Nanosatellites:
Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics Roge■Rio Atem De Carvalho
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Nanosatellites
Nanosatellites
SpaceandGroundTechnologies,OperationsandEconomics
Editedby
RogerioAtemdeCarvalho
ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedandAerospaceSystems(CRSEA) PolodeInovaçãoCamposdosGoytacazes(PICG) InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF) Brazil
JaimeEstela SpectrumAerospaceGroup Germering Germany
MartinLanger InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany and OrbitalOracleTechnologiesGmbH Munich Germany
Thiseditionfirstpublished2020
©2020JohnWiley&SonsLtd
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Carvalho,RogérioAtemde,author.|Estela,Jaime,1972-author.| Langer,Martin,1986-author.
Title:Nanosatellites:spaceandgroundtechnologies,operationsand economics/ProfessorRogerioAtemdeCarvalho,UniversityofFluminese, Rio,Brazil,JaimeEstela,SpectrumAerospaceGroup,Germering,Germany, MartinLanger,TechnicalUniversityofMunich&OrbitalOracle TechnologiesGmbH,Bavaria,Germany.
Description:Firstedition.|Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,[2020]|Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2019049523(print)|LCCN2019049524(ebook)|ISBN 9781119042037(hardback)|ISBN9781119042068(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119042051(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Microspacecraft.
Classification:LCCTL795.4.C372020(print)|LCCTL795.4(ebook)|DDC 629.46–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049523
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049524
CoverDesign:Wiley
CoverImage:©StocktrekImages/GettyImages
Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India 10987654321
Contents
ListofContributors xxiii
Foreword:NanosatelliteSpaceExperiment xxix
IntroductionbytheEditors xxxv
1I-1ABriefHistoryofNanosatellites 1
SiegfriedW.Janson
1.1Introduction 1
1.2HistoricalNanosatelliteLaunchRates 1
1.3TheFirstNanosatellites 3
1.4TheLargeSpaceEra 8
1.5TheNewSpaceEra 12
1.5.1TechnologyDevelopment 18
1.5.2CommercialNanosatellitesandConstellations 22
1.6Summary 23
References 24
2I-2aOn-boardComputerandDataHandling 31
JaimeEstelaandSergioMontenegro
2.1Introduction 31
2.2History 31
2.3SpecialRequirementsforSpaceApplications 34
2.4Hardware 35
2.4.1Components 35
2.4.2BriefHistoryofOn-boardComputers 36
2.4.3Processors 37
2.4.3.1FieldProgrammableGateArray(FPGA) 38
2.4.4MassMemory 39
2.4.5Bus 40
2.5Design 41
2.5.1SystemArchitecture 41
2.5.2CentralVersusDistributedProcessing 43
2.5.3DesignCriteria 44
2.5.4DefinitionofRequirements 45
2.5.5ResourceEstimationandDataBudget 45
2.5.5.1DataBudgetAnalysis 47
2.5.6Commanding 47
2.5.7Telemetry 48
2.5.8TimeGeneration 48
2.5.9HandlingofErrors 48
2.5.10RadiationEffects 49 References 49
3I-2bOperationalSystems 51
LucasRamosHissaandRogerioAtemdeCarvalho
3.1Introduction 51
3.2RTOSOverview 51
3.3RTOSonOn-boardComputers(OBCs):RequirementsforaSmallSatellite 52
3.3.1Requirements 54
3.4ExampleProjects 55
3.5Conclusions 56 References 59
4I-2cAttitudeControlandDetermination 61 WillemH.SteynandVaiosJ.Lappas
4.1Introduction 61
4.2ADCSFundamentals 61
4.3ADCSRequirementsandStabilizationMethods 62
4.4ADCSBackgroundTheory 65
4.4.1CoordinateFrameDefinitions 65
4.4.2AttitudeKinematics 65
4.4.3AttitudeDynamics 66
4.5AttitudeandAngularRateDetermination 66
4.5.1TRIADQuaternionDetermination 67
4.5.2KalmanRateEstimator 67
4.5.2.1SystemModel 68
4.5.2.2MeasurementModel 68
