agrarian University, Saratov, Russia
Sharon Puleo
Center of Food Innovation and Development in the Food Industry (CAISIAL), Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples‐Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
Norbert Raak
Chair of Food Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Natalia Ranalli
Center for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty
of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
Laurie‐Eve Rioux
Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
GastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ
Harald Rohm
Chair of Food Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Andrew J. Rosenthal
School of Biosciences, Nottingham University, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, United Kingdom
A’firah Mohd Sakri
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Angelita da Silveira Moreira
Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Narpinder Singh
Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Alina Surmacka Szczesniak Mount Vernon, New York, USA
Jia Shin Tai
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Amparo Tarrega
Spanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain
Alberto Tecante
Facultad de Química, Departamento de Alimentos y Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, Mexico
Ellen Thomas
Sensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA
Amy Trail
Sensory Spectrum, Inc., New Providence, New Jersey, USA
Sylvie L. Turgeon
Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
GastronomiQc Lab Joint Research Unit, a joint initiative of Université Laval and ITHQ
Amardeep Singh Virdi
Department of Food Science and Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Oni Yuliarti
School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore
Noemí Zaritzky
Center for Research and Development in Food Criotechnology (CIDCA), Faculty of Cs. Exactas, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of La Plata (UNLP), CICPBA, CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
Preface
We all know that the food texture is one of the dominating factors that influence consumers’ preference of a food product and willingness of next purchase. The texture of a food is closely associated with its structure at both the macro‐ and micro‐level, and it therefore has very important implications to other sensory properties, in particular the taste and aroma, because the release of small molecules depends on the pattern of food structure breakdown. I understand why consumers often prefer to say a food “tastes good,” but I believe that understanding a food to be “mouth‐feels good” could be fundamentally more important in relation to consumers’ acceptance and preference of a food product.
Even though food texture has been commonly used as a single term and in some cases used as an alternative to mouth‐feel, it is as a matter of fact a collective term consisting of a wide range of textural properties. The physical stimulus (or stimuli) to each textural feature could originate from the structural and geometrical contributions (and some other contributions, e.g. moisture or oil content), or their combination. No complete list of textural properties is yet available, but in the Japanese language, more than 400 textural terms/properties have been identified, covering features perceived by touching, seeing, and even hearing. Therefore, the description, definition, and — more importantly — the instrumental characterization of textural properties are not easy tasks and remain as a major challenge to food texture research.
Human beings are very fortunate that a great variety of food is available at different seasons and in different regions. While such a diversity of food sources is welcomed by consumers, a big complexity arises due to the diverse texture terms being used by consumers across the globe because of different culture and different languages. Research has already shown evidence of various texture preferences by consumers of different cultural backgrounds. Research also shows that the same texture term could have delicate differences between consumers speaking different languages.
While texture diversity should be celebrated for making our lives much more interesting and pleasurable, it brings a big challenge to the food industry now that its markets reach across the globe. This book is the first of such kind to give detailed insights into the texture diversity of foods across at all major regions of the world. Cultural, linguistic, as well as technical explanations of food texture are brilliantly integrated in this book.
I thank Professor Nishinari for his great effort in getting this book organized and published. His expert knowledge of food texture demonstrated in this book is hugely valuable to texture researchers in both industry and research institutes throughout the world.
Jianshe Chen
Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou, China
Foreword
We know that eating is one of the great unifying pleasures of life. Everywhere and in every culture, we celebrate by eating, and despite the warnings of an emerging obesity crisis, nutritionists find it very difficult to persuade people that too much of it can be bad for them. Furthermore, we are warned that our obvious pleasure in eating good food, when coupled with the growing population and its affluence, is leading to a global crisis as demand outstrips supply. This can only be managed if we understand much more about what we eat and why we like it.
We know that essential nutrients can be provided via liquid diets, and flavor and aroma can be managed much more easily in liquid systems, but there is something about chewing and breaking down food to swallow it that we enjoy – perhaps just because it prolongs or provides complexity to our senses?
