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John Littlewood

Robert J. Howlett

Lakhmi C. Jain Editors

Sustainability in Energy and Buildings 2022

SmartInnovation,SystemsandTechnologies

Volume336

SeriesEditors

RobertJ.Howlett,KESInternationalResearch,Shoreham-by-Sea,UK

LakhmiC.Jain,KESInternational,Shoreham-by-Sea,UK

TheSmartInnovation,SystemsandTechnologiesbookseriesencompassesthetopics ofknowledge,intelligence,innovationandsustainability.Theaimoftheseriesisto makeavailableaplatformforthepublicationofbooksonallaspectsofsingleand multi-disciplinaryresearchonthesethemesinordertomakethelatestresultsavailableinareadily-accessibleform.Volumesoninterdisciplinaryresearchcombining twoormoreoftheseareasisparticularlysought.

Theseriescoverssystemsandparadigmsthatemployknowledgeandintelligence inabroadsense.Itsscopeissystemshavingembeddedknowledgeandintelligence, whichmaybeappliedtothesolutionofworldproblemsinindustry,theenvironment andthecommunity.Italsofocussesontheknowledge-transfermethodologiesand innovationstrategiesemployedtomakethishappeneffectively.Thecombination ofintelligentsystemstoolsandabroadrangeofapplicationsintroducesaneed forasynergyofdisciplinesfromscience,technology,businessandthehumanities. Theserieswillincludeconferenceproceedings,editedcollections,monographs, handbooks,referencebooks,andotherrelevanttypesofbookinareasofscienceand technologywheresmartsystemsandtechnologiescanofferinnovativesolutions.

Highqualitycontentisanessentialfeatureforallbookproposalsacceptedforthe series.Itisexpectedthateditorsofallacceptedvolumeswillensurethatcontributions aresubjectedtoanappropriatelevelofreviewingprocessandadheretoKESquality principles.

IndexedbySCOPUS,EICompendex,INSPEC,WTIFrankfurteG,zbMATH, JapaneseScienceandTechnologyAgency(JST),SCImago,DBLP.

AllbookspublishedintheseriesaresubmittedforconsiderationinWebofScience.

JohnLittlewood · RobertJ.Howlett · LakhmiC.Jain

Editors

SustainabilityinEnergy andBuildings2022

Editors

JohnLittlewood

CardiffSchoolofArtandDesign,The SustainableandResilientBuilt EnvironmentResearchGroup

CardiffMetropolitanUniversity

Cardiff,UK

LakhmiC.Jain KESInternational Selby,UK

LiverpoolHopeUniversity Liverpool,UK

RobertJ.Howlett KESInternationalResearch Shoreham-by-Sea,UK

‘AurelVlaicu’UniversityofArad Arad,Romania

ISSN2190-3018ISSN2190-3026(electronic) SmartInnovation,SystemsandTechnologies ISBN978-981-19-8768-7ISBN978-981-19-8769-4(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8769-4

©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SingaporePteLtd.2023

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,speciﬁcallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicroﬁlmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.

Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspeciﬁcstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.

Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalafﬁliations.

ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#21-01/04GatewayEast,Singapore189721, Singapore

Organization

InternationalProgrammeCommittee

KouzouAbdellahDjelfaUniversity,Algeria AbdelGhaniAissaouiUniversityofBechar,Algeria MahmoodAlamUniversityofBrighton,UK RicardoAlmeidaPolytechnicInstituteofViseu,Portugal HasimAltanArkinUniversityofCreativeArtsandDesign,Cyprus

MartinAndaMurdochUniversity,Australia

MariaBeatriceAndreucciSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

TourajAshraﬁanOzyeginUniversity,Turkey AhmadTaherAzarPrinceSultanUniversity,SaudiArabia

JipingBaiUniversityofSouthWales,UK

EvaBarreiraUniversityofPorto,Portugal UmbertoBerardiRyersonUniversity,Canada GabrieleBernardiniUniversitàPolitecnicadelleMarche,Italy FrancescoCaliseUniversityofNaplesFedericoII,Italy

RosaCaponettoUniversityofCatania,Italy KateCarterUniversityofEdinburgh,UK StefanoCasconeMediterraneaUniversityofReggioCalabria,Italy ChristopherChaoTheHongKongPolytechnicUniversity AbdellahChehriUniversityofQuebec—UQAC,Canada GiacomoChiesaPolitecnicodiTorino,Italy

DorotaChwiedukWarsawUniversityofTechnology,Poland PaoloCivieroCataloniaInstituteforEnergyResearch,Spain

NicolaColaninnoPolytechnicofMilan,Italy

VincenzoCostanzoUniversityofCatania,Italy AlessandroD’AmicoSapienzaUniversitàdiRoma,Italy

ElisaDiGiuseppeUniversitàPolitecnicadelleMarche,Italy MiriamDiMatteoSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

MoustaphaDoumiatiESEOSchoolofEngineering—IREENAUR4642, France

MahieddineEmzianeUniversityofBirmingham,UK

DianaEnescuValahiaUniversityofTargoviste,Romania YoussefErramiChouaibDoukkaliUniversity,Morocco NajibEssounbouliUniversitédeReimsChampagne-Ardenne,France

FatimaFarinhaUniversidadedoAlgarve,Portugal TiagoMiguelFerreiraUniversityoftheWestofEngland—UWEBristol,UK AntonioGaglianoUniversityofCatania,Italy

GeorgeGeorghiouUniversityofCyprus

GiadaGiuffridaUniversityofCatania,Italy

ChengSiewGohHeriot-WattUniversity,UK GwanggilJeonIncheonNationalUniversity,Korea

HongJinHarbinInstituteofTechnology,China

MohammadArifKamalAligarhMuslimUniversity,India

PrasadKaparajuGrifﬁthUniversity,Australia GeorgeKaraniCardiffMetropolitanUniversity,UK KhalilKassmiMohamedPremierUniversity,Morocco MohanLalKolheUniversityofAgder,Norway AnguiLiXi’anUniversityofArchitectureandTechnology,China JohnLittlewoodCardiffMetropolitanUniversity,UK