4.5.3Full-StateExtendedKalmanFilterEstimator 70
4.6AttitudeandAngularRateControllers 72
4.6.1DetumblingMagneticControllers 72
4.6.2Y-MomentumWheelController 73
4.6.3Three-axisReactionWheelController 74
4.7ADCSSensorandActuatorHardware 75
4.7.1Three-AxisMagnetometers 75
4.7.2SunSensors 77
4.7.3StarTrackers 77
4.7.4MEMSRateSensors 78
4.7.5Magnetorquers 79
4.7.6Reaction/MomentumWheels 80
4.7.7OrbitControlSensorsandActuators 81
4.7.8IntegratedADCSModules 81 References 83
5I-2dPropulsionSystems 85
FlaviaTataNardini,MicheleColetti,AlexanderReissner,andDavidKrejci
5.1Introduction 85
5.2PropulsionElements 86
5.3KeyElementsintheDevelopmentofMicropropulsionSystems 87
5.4PropulsionSystemTechnologies 90
5.4.1ChemicalPropulsionTechnologies 90
5.4.1.1ColdGasThruster 90
5.4.1.2MonopropellantEngines 90
5.4.1.3BipropellantEngines 92
5.4.1.4SolidPropellantEngines 92
5.4.2ElectricPropulsionTechnologies 93
5.4.2.1Resistojet 93
5.4.2.2GriddedIonEngine(GIE) 93
5.4.2.3HallEffectThruster 94
5.4.2.4PulsedPlasmaThruster(PPT)andVacuumArcThruster(VAT) 95
5.4.2.5Colloid/ElectrosprayandField-emissionThruster 96
5.5MissionElements 98
5.5.1OrbitChange 98
5.5.2DragCompensation 99
5.5.3Deorbiting 100
5.5.4AttitudeControl 101
5.6SurveyofAllExistingSystems 101
5.7FutureProspect 113 References 113
6I-2eCommunications 115
NicolasAppel,SebastianRückerl,MartinLanger,andRolf-DieterKlein
6.1Introduction 115
6.2RegulatoryConsiderations 116
6.3SatelliteLinkCharacteristics 117
6.3.1DigitalModulation 121
6.4ChannelCoding 123
6.4.1ConvolutionalCodes 125
6.4.2BlockCodes 125
6.5DataLinkLayer 126
6.6Hardware 128
6.6.1Antennas 128
6.6.2Oscillators 130
6.6.3PLLsandSynthesizers 132
6.6.4Mixers 135
6.6.5Receiver 137
6.6.6Transmitter 137
6.6.7Transceivers 138
6.7Testing 138
6.7.1ModulationQuality 138
6.7.2PowerMeasurement 139
6.7.3SpectrumAnalysis 140 References 140
7I-2fStructuralSubsystem 143
KenanY.¸Sanl��türk,MuratSüer,andA.RüstemAslan
7.1DefinitionandTasks 143
7.2ExistingState-of-the-ArtStructuresforCubeSats 145
7.3MaterialsandThermalConsiderationsforStructuralDesign 150
7.4DesignParametersandTools 152
7.4.1StructuralDesignParameters 153
7.4.2ThermalDesignConsiderations 157
7.5DesignChallenges 162
7.6FutureProspects 163 References 164
8I-2gPowerSystems 167
MarcosCompadre,AusiasGarrigós,andAndrewStrain
8.1Introduction 167
8.2PowerSource:PhotovoltaicSolarCellsandSolarArray 170
8.3EnergyStorage:Lithium-ionBatteries 172
8.4SA-batteryPowerConditioning:DETandMPPT 175
8.5BatteryChargingControlLoops 178
8.6BusPowerConditioningandDistribution:LoadConvertersandDistribution Switches 179
8.7FlightSwitchSubsystem 183
8.8DC/DCConverters 183
8.8.1BuckConverter 184
8.8.2BoostConverter 185
8.8.3SEPICConverter 186
8.9PowerSystemSizing:PowerBudget,SolarArray,andBatterySelection 187
8.10Conclusions 191 References 191
9I-2hThermalDesign,Analysis,andTest 193
PhilippReiss,MatthiasKillian,andPhilippHager
9.1Introduction 193
9.1.1ThermalChallenges 194
9.2TypicalThermalLoads 194
9.2.1HeatExchangeCalculation 195
9.2.2ThermalEnvironmentinEarthOrbit 197
9.2.2.1DirectSolarRadiation 197
9.2.2.2AlbedoRadiation 199
9.2.2.3EarthInfraredRadiation 199
9.3ActiveandPassiveDesigns 200
9.3.1SurfaceFinishes 200
9.3.2Insulation 201
9.3.3Radiators 202
9.3.4InterfaceConnectionsandHeatPipes 203
9.3.5ElectricalHeaters 204
9.4DesignApproachandTools 204
9.4.1NumericalMethods 204
9.4.2ModelingApproaches 205
9.4.2.1Top-DownApproach 205
9.4.2.2Bottom-UpApproach 206
9.4.3ModelUncertaintyandMargins 207
9.4.3.1ModelingUncertainty 207