So, texture is one of foods’ most important qualities and is a sensation perceived by us all. But how do we perceive it, and what do we prefer? Why is there such diversity in the food products eaten around the world? This book will not answer all these questions, but it provides a wonderful insight into the range of textures we eat and some suggestions as to why.
For the scientist and industrial technologist, the complexity of the questions are fascinating research topics requiring continuous investigation. This book begins with tributes to the founders of this inquiry, its current state of development, and the opportunities that modern techniques of mechanics and human physiology can bring to the table.
Others readers may regard texture as “gestalt,” implying that no amount of reductionist measurement science will (or should) codify the design rules for texture creation and its pleasurable impact. Whatever philosophy the reader prefers, this book provides a fascinating survey of what has been created by thousands of skilled empirical developments, converting agricultural produce to an almost limitless array of eating pleasures.
Peter Lillford University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Introduction
Katsuyoshi Nishinari
I.1 Why/How/What Do We Eat?
What do we expect from food? Food supplies energy and nutrition. We eat food when we feel hungry. This has been known to be controlled by the feeding center and satiety center in the hypothalamus in the brain. Since the discovery of leptin, a hormone regulating food intake, the understanding of the mechanism of food intake has greatly advanced. Now, the mechanism of food intake is being studied further, and it is thought that the central nervous system in addition to hypothalamus is governing the food intake.
Food has such a physiological function, but also has psychological or cultural aspects that have not been understood completely by physiology. The mechanism that explains why people lose their appetite in dejection caused by events such as the death of beloved persons, a broken heart, or being scolded has not been identified.
Food has a special function to unite people by conviviality. This function plays important roles to strengthen family ties in daily life, but was also used by feudal kings and aristocrats to tame or govern subordinates. People like to eat special foods on the occasion or the turning point in their lives such as birthday, marriage, and funeral. Selection of foods depend on the preference, which is influenced by culture and economic status.
Food processing/cookery has assured the safety by sterilization and removal of harmful ingredients, storage, and transportation, as well as improving the palatability. Texture has been known to be the most important attribute determining the palatability, and has recently attracted more and more attention in relation to the safe delivery of food into digestive organs without causing choking or aspiration (i.e. the wrong transport of masticated foods or liquids bolus into the airway instead of to the esophagus then stomach). In addition to these urgent problems, the interaction between the food and oral organs governed by brain function has attracted much attention, although these are not yet well understood. Thin liquids are known to be swallowed faster than thick liquids. Firm foods are masticated more strongly and the number of chews is greater than for soft foods. Are firmer foods chewed slower or faster than soft foods? Or is the chewing speed independent of firmness? It may depend not only on the firmness but also on aroma and taste (Nishinari and Fang 2018).
Society for Mastication Science and Health Promotion was founded by Kinziro Kubota in Japan in 1990. The collaboration among dentists, food scientists, and related disciplines is thought to be important. People tend to prefer softer processed foods that do not need
mastication. As a result, the jaw is degenerated and the space for teeth to grow is becoming insufficient, and thus the problem of snaggleteeth/irregular teeth can become serious.
The growth of the dental industry in developed countries indicates that people do not want to be deprived of the gratifying sensations that arise from eating their food. From the nutritional standpoint, it is possible to have a completely adequate diet in the form of fluid foods that require no mastication. However, few people are content to live on such a diet. It clearly shows that people want to continue to enjoy the textural sensations that arise from masticating their food (Bourne 2002). Bourne raises the following reasons for masticating food: gratification, comminution, mix with saliva, temperature adjustment, released flavor, and increased surface area. The link between reduced mastication ability and hippocampal neuron loss has been suggested, which might indicate that chewing plays a role in fending off dementia.