AlessandroLoFaroUniversityofCatania,Italy

JuditLopezUPCBarcelonaTech,Spain

GiuseppeManganoMediterraneaUniversityofReggioCalabria,Italy

SimonaMannucciSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

GianlucaMaracchiniUniversitàPolitecnicadelleMarche,Italy

AhmedMezrhabMohamedPremierUniversity,Morocco

MicheleMorgantiSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

BenedettoNastasiSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

ConsueloNavaMediterraneaUniversityofReggioCalabria,Italy

FrancescoNoceraUniversityofCatania,Italy

MasaNoguchiUniversityofMelbourne,Australia

SonjaOliveiraUniversityofStrathclyde,UK

EmekaEfeOsajiLeedsBeckettUniversity,UK PaulOsmondUniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia

AnnaPellegrinoPolitecnicodiTorino,Italy

AbdelhamidRabhiUniversitéofPicardieJulesVerne,Amiens,France

FernandaRodriguesUniversityofAveiro,Portugal

FedericaRossoSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

RachidSaadaneHassaniaSchoolofPublicWorks,Morocco AtulSagadeEnergyCenter,FCFM,UniversityofChile,Santiago, Chile

FrancescaScalisiDEMETRAEuro-MediterraneanDocumentationand ResearchCenter,Italy

LloydScottTechnologicalUniversityDublin,Ireland

SaschaStegenGrifﬁthUniversity,Australia AhmedTahourUniversityofMascara,Algeria AliTahriUniversityofScienceandTechnologyofOran,Algeria

Horia-NicolaiTeodorescuInstituteofComputerScienceofRomanianAcademy, Romania

LindaToledoStrathclydeUniversity,UK

SimonTuckerLiverpoolJohnMooresUniversity,UK

AndreaVallatiSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

WilfriedvanSarkUtrechtUniversity,Netherlands RomeuVicenteUniversityofAveiro,Portugal

CostanzaVittoriaSapienzaUniversityofRome,Italy

SimonWaltersUniversityofBrighton,UK

XingxingZhangDalarnaUniversity,Sweden

JingZhaoUniversityofLincoln,UK

GeorgeZhenChenUniversityofStrathclyde,UK

SmailZouggarMohammedPremierUniversity,Morocco

Preface

The14thInternationalConferenceonSustainabilityandEnergyinBuildings2021 (SEB22)isasigniﬁcantinternationalconferenceorganisedbyapartnershipmadeup ofKESInternationalandTheSustainableandResilientBuiltEnvironmentresearch group,CardiffMetropolitanUniversity.

SEB-22invitedcontributionsonarangeoftopicsrelatedtosustainableand resilientbuildingsandrenewableenergyandexploredinnovativethemesregarding buildingadaptationrespondingtoclimatechangemitigationandotherlocal,national andglobalchallenges.

TheaimoftheconferencewastobringtogetherUniversityresearchers,GovernmentandScientiﬁcexpertsandIndustryprofessionalstodiscusstheminimisation ofenergyuseandassociatedcarbonemissionsinbuildings,neighbourhoods,cities intheurbancontextbutalsorurally;fromatheoretical,practical,implementation, modellingandsimulationperspective.Theconferenceformedanexcitingchanceto present,interact,andlearnaboutthelatestresearchandpracticaldevelopmentson thesubjectwithrealworldimpact.SEB22willbeheldinahybridformwithphysicalandvirtualattendance,inresponsetoagileworkpatternsfollowingtheglobal COVID-19pandemic.

TheconferencefeaturedtwoGeneralTrackschairedbyexpertsintheﬁelds:

• SustainableandResilientBuildings

• SustainableEnergyTechnologies.

Inaddition,therewereeightInvitedSessionsproposedandorganisedby prominentresearchers.

Itisimportantthataconferenceprovideshighqualitytalksfromleading-edge presenters.SEB-22featuredthekeynotespeakerProf.PeteWalker,CentreforInnovativeConstructionMaterials,DepartmentofArchitectureandCivilEngineeringat theUniversityofBathUK.

Theconferenceattractedsubmissionsfromaroundtheworld.Submissionsfor theFull-PaperTrackweresubjectedtoatwo-stageblindpeer-reviewprocess.With theobjectiveofproducingahigh-qualityconference,onlythebestofthesewere selectedforpresentationattheconferenceandpublicationintheSpringerasbook

x Preface chapters.SubmissionsfortheShortPaperTrackweresubjectedtoa‘lighter-touch’ reviewandpublishedinanonlinemedium,butnotintheSpringerbook.

Thanksareduetotheverymanypeoplewhohavegiventheirtimeandgoodwill freelytomakeSEB-22asuccess.WewouldliketothankthemembersoftheInternationalProgrammeCommitteewhowereessentialinprovidingtheirreviewsofthe conferencepapers,ensuringappropriatequality.Wethankthehigh-proﬁlekeynote speakersforprovidinginterestingtalkstoinformdelegatesandprovokediscussion. Importantcontributorstotheconferenceweremadebytheauthors,presenters,and delegateswithoutwhomtheconferencecouldnothavetakenplace,soweoffer themourthanks.Finally,wewouldliketothanktheadministrativestaffofKES International.

Itishopedthatyouﬁndtheconferenceaninteresting,informative,anduseful experience;andremainconnectedthroughtheKESInternationalVirtualConference Experience.

Cardiff,Wales,UK Shoreham-by-Sea,UK Selby,UK

JohnLittlewood RobertJ.Howlett LakhmiC.Jain SEB-22ConferenceChairs

ImpactofClimateonBuildingEnergyPerformance,UrbanBuilt FormandUrbanGeometry ........................................1

EhsanAhmadian,AmiraElnolaky,BehzadSodagar,andIvanVerhaert

ADecisionSupportToolfortheCo-designofEnergyandSeismic RetroﬁttingSolutionsWithinthee-SAFEProject .....................12 G.Evola,G.Margani,V.Costanzo,A.Artino,D.L.Distefano, G.Semprini,M.Lazzaro,andD.Arnone

ComparisonoftheMorphologicalInﬂuenceofCanopyRoughness SpaceinShenzhenandHarbinMainUrbanAreas ....................22 MingLu,DiSong,JunXing,JingLiu,andLuWang