9.4.3.2TemperatureMargins 208
9.4.4ThermalDesignTools 208
9.5ThermalTests 208
9.5.1TypesofThermalTest 209
9.5.1.1ThermalBalanceTest 209
9.5.1.2Thermal-VacuumTest 210
9.5.1.3ThermalCycleTest 210
9.5.2GuidelinesforThermal-VacuumTestPreparations 211 References 212
10I-2iSystemsEngineeringandQualityAssessment 215 LucasLopesCosta,GeilsonLoureiro,EduardoEscobarBürger,andFrancieleCarlesso
10.1Introduction 215
10.2SystemsEngineeringDefinitionandProcess 216
10.2.1ArchitectureDevelopmentProcess 219
10.3SpaceProjectManagement:RoleofSystemsEngineers 222
10.4ECSSandOtherStandards 225
10.5Document,RiskControl,andResources 228
10.6ChangingTrendsinSEandQualityAssessmentforNanosatellites 233 References 233
11I-2jIntegrationandTesting 235
EduardoEscobarBürger,GeilsonLoureiro,andLucasLopesCosta
11.1Introduction 235
11.1.1Integration 236
11.1.2Testing 236
11.2OverallTasks 236
11.2.1IntegrationTasks 237
x Contents
11.2.2TestingTasks 239
11.2.2.1FunctionalTests 239
11.2.2.2MassProperties 240
11.2.2.3EnvironmentalTests 240
11.3TypicalFlow 241
11.4TestPhilosophies 242
11.4.1TestStages 242
11.4.2TestModels 242
11.4.3TestPhilosophies 243
11.5TypicalSystemIntegrationProcess 244
11.6TypicalTestParametersandFacilities 244
11.6.1TypicalTestParameters 244
11.6.2TypicalTestFacilities 245
11.7BurdenofIntegrationandTesting 245
11.7.1I&TCosts 245
11.7.2I&TSchedule 248
11.8ChangingTrendsinNanosatelliteTesting 249 References 250
12I-3aScientificPayloads 251 AnnaGregorio
12.1Introduction 251
12.2Categorization 252
12.3Imagers 254
12.3.1MCubed-2/COVE 254
12.3.2SwissCube 254
12.3.3AAReST 255
12.4X-rayDetectors 256
12.4.1MinXSS 256
12.4.2HaloSat 257
12.4.3HERMES 257
12.4.4CXBN 257
12.4.5MiSolFA 258
12.5Spectrometers 259
12.5.1SOLSTICE 259
12.5.2OPAL 259
12.5.3LunarIceCube/BIRCHES 261
12.5.4GRIFEX 261
12.5.5HyperCube 262
12.6Photometers 262
12.6.1XPS 262
12.6.2BRITE–Photometer 263
12.6.3ExoPlanetandASTERIA 264
12.7GNSSReceivers 265
12.7.1CYGNSS 266
12.7.2CADRE 267
12.7.3 3 Cat2 267
12.8Microbolometers 267
12.8.1CSIM 268
12.9Radiometers 269
12.9.1TEMPEST 269
12.10RadarSystems 270
12.10.1RAX 270
12.10.2RadarAltimetersandSAR(EO) 272
12.10.3SRI-CooperativeInstituteforResearchinEnvironmentalSciences(CIRES) 274
12.11ParticleDetectors 274
12.11.1REPTile 274
12.11.2EPISEM 275
12.11.3FIRE 276
12.12PlasmaWaveAnalyzers 277
12.12.1CADRE/WINCS 277
12.12.2DynamicIonosphereCubeSatExperiment(DICE) 278
12.12.3INSPIRE/CVHM 279
12.13BiologicalDetectors 280
12.13.1OREOS 280
12.14SolarSails 283
12.15Conclusions 283 References 283
13I-3bIn-orbitTechnologyDemonstration 291
JaimeEstela
13.1Introduction 291
13.2ActivitiesofSpaceAgencies 292
13.2.1NASA 292
13.2.2ESA 292
13.2.3DLR 295
13.3Nanosatellites 295
13.3.1IOV/IODProviders 296
13.3.2SSTL 296
13.3.3AlbaOrbital 296
13.3.4GAUSSSrl 297
13.3.5OpenCosmos 297
13.3.6DeepSpaceESACalls 297
13.4Microsatellites 298
13.4.1BIRDandTET 299
13.4.2TDS 300
13.4.3EuroIOD 301
13.5ISS 301
13.5.1NanoRacks 301
13.5.2Bartolomeo 304
13.5.3ICECubes 305
13.5.4Starlab 305 References 306
14I-3cNanosatellitesasEducationalProjects 309
MerlinF.Barschke
14.1Introduction 309
14.2SatellitesandProject-basedLearning 309
14.2.1ABriefHistoryofEducationalSatelliteProjects 310
14.2.2ProjectClassification 311
14.3UniversitySatellitePrograms 312
14.3.1AalborgUniversity 312
14.3.2TechnischeUniversitätBerlin 313
14.3.3UniversityofTokyo 315
14.4OutcomeandSuccessCriteria 316
14.5TeamsandOrganizationalStructure 318
14.6ChallengesandPracticalExperiences 318
14.6.1StaffTurnover 319