Saito examined the number of chewing using restored menus in each era in Japanese history. According to his examination, the restored menu for Himiko, queen of Yamatai in the third century, was found to need 3990 chews taking 51 minutes, 1366 chews and 31 minutes for Murasaki Shikibu (the author of Tale of Genji in the tenth to eleventh century), 2654 chews and 29 minutes for Minamoto Yoritomo (the first warrior Shogunate) in the end of twelfth century, 1465 chews and 22 minutes for Tokugawa Ieyasu (who established Edo Bakufu Shogunate in 1603) while only 620 chews and 11 minutes for a common menu in the present.
The decreasing tendency of the number of chews is a reflection of the decrease in the intake of tough/firm/hard foods. Many reports have been published that eating slowly with much mastication reduces the likelihood of obesity. Will this gradual change of food texture from firm to soft continue? Although the invention of softening of firm foods by enzymatic action that retains food appearance is good news for persons with difficulty in mastication, the decrease in chewing cycles sometimes results in fast eating, overeating, and obesity for normal persons. Bolhuis et al. (2014) and Forde et al. (2016) reported that smaller bite (amount of food ingested in the mouth) sizes and more chewing increased oro‐sensory exposure time and slowed the eating rate, thus providing a stronger satiety response per energy consumed.
While many studies have reported that the expected satiation increased with increasing thickness/hardness for liquid/solid foods, and texture is more important determinant for expected satiation and thus for the selected portion size of food, other factors such as the means of consumption (e.g. using straw or spoon), affecting the eating rate, could not be neglected. It is also expected that a creamy flavor will cause a higher satiation than fruity flavor, but this remains inconclusive (Hogenkamp et al. 2011). Texture and flavor are the two most important determinants of food consumption in addition to the cost, and their respective roles and interaction should be studied further.
I.2 Terms for Texture/Taste/Aroma Related to Diverse Foods/Recipes
Is there a relationship between the two representing systems of written language, alphabets (phonetics) and ideograms, and the universality/diversity problem?
Ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphics representing shapes of all the things around them, and ancient Chinese used also hieroglyphic characters engraved on bones and
tortoise shells. Origins of letters seem to be not so different. It can be imagined that ancient people devised these tools for communication by representing the shape faithfully and then simplified these shapes. However they came to their language, people of world now speak more than 7000 languages (although not all of these have a written equivalent, and many of these are spoken only by a small number of people). In an attempt to improve communication, Polish doctor L. L. Zamenhof invented what he hoped could be a universal language, Esperanto, although it has not gained many users/ speakers.
While most languages have evolved into alphabets that represent only sounds (i.e. phonetics, without specific meaning), Chinese‐based languages have kept the enormous number of hieroglyphic characters. However, the characters were simplified in the twentieth century in mainland China and Singapore; Japan and Taiwan retain the traditional Chinese characters.
The number of Chinese characters was thought to be about 50 000, but the publication of the largest Chinese character dictionary Zhonghua Zihai (simplified Chinese: 中华字海) compiled in 1994 listed 85 568 different characters. It is thus difficult to determine the exact number of Chinese characters. I had a lucky experience to be nourished by a Chinese family during my stay in the United Kingdom and was given different dish every day for more than six months. I enjoyed different dish every day for 180 days! This family knew so many recipes! Is this diversity of dishes related to the enormous number of Chinese characters?
Japan is known to have the largest number of texture terms – about 500. In his visits to Japan, Bourne was impressed by the textural diversity of Japanese foods (Bourne 2002). The great number of texture terms represents the deep attachment to texture difference of foods. The high ratio of the Japanese texture terms is onomatopoetic (Nishinari et al. 2008; Hayakawa 2015). Onomatopoetic representation of the texture is similar to the hieroglyphic representation of things. Only a slight difference of the appearance, shape, size, color, sound, etc. requires a different term in onomatopoeia, just as in the enormous number of characters in Egyptian or Chinese hieroglyphic representation. There has been no systematic published study on the relation between the actual sound one hears during mastication and the onomatopoeic word chosen to represent the sound. Is it determined by anatomic structural difference of organs in the oral cavity or in the cultural difference originated in one’s personal environmental background, historical, geographical, or education? It is well known that the onomatopoeic words for birds and other animals are different in English, French, and other languages, and therefore, these cultural differences partly account for differences in the onomatopoeia. Whether physiological difference or cultural differences are more important has not been studied, as far as the author is aware.