TheImpactofaVerticalGreeningSystemontheIndoor ThermalComfortinLightweightBuildingsandontheOutdoor EnvironmentinaMediterraneanClimateContext ....................37 GraziaLombardo,AngelaMoschella,FrancescoNocera, AngeloSalemi,GaetanoSciuto,AlessandroLoFaro, MaurizioDetommaso,andVincenzoCostanzo

RecyclingVolcanicAshandGlassPowderintheProduction ofAlkaliActivatedMaterials .......................................47

LoredanaContrafatto,DanieleCalderoni,SalvatoreGazzo, andEnricoBernardo

ThermalEnvironmentRetroﬁttingofOutdoorActivitySpaces inOldSettlementsinSevereColdRegionsofChina ...................56 YujingLiuandJinHong

ANovelLaboratoryProceduretoDetermineThermal ConductivityofGreenRoofSubstrates ..............................66 StefanoCasconeandAntonioGagliano

StudyonResidents’PerceptionofLow-CarbonPolicyandIts InﬂuenceonLow-CarbonBehaviorIntention ........................76 AlinLin,JiankunLou,andRanYue

TheTechno-EconomicEffectofPV-BSSSizeUnderVarious SupportingSchemes:AReplicableMethodforBuildings ..............86

NikolasG.ChatzigeorgiouandGeorgeE.Georghiou

EnvironmentalAssessment,CostAssessmentandUserExperience ofElectricExcavatorOperationsonConstructionSitesinNorway .....97 MarianneKjendsethWiik,KristinFjellheim,KamalAzrague, andJonAreSuul

ARapidSurveyFormforUsers’ExposureandVulnerability AssessmentinRisk-ProneBuiltEnvironments .......................109 EnricoQuagliarini,GuidoRomano,GabrieleBernardini, andMarcoD’Orazio

AssessingPeople’sEfﬁciencyinWorkplacesbyCoupling ImmersiveEnvironmentsandVirtualSounds ........................120

AriannaLatini,SamanthaDiLoreto,ElisaDiGiuseppe, MarcoD’Orazio,CostanzoDiPerna,ValterLori,andFabioSerpilli AssessmentAnalysisofBEV/PHEVRechargeinaResidential Micro-GridBasedonRenewableGeneration .........................130 DarioPelosi,LindaBarelli,MichelaLongo,andDarioZaninelli ImpactofUsingPhaseChangeMaterialswithDifferentWall OrientationsinaClassroomBuildingUnderaWarmTemperate Climate ...........................................................140

MohammedAminNassimHaddad,HamzaSemmari,KhaledImessad, MohammedCherifLekhal,LotﬁDerradji,D.Rouag-Safﬁdine, andMohamedAmara

ApplicationsofThermoelectricityinBuildings:FromEnergy HarvestingtoEnergyManagement ..................................152 DianaEnescu

NaturalandRecycledStabilizersforRammedEarthMaterial Optimization ......................................................164 GiadaGiuffrida,VincenzoCostanzo,FrancescoNocera, MassimoCuomo,andRosaCaponetto

DrivingaPhotovoltaicPanelinManhattanwithWell-Chosen ProjectionsoftheReﬂectionsoftheMirrorCity ......................175 BenoitBeckers,JairoAcuñaPazyMiño,andInèsdeBort

OneStopShopsonHousingEnergyRetroﬁt.EuropeanCases, andItsRecentImplementationinSpain .............................185 RolandoBiere-ArenasandCarlosMarmolejo-Duarte

MitigatingMulti-risksintheHistoricalBuiltEnvironment: AMulti-strategyAdaptiveApproach ................................197

FedericaRosso,LetiziaBernabei,GabrieleBernardini, JuanDiegoBlancoCadena,MartinaRusso,AlessandroD’Amico, GrazianoSalvalai,EdoardoCurrà,EnricoQuagliarini, andGiovanniMochi

SensorialDesign—ACollaborativeApproachforArchitects andEngineers .....................................................208

P.Grant,J.R.Littlewood,R.Pepperell,andF.Sanna

HemplimeBlocks:InnovativeSolutionforGreenBuildingsinItaly ....218 ChiaraMoletti,PatriziaAversa,BrunoDaniotti,GiovanniDotelli, VincenzaA.M.Luprano,AnnaMarzo,SergioSabbadini, andConcettaTripepi

HavePopulationGrowthandEconomicActivityConverged TowardstheSamePatternintheSpanishMetropolises? ..............228 CésarCostaCosta,CarlosMarmolejoDuarte,andRolandoBiereArenas

ACommunityHousingAssociation’sStrategy fortheBenchmarking,ReductionandSequestration ofCarbonTowardsaResilientandGloballyResponsibleWales (UK) .............................................................240

K.Stevens-Wood,J.R.Littlewood,andF.Sanna

ManagementofIndoorThermalConditionsinHeavy andLightweightBuildings:AnExperimentalComparison ............249 NicolaCallegaro,LucaEndrizzi,LucaZaniboni,andRossanoAlbatici

ComparisonoftheThermalEffectofTwoAutomaticControls ofRollerShuttersinanAcademicSpace .............................261 MarcRoca-Musach,ElenaGarcia-Nevado,CarlosAlonso-Montolio, IsabelCrespoCabillo,andHelenaCochRoura EnergyPovertyandHeatwaves.ExperimentalInvestigation onLow-IncomeHouseholds’EnergyBehavior .......................271 GianlucaMaracchini,ElisaDiGiuseppe,andMarcoD’Orazio SensitivityandUncertaintyAnalysisonUrbanHeatIsland IntensityUsingtheLocalClimateZone(LCZ)Schema:TheCase StudyofAthens ...................................................281 GianlucaMaracchini,FatemehSalehipourBavarsad, ElisaDiGiuseppe,andMarcoD’Orazio ChallengesinBiPV/PCMFaçadeSystem:PathwaysTowards NumericalModellingandSimulationApproaches ....................291 Jakub ˇ Curpek,Miroslav ˇ Cekon,OndˇrejŠikula, andMuhammadFaisalJunaid

IntegratingVegetationandCities:AReviewoftheApplicative SolutionsfromTechnicalComponenttoPlanningScale ...............301 AriannaPeduzziandCarloCecere