14.6.2DevelopmentofMultidisciplinarySkills 319
14.6.3ExternalExperts 319
14.6.4ProjectDocumentation 319
14.6.5Testing 320
14.6.6Software 320
14.6.7GroundStation 320
14.7FromPureEducationtoPowerfulResearchTools 321 References 321
15I-3dFormationsofSmallSatellites 327
KlausSchilling
15.1Introduction 327
15.2ConstellationsandFormations 327
15.2.1DefinitionsforMultivehicleSystems 328
15.3OrbitDynamics 328
15.4SatelliteConfigurations 331
15.4.1DefinitionofWalkerDeltaPatternConstellation 331
15.5RelevantSpecificSmallSatelliteTechnologiestoEnableFormations 332
15.5.1IntersatelliteCommunication 332
15.5.2RelativeNavigation 333
15.5.3AttitudeandOrbitControl 333
15.6ApplicationExamples 334
15.7TestEnvironmentforMultisatelliteSystems 336
15.8ConclusionsforDistributedNanosatelliteSystems 337 Acknowledgments 338 References 338
16I-3ePrecise,AutonomousFormationFlightatLowCost 341
NielsRoth,BenRisi,RobertE.Zee,GrantBonin,ScottArmitage,andJoshNewman
16.1Introduction 341
16.1.1FormationFlightBackground 341
16.2MissionOverview 342
16.3SystemOverview 343
16.3.1Propulsion 346
16.3.2IntersatelliteLink 347
16.3.3Algorithms 348
16.3.4OASYS 348
16.3.5RelNav 349
16.3.6FIONA 349
16.4LaunchandEarlyOperations 350
16.4.1DriftRecoveryandStationKeeping 350
16.5FormationControlResults 353
16.6Conclusion 360 Acknowledgments 360 References 360
17I-4aLaunchVehicles—ChallengesandSolutions 363 KaitlynKelley
17.1Introduction 363
17.2PastNanosatelliteLaunches 365
17.3LaunchVehiclesCommonlyUsedbyNanosatellites 367
17.4OverviewofaTypicalLaunchCampaign 368
17.5LaunchDemand 371
17.6FutureLaunchConcepts 372 References 374
18I-4bDeploymentSystems 375
A.RüstemAslan,CesarBernal,andJordiPuig-Suari
18.1Introduction 375
18.2DefinitionandTasks 375
18.3BasicsofDeploymentSystems 376
18.3.1PODTechnicalRequirements 376
18.3.2PODTestingRequirements 377
18.4StateoftheArt 377
18.4.1P-POD 377
18.4.2T-POD 379
18.4.3XPODSeparationSystem 380
18.4.4ISIPODCubeSatDeployers 382
18.4.5QuadPackISISDeployer 384
18.4.6SPL/DPL/TPL/6U/12UofAstro-UndFeinwerktechnikAdlershofGmbH (Astrofein) 386
18.4.7CanisterizedSatelliteDispenser(CSD) 389
18.4.8JEM-SmallSatelliteOrbitalDeployer(J-SSOD) 392
18.4.9TokyoTechSeparationSystemandAxelShooter 394
18.5FutureProspects 395 Acknowledgments 396 References 396
19I-4cMissionOperations 399 ChantalCappelletti
19.1Introduction 399
19.2OrganizationofMissionOperations 400
19.3GoalsandFunctionsofMissionOperations 401
19.3.1MissionDatabaseOperationsFunctions 403
19.3.2MissionOperationsSupportFunctions 403
19.4InputandOutputofMissionOperations 404
19.4.1MAR 404
19.4.2MOCD 405
19.4.3SSUM 405
19.5MOP 406
19.5.1SuggestionstoWriteaMOP 407
19.6CostsandOperations 409 References 414 FurtherReading 415
20I-5MissionExamples 417
KellyAntonini,NicolòCarletti,KevinCuevas,MatteoEmanuelli, PerKoch,LauraLeónPérez,andDanielSmith
20.1Introduction 417
20.2MissionTypes 418
20.2.1EducationalMissions 418
20.2.2TechnologyDemonstrationMissions 418
20.2.3ScienceMissions 419
20.2.4CommercialMissions 419
20.3MissionExamples 420
20.3.1EducationalMissions 420
20.3.1.1Delphini-1 420
20.3.1.2FACSAT 420
20.3.2TechnologyDemonstration 422
20.3.2.1GOMX-3 422
20.3.2.2GOMX-4 424
20.3.2.3CubeL 426
20.3.3ScienceMissions 429
20.3.3.1DISCOVERER 429
20.3.3.2TESER 429
20.3.4CommercialMissions 431
20.3.4.1STARLING 431
20.3.4.2ThreeDiamondsandPearls 432
20.4Constellations 433
20.4.1STARLING 433
20.4.1.1Constellation’sOperationalSystem 433
20.4.1.2OrbitDeterminationandPropagators 435
20.4.1.3ConstellationControlSystem 435