I.3 Universality and Diversity
For most physicists, it is valuable to understand a phenomenon by a simple equation symbolized by a Newton’s law of motion. Although all the events in the universe seem to be very complicated, we can understand the essence of the event by extracting the most important core of the event. Thus, physics made a great progress, and humans succeeded in understanding many events/phenomena. While the physicists have won a
great success, the biologists still face a great deal of mystery, although the field has also seen many great achievements. Physicists like the universality, while botanists/ zoologists/microbiologists are interested in discovering the distinctions that identify new species or in the phenomenon where many factors intersect, making the simplification – extraction of the essence – difficult. They pay more attention to the diversity, although they also try to find some universal law that can explain biological phenomena (Nishinari et al. 2016).
Goethe’s Faust reflects the thought of the biblical book Ecclesiastes that there is nothing new under the sun. Goethe is known to have discovered the incisive bone, and therefore he should have known that before and after the discovery, human knowledge is changed. He also disagreed with Newton’s analytical understanding of the nature. He wrote that nature should be grasped totally and should not be shredded into separated parts (Thuillier 1980). Thus, his thought “nothing new under the sun” should mean that human nature, mind, and feeling are essentially the same and not changed from the ancient times to his age. Therefore, the phrase “under the sun” represents “in the human mind.” However, our way of thinking and feeling is strongly influenced by the environment, which has been modified by science and technology. In the sixteenth century, a French monk Francois Rabelais wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel, giving advice on a wide range of best practices. Imagine what he would say if he could have used a washlet to clean himself after defecation instead of the downy feathers of a goose’s neck. Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top, proposed in Japan in 2005, uses easily understood illustrations to show desirable combinations of food groups and their approximate quantities. It was formulated by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). In this representation, not only the intake of the combination of diverse foods but also the importance of exercise is emphasized, because if the top stops spinning, it falls over. It is well‐known that exercise improves the appetite for diverse foods, although instead of healthy exercise, some immoral ancient Romans were reported to vomit to empty their stomach to create room for another favorite food. In the extreme, if one eats only one cup of noodles as a meal, this is surely against the recommendation of the Food Guide. Even if one is busy, one should not forget that continuing to eat such a simple meal will lead to health problems. Thus, enjoying a well‐balanced meal is not only an enjoyable but also a necessary duty for humans to be free from illness and to reduce the burden on a nation’s resources.
I.4 Wonderful Diversity of World Foods
As we can see in this book, different foods are eaten in each country. Each nation has its own food materials and enjoy different taste, aroma, and texture. Their raw materials are different, and way of cooking and processing are different. Texture, taste, and aroma interact, and the texture is the most important attributes to determine the palatability of foods, especially in staple food such as rice, bread, noodle, and potatoes, which mostly have no strong taste and aroma (Szczesniak 1963; Bourne 2002; Nishinari and Fang 2018).
Most humans enjoy the meals, and feel happy when they eat palatable foods with beloved persons, families, and friends. This pleasure to share the enjoyment with others is specific for humans, although animals give food to their children during nursing.
Humans have learned to share the pleasure with others in the course of building community. Since many nations wish to live peacefully with other nations, this shared pleasure should prevail all over the world. Readers will find that many different palatable foods are enjoyed in different countries, and will be interested in traveling to different countries to experience different foods/culture. Foods can unite all the humans peacefully.