RECsim—VirtualTestbedforControlStrategiesImplementation inRenewableEnergyCommunities .................................313

AntonioGallo,MarcoSavinoPiscitelli,LorenzoFenili, andAlfonsoCapozzoli

EnergyRetroﬁtandFireProtectioninExistingHigh-Rise ResidentialBuildings:ACaseStudyinModena(Italy) ................324 LucaGuardigliandFaustoBarbolini

APilotStudytoEvaluateOccupantQualityofLifeinOptimised RetroﬁtDwellingsinWales,UK .....................................337

J.R.Littlewood,X.Zhang,andG.Karani

BIM-BasedWorkﬂowforManagingMulti-riskFactorsofOpen SpacesinHistoricalBuiltEnvironment ..............................347

M.Angelosanti,M.Russo,A.D’Amico,M.Pugnaletto,C.Paolini, E.Quagliarini,andE.Currà

ExperimentalAssessmentofaPreliminaryRule-Based Data-DrivenMethodforFaultDetectionandDiagnosisofCoils, FansandSensorsinAir-HandlingUnits .............................359

MohammadElYoussef,FrancescoGuarino,SergioSibilio, andAntonioRosato

BridgingtheFlexibilityConceptsintheBuildingsandMulti-energy Domains ..........................................................371 GianfrancoChicco,DianaEnescu,andAndreaMazza

OffsiteManufacturingofTimber-FrameWoodﬁbreInsulated ConstructionSystemsforNearly-to-ZeroCarbonDwellings inWales,UK ......................................................386

J.R.Littlewood,R.J.M.Hawkins,N.I.Evans,andC.Hale

EnergyCommunities:TheConceptofWastetoEnergy-CHP BasedDistrictHeatingSystemforanItalianResidentialDistrict .......397 L.Pompei,F.Nardecchia,V.Lanza,L.M.Pastore,andL.deSantoli

RenewableEnergySystemAppliedtoSocialHousingBuilding inMediterraneanClimate ..........................................407 AndreaVallati,StefanoGrignafﬁni,CostanzaVittoriaFiorini, SimonaMannucci,andMiriamDiMatteo

CyclicLateralLoadTestofaWallwithTimberFrameStructure andLightearthEnvelope ...........................................418

G.Becerra,S.Onnis,G.Meli,M.Wieser,andJ.Vargas-Neumann

Takagi-SugenoFuzzyControlofanInterleavedDC-DCBoost Converter

M.Nachidi,K.Khennoune,I.Ouachani,andA.Rabhi

AuthorIndex

AbouttheEditors

JohnLittlewood isaProfessorofSustainableandResilientBuildings,andholdsa Ph.D.inBuildingPerformanceAssessment.HeistheheadoftheSustainableand ResilientBuiltEnvironmentresearchgroupinCardiffSchoolofArtandDesignat CardiffMetropolitanUniversity(UK).HehasbeenGeneralChairfortheSustainabilityinEnergyandBuildingsinternationalconferencein2014,2017andfrom 2019todate.HecoordinatesthreeprofessionaldoctoratesinArtandDesignPractice,Engineering,andSustainableBuiltEnvironment.HeisaCharteredBuilding Engineerandhisinnovation,andresearchexpertiseisindustryfocused,identifying andimprovingﬁreandthermalperformanceinexistingandnewdwellingstoenable occupantqualityoflife.Inaddition,tohelpingorganisationsuseinnovativematerials inoffsitemanufacturingandinconstructiontodeliverasustainableandresilientbuilt environment.Hehasauthored,co-authoredandco-editedover160peer-reviewed articlesandbookvolumesforSpringer.

RobertJ.Howlett istheAcademicChairofKESInternationalanon-profitorganisationwhichfacilitatesknowledgetransferandthedisseminationofresearchresults inareasincludingIntelligentSystems,Sustainability,andKnowledgeTransfer.He isVisitingProfessorat‘AurelVlaicu’UniversityofArad,Romania,andhasalso beenVisitingProfessoratBournemouthUniversity,UK.Histechnicalexpertiseis intheuseofartificialintelligenceandmachinelearningforthesolutionofindustrial problems.Hiscurrentinterestscentreontheapplicationofintelligentsystemsto sustainability,particularlyrenewableenergy,smart/microgridsandapplicationsin housingandglasshousehorticulture.Hepreviouslydevelopedanationalprofilein knowledgeandtechnologytransfer,andthecommercialisationofresearch.Heworks withanumberofuniversitiesandinternationalresearchgroupsonthesupervision teamsofPh.D.students,andtheprovisionoftechnicalsupportforprojects.

ProfessorLakhmiC.Jain Ph.D.,Dr.H.C.,M.E.,B.E.(Hons),Fellow(Engineers Australia),iswiththeLiverpoolHopeUniversityandtheUniversityofArad.Hewas formerlywiththeUniversityofTechnologySydney,theUniversityofCanberraand BournemouthUniversity.

ProfessorJainservestheKESInternationalforprovidingaprofessionalcommunitytheopportunitiesforpublications,knowledgeexchange,cooperationand teaming.Involvingaround5000researchersdrawnfromuniversitiesandcompaniesworld-wide,KESfacilitatesinternationalcooperationandgeneratesynergyin teachingandresearch.KESregularlyprovidesnetworkingopportunitiesforprofessionalcommunitythroughoneofthelargestconferencesofitskindintheareaof KES.