20.4.2SkyandSpaceGlobal 436
20.5Perspective 437 References 438
21II-1GroundSegment 441
FernandoAguadoAgeletandAlbertoGonzálezMuíño
21.1Introduction 441
21.2GroundSegmentFunctionalities 441
21.3GroundSegmentArchitecture 442
21.4GroundStationElements 444
21.4.1RadioFrequencyEquipment 444
21.4.2StructuralElementsandRotor 447
21.5GroundSegmentSoftware 449
21.5.1OrbitPropagationSoftware 449
21.5.2TrackingSoftware 450
21.5.3CommunicationsSoftware 450
21.5.4MissionPlanningTools 450
21.5.5MissionOperationsConsole 450
21.5.6TelemetryAnalysisTools 451
21.6GroundSegmentOperation 451
21.6.1UsagePlanning 451
21.6.2CommunicationAccessExecution 451
21.7FutureProspects 452
21.7.1SDR 452
21.7.2GroundStationAutomation 453 References 455
22II-2GroundStationNetworks 457
LucasRodriguesAmaduroandRogerioAtemdeCarvalho
22.1Introduction 457
22.2TechnologicalChallenges 457
22.3VisibilityClashProblemsofStationsandSatellites 458
22.4TheDistributedGroundStationNetwork 459
22.5Infrastructure 459
22.6PlanningandScheduling 460
22.7GenericSoftwareArchitecture 460
22.8ExampleNetworks 462
22.9TraditionalGroundStationApproach 462
22.10HeterogeneousGroundStationApproach 464
22.11HomogeneousGroundStationApproach 466
22.11.1AutomationandOptimization 466
22.12Conclusions 469 References 469
23II-3Ground-basedSatelliteTracking 471
EnricoStoll,JürgenLetschnik,andChristopherKebschull
23.1Introduction 471
23.2OrbitalElementSets 472
23.2.1StateVectors 472
23.2.2Two-lineElements 473
23.2.3KeplerianElements 474
23.3TrackletGenerationfromGroundMeasurements 475
23.3.1Perturbations 475
23.3.2SensorTypes 476
23.3.3OrbitDetermination 478
23.4TrackingCubeSatswithGroundStations 481
23.4.1VectorRotations 481
23.4.2TLEtoKeplerianElements 482
23.4.3KeplerianElementstoPerifocalCoordinates 482
23.4.4PerifocaltoECICoordinates 483
23.4.5ECItoECFcoordinates 483
23.4.6ECFtoGroundStationAzElCoordinates 484
23.5OrbitPropagation 485
23.5.1NumericalOrbitPropagation 485
23.5.2AnalyticalOrbitPropagation 486
23.6PrincipleofOperationsofGroundStations 487
23.6.1FundamentalsofAntennaTechnology 487
23.6.2TrackingSoftwareExamplesandFeatures 489
23.6.3ChallengesinCubeSatTracking 491
23.7Summary 492 References 493
24II-4aAMSAT 495
AndrewBarron(ZL3DW)
24.1Introduction 495
24.2ProjectOSCAR 496
24.2.1OSCAR1Satellite(1961) 496
24.2.2OSCAR2Satellite(1962) 497
24.2.3OSCAR3Satellite(1965) 497
24.2.4OSCAR4Satellite(1965) 498
24.3AMSATSatelliteDesignations 499
24.4OtherNotableAMSATandOSCARSatellites 500
24.4.1OSCAR7Satellite,AO-7(1974) 500
24.4.2UoSAT-1Satellite(UO-9)(1981) 500
24.4.3ISS(ARISS)(1998–Present) 501
24.4.4OSCAR40(AO-40)(2000) 502
24.4.5SuitSat(AO-54)(2006) 502
24.5TheDevelopmentofCubeSats 503
24.6FUNcubeSatellites 504
24.7FoxSatellites 505
24.8GOLFSatellites 505
24.9TheIARUandITUResolution659 506 References 507
24II-4bNewRadioTechnologies 508
AndrewBarron(ZL3DW)
24.10Introduction 508
24.11SDRSpaceSegment 509
24.12SDRGroundSegment 510
24.13ModernTransmitterDesign 511 Reference 513
25III-1aCostBreakdownfortheDevelopmentofNanosatellites 515 KatharineBrumbaughGamble
25.1Introduction 515
25.2RecurringCosts 517
25.2.1SpacecraftHardware 517
25.2.1.1AttitudeDeterminationandControlSystem(ADACS) 517
25.2.1.2Avionics 519
25.2.1.3StructureandPayload 520
25.2.2IntegrationandTesting 520
25.2.3Launch,Operations,andPersonnel 521
25.3NonrecurringCosts 521
25.3.1SpacecraftTesting 522
25.3.2IntegrationandTestingFacilities 522
25.3.3GroundStation 523
25.3.4Personnel 523
25.4SatelliteCost-estimatingModels 523