This book is a collection of more than 20 chapters, each describing the textural characteristic of traditional and special foods in each country. We can learn from the traditional and special foods that are liked by people in each country. People are generally conservative in the preference of foods, but if they recognize the merit of new foods that might add to enjoyment and might also help people recovering from illnesses or surgery, these new foods attract much attention and prompt the industry explore more new products. Readers may find it interesting to compare the different preferences of the texture for cooked rice in Japan, Europe, and India. Readers may learn new ideas to improve food processing and distribution. Chapters address not only texture but the flavor release, as well as the relation between the texture and taste/aroma.
Recently, palatability has been shown not only to add enjoyment but also contribute to health by improving appetite and saliva secretion, and other physiological functions such as immunity and stress; the interleukin was found to increase in rats that were fed with sweet feeds while corticosterone was found to increase in rats fed with bitter feeds. As Brillat‐Savarin says:
The pleasure of the table belongs to all ages, to all conditions, to all countries, and to all areas; it mingles with all other pleasures, and remains at last to console them for their departure. … The discovery of a new dish confers more happiness on humanity than the discovery of a new star.
A so‐called China’s Brillat‐Savarin, Yuan Mei also talked about the pleasure of the table. Food companies are required to make products with many kinds of characteristics in response to consumer demand.
Diversity is not only reflected in foods and in culture; science and the arts also reveal the value of diversity. Misuzu Kaneko, a wonderful Japanese poet who unfortunately committed suicide, is loved by many Japanese including myself still today. The poet chanted, “Minna chigatte minna ii,” which I like so much and which has been translated by perhaps more than hundred Japanese persons, as exemplified in the internet: Everyone is different. That is what makes them wonderful. Everyone has his/her own wonderful personality. Everyone is different from others, and has value of existing, etc. A poet could be and should be and tries to create a new original expression that has sometimes never been used, and thus uses a special word that might not be understood immediately or move readers immediately. Sometimes the art will be understood only by a small group of people. Likewise, it is good to be able to enjoy different foods in the travel – to savor the diversity and find enjoyment in the experience. However, food has additional requirements. It must be not only palatable but also be safe. It must not be too expensive, and it must be sustainable, which is a task for food science and technology. I would like to unify the universality and diversity, and wish readers to enjoy each chapter and become friendly with many countries. I thank all the contributors of the book. It is my hope that readers will gain a greater appreciation for the important role of texture as they read this book. I am happy to see that my friends Amos Nussinovitch
and Madoka Hirashima published a book “More Cooking Innovations – Novel Hydrocolloids for Special Dishes” complementing their previous book “Cooking Innovations – Using Hydrocolloids for Thickening, Gelling and Emulsification”, both published from CRC Press.
I.5 Some Pitfalls in Texture Studies
After affirming and admiring the diversity of world foods, I must note that we should better to understand each other by using the common words to avoid the calamity of the biblical Tower of Babel, in which languages were so confused that people were unable to communicate meaningfully.
Foods that are masticated are broken down into small fragments by the teeth and mixed with saliva, thus being sufficiently lubricated to be swallowed (Hutchings and Lillford 1988). This mouth process model has been taken into account by many texture research groups as the starting point for understanding the oral processing (Chen and Engelen 2012). Although the mouth process model of Hutchings and Lillford is very versatile and schematizes concisely the dynamic nature, it does not specify the force or the distance quantitatively and never mentions the effect of smell and taste, which influences the mastication behavior. The interaction among different sensations texture, taste, and odor is still a matter of debate.
The texture profile analysis (TPA) has been widely used to quantify the textural characteristics of solid foods. This is a simple experiment to compress by a plunger a sample food placed on a flat base of the uniaxial compression machine, and then record the force. Usually, the compression speed is chosen so that it is closer to the mastication speed, but unfortunately, some commercially available machines do not allow the experimenter to use such a compression rate. In addition, in normal mastication the lower teeth in the mandible are raised to contact with the upper teeth so that foods can be broken down effectively, but in the TPA measurement the distance between the plunger and the base, called the clearance, cannot be set to zero to protect the force sensor. When the hardness is defined by the peak force, it is necessary to write the cross‐sectional area of the sample because the force is almost doubled when the area is doubled. It is also a pity that so many published papers lack the information of the compression rate,which seriously affects the value of hardness (Bourne 2002; Nishinari and Fang 2018).