ImpactofClimateonBuildingEnergy Performance,UrbanBuiltFormandUrban Geometry

EhsanAhmadian1(B) ,AmiraElnolaky2 ,BehzadSodagar2 ,andIvanVerhaert1

1 UniversityofAntwerp,Groenenborgerlaan171,2020Antwerp,Belgium ehsan.ahmadian@uantwerpen.be

2 UniversityofLincoln,BrayfordWay,LincolnLN67TS,UK

Abstract. Thestudyinvestigatestheimpactofclimateontheresidentialbuilding energyperformanceanditsrelationshipwithurbanbuiltformandgeometryof thebuiltenvironment.Itaimstoidentifythemostenergeticallysustainableurban builtformandoptimalurbangeometryindifferentclimatesthatresultsinhigher energyperformanceofbuildings.Geometricalmodelsoffoururbanbuiltforms aredeveloped,andasimulationmethodisusedtoconductsensitivityanalysesover thefourcasestudies(citiesofLondon,Singapore,HelsinkiandPhoenix)thatare selectedbasedonspecificclimaticcriteria.TheEnergyEquity(EE)indicatoris usedfordemonstrationoftheresults,whichsimultaneouslyconsiderstheamount ofbuildingenergydemandaswellasenergygenerationbybuilding-mounted PVs.Theresultsshowthatincreasingthecut-offangle(i.e.,reducingbuildings distance)reducesbuildingenergydemandincooling-dominatedbuildings(i.e., inSingaporeandPhoenix)between6%and56%whileincreasesbuildingenergy demandinheating-dominatedbuildings(i.e.,inLondonandHelsinki)between2% and16.5%.Hence,theimpactofdistancebetweenbuildingsonbuildingenergy demandismoresignificantinhotclimates.Ingeneral,buildingenergydemandin Londonisthelowestamongthecasestudies,whileitisthehighestinSingapore (upto219%higherthanLondon).LondonalsoshowsthehighestvalueofEE (demonstratingthebestenergyperformance)andHelsinkishowsthelowest(up to51%lowerthanLondon).Itisrecommendedtousethetunnel-courtbuiltform tohaveamoreenergy-efficientbuildings,specificallyinhotclimates.

Keywords: Buildingenergyperformance Urbanbuiltform Climate

1Introduction:TheImportanceofDesignwithClimate

Ithasbeenwell-establishedbydifferentstudiesthatbuildingenergyperformancecorrelateswithurbanbuiltformanddensity[1–3],whileurbandensityisdirectlyrelatedto thegeometryofthebuiltenvironment[4].Thecorrelationitselfisinfluencedbyclimate anddependentonthegeographicallocationofacity.Forinstance,boththemagnitude andtypeofbuildingenergydemandandthepotentialofrenewableenergygeneration, specificallysolarenergy,dependonclimateandlocation.Theyconsequentlyinfluence

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2023 J.LittlewoodandR.J.Howlett(Eds.):SEB2022,SIST336,pp.1–11,2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8769-4 1

2E.Ahmadianetal.

therelationshipofenergywithurbanformandgeometry[5].Thismakesitvitaltodesign buildingsaccordingtoclimaticconditionsduringtheearlystagesofthedesignprocess [6].Climaticvariablesmustbeknowntopredictthethermalbehaviorofthebuilding envelope[7].

Incontemporarybuildingdesignsandwiththeuseofmechanicalequipment(e.g.,air conditioningsystem)toprovidesatisfyingthermalconditions,lessattentionhasbeen paidtoclimaticconditions.Builtformshavebecomeverysimilarineverycornerof theworldregardlessofclimate,reflectingthelossoftraditionalskillswithrespectto aclimate-sensitivedesign.Morerecently,withmorefocusonsustainability,wehave beguntoconsiderclimateconditionsforachievingsustainablebuilding/urbandesigns. Forinstance,DursunandYavas[8]emphasizedthattohaveasustainableurbandevelopment,aclimate-sensitiveurbandesignguidelineisurgentlyneededandtheurbanbuilt environmentshouldbeconsistentwithclimaticconditions.Muhaisen[9]suggestedgeneralrulesandguidelinesforthedesignofcourtyardsinfourdifferentclimaticregions. KocagilandOral[10]showedthatbuildingformandsettlementtextureareinfluential parametersforheating/coolingloadsofbuildingsinahot-dryclimatezonetoprovide optimumconditions.KhaliliandAmindeldar[11]identifiedthattraditionalcourtyards haveemergedinthehot-aridregionsofIrantoreducethedetrimentalaspectsofthe climateprovidingbettermicroclimaticconditionsforoccupants.Strømann-Andersen andSattrup[12]arguedthatinnorthernEuropeancitieswithhighlatitudesandlow solarinclinations,urbandensityisofparticularconcernsinceurbangeometryaffects solaraccessmorethaninotherurbancentersaroundtheworld.

Therefore,climatenotonlyinfluencesbuildingenergydemandbutalsodetermines suitablebuiltformsanddensityofurbanareas.Althoughpreviousstudieshaveinvestigatedtheimpactofclimateonbuildingenergydemand,fewhaveconsideredtheimpact ofclimateontheenergyperformanceofbuildingswithdifferentbuiltformsandurban geometricvariables.Theaimofthisstudyisidentificationofthemostenergeticallysustainableurbanbuiltformandoptimalurbangeometryindifferentclimatesthatresultsin higherenergyperformanceofbuildings.Buildingenergyperformanceincludesenergy demandalongwithsolarenergygenerationfromroof-mountedPVpanelsthatisnecessarytobeconsideredtoachievesustainablecitiesoffuture.Fourcasestudiesfrom differentclimatezonesareselectedandforeachcase,thecorrelationofbuildingenergy performancewithurbangeometricvariablesandtheselectedbuiltformsisinvestigated. Simulationmethodisadoptedforenergysimulationofthebuiltformmodels,andconsequently,acomparativeanalysissuggeststhemostenergy-efficienturbanbuiltforms inthedifferentclimates.

2Methodology

Thestudyinitiallydevelopsgeometricmodelsofthefourselectedbuiltformsusingthree inﬂuentialgeometricparameters.Secondly,casestudiesfromdifferentclimatezonesare selected.Finally,simulationtrialsareperformedtoobtainbuildingenergydemandand solarenergygenerationfromroof-mountedPVs.Theresultsfromdifferentcasestudies arecomparedtoidentifytheimpactofclimateonbuildingenergyperformance,urban builtformandurbangeometry.

2.1DevelopingGeometricalModelsofDifferentBuiltForms

Geometricalmodelsoffoururbanbuiltform,namely,pavilion,terrace,courtandtunnelcourtformaredeveloped(seeFig. 1)usingthreegeometricalparameters,namely,the cut-offangle(θ),theplandepth(x)andthenumberofﬂoors(n)[4].Thesethreevariables explainthewholegeometryofabuiltenvironmentandhaveasigniﬁcanteffecton buildingenergyperformance[13].AsshowninFig. 1 (right),thecut-offanglerepresents thedistancebetweenbuildings(L)inthesiteplan.