25.4.1NonparametricCost-estimatingMethods 524
25.4.2SmallSatelliteCostModel 525
25.4.3NASAAirForceCostModel(NAFCOM) 526
25.4.4OtherModels 527
25.5RiskEstimationandReduction 528
25.6Conclusions 530 References 530
26III-1bLaunchCosts 533
MerlinF.Barschke
26.1Introduction 533
26.2LaunchingNanosatellites 533
26.2.1DedicatedLaunch 534
26.2.2PiggybackLaunch 534
26.2.3RideshareorClusterLaunch 535
26.2.4ISSDeployment 535
26.2.4.1PresentLaunches 535
26.2.4.2FutureDevelopments 537
26.3LaunchSites 539
26.4LaunchMilestones 539
26.4.1LaunchContract 539
26.4.2PayloadICD 540
26.4.3HardwareDeliveryandLaunchCampaign 540
26.5LaunchCost 540 References 541
27III-2aPoliciesandRegulationsinEurope 545
NetaPalkovitz
27.1Introduction 545
27.2InternationalSpaceLaw 545
27.2.1General–WhatIsInternationalSpaceLaw? 545
27.2.2KeyTreatyProvisions 546
27.2.2.1FreedomofExplorationandUseofOuterSpaceandPossibleRestrictions 546
27.2.2.2StateResponsibility 547
27.2.2.3InternationalLiability 548
27.2.2.4RegistrationofSpaceObjects 549
27.3NationalLawsandPracticesinEUMemberStates 550
27.3.1General–WhatareNationalSpaceLaws? 550
27.3.2Regulations,OfficialForms,andInterpretingGuidelines 551
27.3.3AdditionalInternationalLegalInstrumentsandTheirRelevancetoNational SpaceLaws 551
27.3.4Applicability 552
27.3.5ExamplesofEuropeanStatesthatMadeSpecificConsiderationforSmall SatelliteMissionsinTheirNationalSpaceLawsandPolicies,withRespectto Third-partyLiabilityInsurance 552
27.3.5.1Third-partyLiabilityInsuranceandOtherInsurancePolicies 552
27.3.5.2ExamplesforNationalSpaceLawsandPoliciesinEurope,FocusingonSmall SatellitesandInsuranceRequirements 553
27.4FutureRegulationandProspects 554 References 555
28III-2bPoliciesandRegulationsinNorthAmerica 557
MikeMillerandKirkWoellert
28.1Introduction 557
28.2GoverningTreatiesandLaws 558
28.2.1TheSpaceTreatiesandInternationalConventions 558
28.2.2InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion/InternationalOrganization 560
28.2.3DomesticPolicyWithintheUSA 561
28.3OrbitalDebrisMitigation 561
28.4SpaceTrafficManagement 563
28.5LicensingofRadioTransmissionfromSpace 566
28.5.1LicensingAuthorities 566
28.5.2NTIAOriginsandRangeofAuthority 566
28.5.3FCCOriginsandLicenseTypes 566
28.5.4ChoosingaFrequency 567
28.5.5FCCLicenseFeeExemption–GovernmentEntities 568
28.5.6CoordinationofUseofAmateurFrequencies 568
28.5.7AmateurLicensingforSatelliteTransmitters 568
28.5.8ExperimentalLicensingforSatelliteTransmitters 569
28.5.9Part25LicensingforSatelliteTransmitters 569
28.6LicensingforRemoteSensingActivitiesfromSpace 570
28.6.1LicensingRequirements 571
28.6.2Fees,Timeline,andPostIssuanceObligations 571
28.7ExportControlLaws 571
28.7.1GeneralPrinciples,Requirements,andCommonMisconceptions 572
28.7.2ExportControlReform 573
28.8Conclusion 575
28.8.1InternationalEfforts 575
28.8.2USEfforts 576
28.8.3NewSpace 576 References 577
29III-2cInternationalOrganizationsandInternationalCooperation 583 Jean-FrancoisMayence
29.1Introduction 583
29.2TheUnitedNationsandAffiliatedOrganizations 584
29.2.1GeneralConsiderations 584
29.2.2UNCOPUOSandSpaceLaw 585
29.3InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion 589
29.4OtherUnitedNationsAgenciesandBodies 590
29.4.1UNITAR/UNOSAT 591
29.4.2UNESCO 591
29.4.3UNDP 592
29.4.4UNEP 592
29.4.5OtherUNAgenciesandBodies 592
29.5Non-UNOrganizations 593
29.5.1UNIDROIT 593
29.5.2NATOandMilitaryNanosatellites 594
29.5.3IntergovernmentalAgreementontheInternationalSpaceStation 595
29.6MainNon-EuropeanSpacefaringNations 597
29.6.1USA 598
29.6.2Russia 598