The adhesiveness is defined by the negative peak force or the area enclosed by the force curve and the base line (usually time), and is usually interpreted as the degree of stickiness of foods to the oral organ, teeth, tongue, and palate. However, no‐rubber‐like sample is broken down after the first compression, and the surface area of the sample could not be defined uniquely. Therefore, to determine the adhesiveness, it is better to choose a larger clearance so that the area of the sample can be easily defined (Brenner and Nishinari 2014).
The ratio of the area of the force enclosed by the first compression to that of the second compression is called cohesiveness, and it is interpreted as the internal forces that maintain the structure of foods. Therefore, very brittle foods such as biscuits don’t recover the height after they are broken down by the first compression; the second compression does not detect any force, leading to a 0 cohesiveness value. It is
understandable that more deformable elastic foods such as surimi or dessert jelly may recover the initial height after the first compression, and therefore these foods many show comparatively higher value of cohesiveness. However, if this method is applied to liquids such as water, it is evident that the cohesiveness is equal to 1 because the level of water in a container will fully recover the initial height before the second compression begins. Is the cohesiveness of water is so high? Researchers working in dysphagia treatment say that yogurt‐like texture is ideal to prevent the aspiration because it is cohesive, meaning that the broken down fragment stick each other, which is called cohesive. But this “cohesiveness” is much different from the highest cohesiveness value of 1 shown by water, and is thought to be most dangerous for dysphagic patients because it is least cohesive! Thus, it is dangerous to apply TPA directly to liquid foods in the container (Nishinari et al. 2013, 2019a, b).
The plots of breaking stress σb against breaking strain εb are frequently used to classify the texture of foods, e.g. the ratio of σb/εb is called gel rigidity and used in the surimi community in Japan. It is evident, however, that this schematic presentation does not distinguish the strain hardening and strain softening because this ratio is obtained from only two points, the origin and the breaking point, and does not take into account whether the curve is convex (strain softening) or concave (strain hardening).
Small‐amplitude oscillational shear measurements have been introduced to understand the texture correlating with structure, but unfortunately sometimes, the artifacts were reported because of the slippage between the sample and the geometry of the apparatus. This is mostly caused by the syneresis. It is recommended to use waterproof sandpaper because serrated geometry commercially available is not sufficient to prevent the slippage, and/or to use the uniaxial deformation, which is free from slippage (Nishinari and Fang, 2018).
I.6 About This Book
The editing of the book started from the obituary for Alina Szczesniak, a pioneer of texture studies, who contributed a chapter “Food Textures in the United States of America” in a book New Encyclopedia of Mouthfeel (Eds. K. Nishinari, F. Nakazawa, K. Katsuta, J. Toda), which was published in 1999 only in Japanese by the Japanese publisher Science Forum (Tokyo). The Part of the book contains six chapters contributed by Long Huang (on China), Bernnard Launay (on France), Stefan Kasapis and Dimitrios Boskou (on Greece), Karin Autio and Liisa Lähteenmäki (on Finland), Andrew Halmos (on Australia), Alina Szczesniak (on USA).
As I was writing her obituary, I felt obliged to publish her chapter, together with other contributions, in English. One of the editors, Jun Toda, fortunately kept copie s of her manuscripts, and the director of the publisher Science Forum Motoyama generously allowed us to use these manuscripts. Szczesniak’s chapter has not lost its value but contains a lot of important descriptions. Her faithful coworker Gail Vance Civille and her team contributed additional information to complement Szczesniak’s chapter.
It was not an easy task for each author to write textural characteristics of foods in his/ her country. I feel happy and grateful to all the contributors for their great effort. I would like to thank all the editing team of Wiley, Cheryl, Bobby, Saleem, Atthira, Menon