Fig.1. Genericurbanbuiltforms a pavilion, b terrace, c court,and d tunnel-court(left),section showingcut-offangle(right).

2.2CaseStudySelectionandEnergySimulation

CasestudiesfromdifferentclimaticconditionsareselectedusingtheKöppenclimate classificationsystem(alsoknownastheKöppen–Geiger)[14].Itdividestheearthinto fivemainzones,GroupA:tropical(megathermal)climates,GroupB:dry(aridand semiarid)climates,GroupC:temperate(mesothermal)climates,GroupD:continental/cold(microthermal)climates,GroupE:polarandalpine(montane)climates.Four largemetropolitancitiesareselectedasthecasestudiesbasedontheirdiverseclimatic conditionstorepresenteachofthemainclimatezones.Theirgreatpopulationsshow theirsignificantcontributiontooverallurbanenergyconsumption.Hence,providing guidelinesfortheoptimizationofenergywithrespecttotheirbuiltformandgeometryis beneficialforfuturedevelopmentsofthesecitiesthatcanconservesignificantamounts ofenergyandpreventhighlevelsofcarbonemissions.

GroupA:Singapore(tropicalhotandhumidclimate):ThemetropolitanCityof Singapore,locatedatthelatitudeof1.3521°Nandlongitudeof103.8198°W,isan equatorialcitywithahot,humidandrainyclimate.Energyconsumptionofbuildings contributesaboutathirdofSingapore’stotalelectricityproduction[15].Althoughusing passivedesignstrategiesareencouragedin80%oftheresidentialbuiltarea,theenergy performanceofabuildingismeasuredaccordingtoactivemechanicalsystems[16].

GroupB:Phoenix(hotandaridclimate):ThemetropolitanCityofPhoenixasthe capitalofthestateofArizonaintheUSA,locatedatthelatitudeof33.4484°Nand longitudeof112.0740°W.Phoenixhasalong,hotsummerandshort,mildwinter.Itis

oneofthesunniestcitiesintheworld(inadesertlocation)withapproximately300days ofsunshineperyear.Itmakesthiscityasuitablecandidateforthisstudysincethe potentialofPVenergyharvestingisbeingconsidered.

GroupC:London(temperateclimate):ThemetropolitanCityofLondonasthe capitalofEngland,locatedatthelatitudeof51.5074°Nandlongitudeof0.1279°W.It hasatemperateclimatewithwarmsummerandwithoutdryseason.

GroupD:Helsinki(continentalcoldclimate):ThemetropolitanCityofHelsinki asthecapitalcityofFinland,locatedatthelatitudeof60.1699°Nandlongitudeof 24.9384°W.Ithasacontinentalcoldclimatewithwarmsummerandwithoutadry season.Itsintensewintersimposeasigniﬁcantheatingloadonbuildings.

ThisstudydoesnotﬁndanynecessitytoanalyseacityfromgroupEbecausethere arenolargemetropolitanurbanareasinthesepartsoftheWorld;andtheoutcomewould beidenticaltothecontinentalcoldclimatewithsimilar(butsharper)trends.

Thesimulationmethodisadoptedfortheenergyanalysisofthecasestudies.An urbanenergysimulationsoftware,CitySim,isusedtoperformanenergyanalysison thegeometricalmodelsofthechosenbuiltforms.CitySimconsidersparameterssuch astheshadowingeffectofadjacentbuildings,radiativeinter-reflectionbetweenexternal surfaces,andtheUrbanHeatIsland(UHI)effect[17],whichareimportantfeaturesfor investigatingtheimpactofthegeometryofthebuiltenvironmentonbuildingenergy performance.UHIeffectisconsideredbycalculatingthesurfacetemperatureofallthe surfacesexistinginthesiteplansonanhourlybasis.Theclimatefilesofeachofthecase studiesarederivedfromtheMeteonormdatabase,whichcontains10yearsofaverage dataforeachlocationplustheirhorizonfiles[18].Theoreticalsiteplansofbuildingsare developedforeachbuiltformtobefedintoCitySimforenergyanalysis,whichincludes heating/cooling,lightingandappliancesenergydemands.Eachsiteplaniscomposed ofa5*5gridofsimilarbuildingswhileonlythe energyperformanceofthecentral blockistakenintoaccounttonotonlylimittheedgeeffect,butalso,provideamore realisticmicroclimaticconditionofabuiltenvironmentcomposedofaspecificform ofbuildings.Simulationtrialsarerepeatedbychangingthegeometricalvariablesto identifytheimpactofeachvariableonthebuildingenergyperformance.Subsequently, thewholeprocessisrepeatedseparatelyforeachcasestudyusingitsrelevantclimate data.Toensurealike-for-likecomparisonbetweenbuiltareaswithdifferentgeometries, theparameterssuchasbuildingmaterials,insulation,infiltrationrate(0.5ACH),glazing ratio(40%),occupantdensity(35m2 /person)androomsetpointtemperature(20°C forheatingand24°Cforcooling)arekeptconstant.Allbuildingsareassumedtobe highlyinsulatedwithwallandroofU-valuesof0.18and0.13W/m2 K,respectively. Inpractice,thephysicalcharacteristicsofabuildingenvelopemightbeinfluencedby climaticconditions.Forinstance,thevalueofglazingratioinHelsinkiandSingapore shouldbedifferentsincesolargainshaveanoppositeimpactontheirbuildingenergy demand.However,inthisstudy,tobeconsistentinallcasestudiesandtofocusthestudy ontheimpactofclimate,theseparametersarekeptconstantforallclimaticzones. Inadditiontoclimateandhorizonfiles,theotherinputdataforthesimulationthat isvariablefordifferentcasestudiesistheheating/coolingperiodconsideredforenergy simulations.Thisfactoristhedirectoffspringoftheclimatethatisvariedfordifferent climates.InSingapore,theaveragetemperatureduringthedayandthenightisalmost