29.6.3India 598
29.6.4Canada 599
29.6.5Japan 599
29.6.6China 599
29.6.7DevelopingCountries 599
29.7Conclusions 600 References 601
30III-3aEconomyofSmallSatellites 603
RichardJoye
30.1Introduction 603
30.2RethinkingtheValueChain 603
30.3AHybridSmallSatelliteValueChain 604
30.3.1IrreplaceabilityofKeyPlayers 605
30.3.2InterdependenciesBetweenSmallSatelliteIndustryPlayers 606
30.3.2.1StartupsDoingBusinesswithStartups 607
30.3.3SomeSegmentsarePassiveorOnlyPlantingSeeds 608
30.4Evolution,NotRevolution? 611
30.5TheEconomicsatPlay 612
30.6SatelliteManufacturers 612
30.7LaunchServiceProviders 614
30.8SatelliteOperators 615
30.9SatelliteServicingProviders 616
30.10DataandSolutionProviders 616
30.11AShiftTowardNewModels 617 References 618 FurtherReading 618
31III-3bEconomicsandtheFuture 621
RichardJoye
31.1Introduction 621
31.2ThemesShapingtheSpaceIndustry 622
31.2.1PrivatizationofSpaceActivities 622
31.2.2MakingSpaceAccessibleandAffordable 623
31.3Megatrends 624
31.3.1Launchers 624
31.3.2Constellations 627
31.3.3On-orbitandIn-spaceOperations 628
31.3.4Data 631
31.4Conclusion:TheSpaceIndustryIsinMutation 632 FurtherReading 632
32III-3cNetworksofNanosatellites 635
RichardJoye
32.1Introduction 635
32.2WhyNetworks? 635
32.2.1Background:NetworksareNotNew 636
32.2.2LEOandMEONetworks 637
32.2.3Constellations:OneTypeofNetwork 637
32.2.4TheRaisond’êtreofNetworksofSmallSatellites 639
32.2.5ExistingNetworks 640
32.3OpportunitiesforNetworksofNanosatellites 641
32.3.1NetworkTrends 641
32.3.1.1Telecommunication 641
32.3.1.2EarthObservation/Monitoring(EO) 643
32.3.2NanosatellitesinThisFramework 644
32.4ChallengesandIssues 646
32.4.1Overcapacity 646
32.4.2LackofLaunchOpportunities 646
32.4.3SpaceDebris 647
32.4.4Regulatory 647
32.4.4.1Conclusion:NetworksofNanosatellitesareaGame-changingTechnology 648
Reference 648
FurtherReading 648
ListofExistingandUpcomingNetworksofSatellites–January2018,Updated March2019 649
Index 663
ListofContributors
FernandoAguado-Agelet DepartmentofSignalTheoryand Communications UniversityofVigo EETelecomunicación Spain
LucasRodriguesAmaduro ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedand AerospaceSystems(CRSEA) PolodeInovaçãoCamposdosGoytacazes (PICG)
InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF) Brazil
KellyAntonini GomSpaceA/S Aalborg Denmark
NicolasAppel InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany
ScottArmitage SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS, Toronto Canada
AlimRüstemAslan SpaceSystemsDesignandTestLab DepartmentofAstronauticalEngineering IstanbulTechnicalUniversity Turkey
AndrewBarron Broadspectrum(NewZealand)Limited Christchurch NewZealand
MerlinF.Barschke InstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics TechnischeUniversitätBerlin Germany
CesarBernal ISIS–InnovativeSolutionsInSpaceB.V. Delft TheNetherlands
GrantBonin SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS Toronto Canada EduardoEscobarBürger FederalUniversityofSantaMaria(UFSM) Brazil
xxiv ListofContributors
FrancieleCarlesso
NationalInstituteforSpaceResearch SãoJosédosCampos
Brazil
NicolòCarletti GomSpaceA/S Aalborg
Denmark
RogerioAtemdeCarvalho ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedand AerospaceSystems(CRSEA) PolodeInovaçãoCamposdosGoytacazes (PICG)
InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF)
Brazil
ChantalCappelletti UniversityofNottingham UnitedKingdom
MicheleColetti MarsSpaceLtd. Southampton UnitedKingdom
MarcosCompadre ClydeSpaceLimited Glasgow UnitedKingdom