constantthroughouttheyear.Therefore,buildingsrequireonlycoolingrelatedenergy allyearround,whichisdefinedastheannualelectricalenergyconsumptionoftheairconditioningsystem[15].Coolingenergyisconsideredtobesuppliedbyaheatpump inthesimulationsforthisstudy.Therefore,itincreasesthetotalelectricityconsumption ofbuildings.LookingathistoricalclimatedataforPhoenix[19]andfollowinginformationprovidedbyauthorsofpreviousstudiesonthiscity[20, 21],thetypicalbuilding coolingperiodisconsideredtobefromApriltoOctoberandtheheatingperiodfrom NovembertoMarch.PhoenixandSingaporebothhaveahotclimate,however,they possessconsiderablydifferentclimaticconditionsthatcreatedifferentbuildingenergy requirements.Singaporerequires12monthsofcoolingwhilePhoenixrequiresseven monthsofcoolingandfivemonthsofheating.DuetothedesertlocationofPhoenix, thereisnormallyasubstantialchangeintemperaturebetweendaytimeandnighttime, therefore,thethermalbehaviorofthehot-dryclimateisverydistinctiveduetowide dailyandseasonalfluctuations[10].InLondon,theheatingseasonbeginsinOctober andlastsuntiltheendofMayaccordingtoSAP[22].Duetothetemperateclimateof theUKanditsmildsummers,normallynocoolingloadisconsideredforresidential buildings[23–25].Helsinkihasacoldclimatewithalongheatingseason.TobeconsistentwithLondoncasestudy,onlytheheatingperiodisconsideredforsimulationtrials ofHelsinki,whichissimilarlytheperiodbetweenOctoberandMay.Forthepurposeof thisstudy,gasisusedforpreparationofheatforhomes.

Foreachcasestudy,216simulationtrialsareconductedfordifferentbuildingplans. Thesesiteplansareobtainedbycombiningthechangesinthegeometricvariablesthat meansalteringthenumberoffloors(from1to30),cut-offangle(25°,45°and65°),and plandepths(from6to60mwith6mintervals).Theselectionof6mintervalisbasedon thepassivetonon-passivearearatiodeterminedintheLTmethod[26].Theresulting valuesofbuildingenergydemandaregiveninkWh/m2 /yearforeachplan.Meanwhile, itisassumedthat90%ofallbuildingroofsarecoveredbyPVstoobtainthesolarenergy potentialofbuildingsindifferentclimates.Adimensionlessenergyindicatortermed EnergyEquity[13]isused,whichisdefinedastheratiooftheyearlyenergygeneration bybuilding-mountedPVsoverbuildingenergydemand.Itisanindicationofbuilding energyself-sufficiency.Pleasenotethatifseasonalself-sufficiencyisaccounted(instead ofyearlyone),theoutcomesmightbedifferent.

3ResultsandDiscussion

Inthissection,initiallytheimpactofcut-offangleonbuildingenergydemandisinvestigated,andsubsequently,thecomparativeanalysisofbuildingenergyperformancein differentclimatesisillustrated.

3.1ImpactofCut-OffAngleinDifferentClimates

Toinvestigatetheimpactofcut-offangleonbuildingenergydemandineachcasestudy, buildingplanscomposedofsimilarbuildingsbutdifferentcut-offanglesaresimulated. Theresultsfordifferentclimatesarecollected,andexemplarcasesareshowninFig. 2, whichrepresentsthegeneraltrendsofallcases.

Fig.2. Impactofcut-offangleonbuildingenergydemandindifferentclimates(exemplarcases).

ItcanbeseenfromFig. 2 that,inbothLondonandHelsinki,greatercut-offangle resultsinhigherbuildingenergydemand.Itmeansthat,forallthebuiltforms,energy demandofbuildingsisthehighestforbuiltenvironmentwithacut-offangleof65°,while havingcut-offangleof25°leadstothelowestbuildingenergydemand.Forinstance,for pavilionbuildingswithplandepthsof12mand10numberofﬂoorsinLondon,energy demandisequalto50,51and56(kWh/m2 )forthe θ = 25°, θ = 45°and θ = 65°cases, respectively.InHelsinki,varyingthecut-offanglefrom25°to65°canincreasebuilding energydemandbetweenapproximately2%and12%,dependingontheplandepth.The mainreasonforthisoutcomeistheshadowingeffectoftheneighborbuildings.Higher cut-offanglesmeanbuildingareclosertoeachother,whichblocksalargerportionof sunlight.Thisnotonlyreducesthesolargainofbuildingsthroughglazing,butalso decreasestheamountofenergystoredinbuildingthermalmass.Asaresult,buildings needmoreenergytosatisfytheirheatingenergydemand[27].Itmeansthatahigher urbandensityisnotadvantageousforcontinental/cold/temperateclimates.Considering urbanenergyplanningtargetsforthesecities,thismayencourageurbanplannerstoplan newurbanbuiltareastohavelowercut-offanglesbyincreasingthedistancesbetween buildings.

TheresultsshowanoppositetrendforthecitiesofSingaporeandPhoenix.InSingapore,changingthecut-offanglefrom25°to65°candiminishbuildingenergydemand fromapproximately8–56%dependingontheplandepth.Therefore,higherdensity reducesbuildingenergydemandinhotclimatesthatbuildingsarecooling-dominated. Thereasonisthatbyincreasingthecut-offanglethebuildingsbecomecloserandthereforetheshadowingeffectofadjacentbuildingsprotectsthemfromintensesolarradiation (whichreducessolarheatgain)thatconsequentlydecreasesthecoolingenergyrequirementofabuilding[28–30].However,thetrendofthisreductioninPhoenixisnotas pronouncedasforSingaporeduetothefactthatthebuildingsinPhoenixdemandheating loadinwintertime,whilecoolingisrequiredforbuildingsinSingaporeallyearround. Thisheatingloadistheelementthatmitigatethesharpnessofthistrend.Changing cut-offanglefrom25°to65°inPhoenixcanreducebuildingenergydemandbetween approximately6%and47%(dependingontheplandepth).

Ingeneral,thechangeinthebuildingenergydemandbyalteringcut-offangleis signiﬁcantlysmallerinheating-dominatedbuildingsthanthechangeitimposestothe cooling-dominatedbuildings.Theanalysisofthissectionemphasizesthattheimpact

ofurbandensityonbuildingenergydemanddeﬁnitelydependsontheclimateand geographicallocation.