LucasLopesCosta NationalInstituteforSpaceResearch SãoJosédosCampos
Brazil
KevinCuevas GomSpaceA/S Aalborg
Denmark
MatteoEmanuelli GomSpaceA/S Aalborg Denmark
JaimeEstela SpectrumAerospaceGroup Germering Germany
KatharineBrumbaughGamble WashingtonD.C. UnitedStatesofAmerica
AusiasGarrigós MiguelHernándezUniversityofElche Spain
AnnaGregorio DepartmentofPhysics UniversityofTrieste Italy
PhilippHager EuropeanSpaceAgency Noordwijk TheNetherlands
LucasRamosHissa ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedand AerospaceSystems(CRSEA) InnovationHub InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF) CamposdosGoytacazes Brazil
SiegfriedW.Janson xLab TheAerospaceCorporation ElSegundo UnitedStatesofAmerica
RichardJoye KCHK–KeyCapitalHongKongLimited HongKong
ChristopherKebschull InstituteofSpaceSystems TechnicalUniversityofBraunschweig Germany
KaitlynKelley SpaceflightIndustries Seattle UnitedStatesofAmerica
MatthiasKillian InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany
Rolf-DieterKlein MultimediaStudioRolf-DieterKlein München Germany
PerKoch GomSpaceA/S Aalborg Denmark
DavidKrejci ENPULSION WienerNeustadt Austria and MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology Cambridge UnitedStatesofAmerica
ListofContributors
MartinLanger OrbitalOracleTechnologiesGmbH Munich Germany and InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany
VaiosJ.Lappas DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering andAeronautics UniversityofPatras Greece
JürgenLetschnik InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany and Airbus Taufkirchen/Ottobrunn Germany
GeilsonLoureiro LaboratoryofIntegrationandTesting(LIT) NationalInstituteforSpaceResearch (INPE) SãoJosédosCampos Brazil
Jean-FrancoisMayence BelgianFederalSciencePolicyOffice (BELSPO) Brussels Belgium
xxvi ListofContributors
MikeMiller
SterkSolutionsCorporation Philipsburg UnitedStatesofAmerica
SergioMontenegro UniversityWürzburg Germany
AlbertoGonzálezMuíño UniversityofVigo EETelecomunicación Spain
FlaviaTataNardini FleetSpaceTechnologies Beverley Australia
JoshNewman SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS Toronto Canada
NetaPalkovitz
ISIS–InnovativeSolutionsInSpaceB.V. Delft TheNetherlands and InternationalInstituteofAirandSpace Law(IIASL) LeidenUniversity TheNetherlands
LauraLeónPérez GomSpaceA/S Aalborg
Denmark
JordiPuig-Suari CalPoly AerospaceEngineeringDepartment SanLuisObispo UnitedStatesofAmerica
PhilippReiss InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany
AlexanderReissner ENPULSION WienerNeustadt Austria
BenRisi SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS Toronto Canada
NielsRoth SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS Toronto Canada
SebastianRückerl InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany
KenanY.¸Sanl��türk DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering IstanbulTechnicalUniversity Turkey
KlausSchilling UniversityWürzburg and ZentrumfürTelematik Germany
DanielSmith GomSpaceA/S Aalborg Denmark WillemHermanSteyn UniversityofStellenbosch SouthAfrica
EnricoStoll InstituteofSpaceSystems TechnicalUniversityofBraunschweig Germany
AndrewStrain ClydeSpaceLimited Glasgow UnitedKingdom
ListofContributors
MuratSüer GumushAeroSpace&Defense Maslak Istanbul Turkey
BobTwiggs MoreheadStateUniversity UnitedStatesofAmerica
KirkWoellert ManTechInternationalsupportingDARPA Arlington UnitedStatesofAmerica
RobertE.Zee SpaceFlightLaboratory(SFL) UTIAS
Toronto Canada