3.2ComparisonofDifferentClimates

Here,theresultsobtainedfromallcasestudiesareaggregatedtomakeacomparison betweentheenergyperformanceofthestudiedbuiltformsinthedifferentclimates.The resultingvaluesofbuildingenergydemandsfromthefourcasestudiesarecompared, andeightexemplarcasesareshowninFig. 3.Thesecasesareselectedinthewayto representthewholerangeofvaluesforthegeometricvariablesincludinghighandlowrisebuildings,smallandgreatdepthbuildings,andhigh/lowcut-offangles.Theyare thesimilarcasesfromthedifferentcasestudies(shownbydifferentcolors),thathave beenchosenamongmorethan200datasetsobtainedfromthesimulationtrials,where thegeneraltrendofallofthemaresimilar.Ineachcase,builtform,cut-offangle(θ), plandepth(x)andnumberofﬂoors(n)arekeptconstant,whichmeansthedensityis constanttooasaresultofthesimilarityofallparametersconsidered.Therefore,theonly variableineachcaseisclimate.

Fig.3. Comparisonoftheenergydemandofthebuiltformswithsimilargeometricparameters indifferentclimates(representativeselectionof8casesoutof216datasets).

ItcanbeobservedthatthelowestenergydemandbelongstoLondon,havingasigniﬁcantdifferencecomparedtotheothers.Thenextlowestenergydemandisassociated withHelsinkiandisfollowedbyPhoenix.Finally,thehighestenergydemandbelongs toSingapore.ThelowenergydemandofLondonisduetoitstemperateclimatewhich necessitateslessheatingenergytoreachthethermalcomforttemperatureofoccupants. DuetothecoldclimateofHelsinki,theoutsidetemperaturehasalargerdivergence fromtheinsidesetpointroomtemperature.PhoenixandSingaporemainlyrequirecoolingdemandthatitselfrequiresmoreenergycomparedwithheatingdemands.Moreover, accordingtotheirclimaticconditions,theydemandenergy12monthsofayear,while itisonlyeightmonthsforLondonandHelsinki.Therefore,thesetwocasestudiesshow higherenergydemand.Notably,theweatherinPhoenixisharsherandhotterinthe summerperiodwhichrequireshighercoolingdemandtothebuildingsbutrequiresless

totalenergythanSingaporewhichrequirescoolingallyearround(Phoenixbuildings requireheatingforﬁvemonthsofayear).

Toinvestigatethescaleofthesedifferences,thecaseofterraceformwith θ = 45°,x = 12mandn = 10isanalysedhere.TheresultingenergydemandofbuildingsinLondon, Helsinki,PhoenixandSingaporeare42,81,114and134kWh/m2 /year,respectively. ThisshowsthatyearlybuildingenergydemandinHelsinki,PhoenixandSingaporeare 93%,171%and190%higherthaninLondon.Thishighlightsthesigniﬁcantimpactof climateonbuildingenergydemand.

AmongthecasesshowninFig. 3,thefirstcasethatiscomposedofpavilionform with θ = 25°,x = 12mandn = 6showsarelativelyabnormalhighenergydemandfor thePhoenixandSingaporecasestudies.Inthisspecificinstance,theenergydemands forthesetwocasestudiesareunexpectedlymuchhigherthaninLondonandHelsinki, andtheirpercentagedifferencesarenotfollowingtheabove-mentionedtrend.Infact, theenergydemandforPhoenixandSingaporeare338%and392%higherthanLondon, respectively,whiletheyhaveonlya12%differencebetweeneachother.Thissubstantial differenceisduetoacombinationofthreefeatures,(i)itisapavilion,(ii)ithasa smallplandepth,and(iii)ithasalowcut-offangle.Thepavilionbuiltformconsists ofsmallerinternalspacecomparedwithotherbuiltforms[4],therefore,itsenvelope energyefficiencyismorevulnerabletooutsideweatherconditions.Inaddition,ithas asmallplandepththatmakesitevenmoresensitivetothechangeshappeningoutside thebuilding,andfinally(andmoreimportantly),thelowcut-offangleincreasesthe coolingloadofthebuildinginhotclimates(i.e.,PhoenixandSingapore).Aspreviously demonstratedinFig. 2,inhotclimates,theincreasingcut-offanglewoulddecrease coolingdemandofbuildings.Therefore,inplanswithalowcut-offangle,thedifference betweenenergydemandinhotclimatesandthecitiessuchasLondonandHelsinki(that requireheatingload)areverysignificant.Byincreasingthecut-offangle,thedifference issignificantlyreduced(e.g., θ = 65°).

AsimilaranalysisisnowperformedbyconsideringPVenergygenerationinaddition tobuildingenergydemandforthedifferentclimates.SimilarcasestoFig. 3 arecompared usingtheirEEvalues,asshowninFig. 4

Fig.4. ComparisonoftheEnergyEquity(EE)ofthebuiltformswithsimilargeometricparameters indifferentclimates.

Havingsimilargeometry,densityandbuiltformineachcase,Fig. 4 showsonlythe impactofclimateontheEEindicator.ItcanbeseenthattheEEofLondonishigherthan theothersinallcasesexceptwith θ = 65°,wherethedominationoftheLondoncase study,withrespecttoPhoenix,isnotverysignificant(thereasonwillbediscussedinthe lastparagraphofthissection).Phoenixisrankedsecondinthiscomparison,achieving highervaluesthanSingaporeandHelsinkiexceptinthefirstcase.Asexplainedwhen consideringtheresultsofFig. 3,inthatexceptionalcase,thecoolingloadinPhoenix andSingaporeisveryhighwhichcreatesasubstantialreductionintheirEE.Inthiscase, Helsinki,despiteitslowsolarpotential,acquiresahighervalueofEEthanthose.Byway ofaholisticcomparisonofthelowest-rankedcasestudies,HelsinkiandSingapore,itis seenthatHelsinkihasgreaterEEthanSingaporeinsiteplanswithlowcut-offangles, whileitisoppositeincaseswithlargecut-offangles.Thisisconnectedtotheirenergy demand(thedenominatoroftheEEequation).ItisshowninFig. 2 thatincreasingthe cut-offangleincreasestheenergydemandofHelsinki(anddecreaseSingapore’s)that reduceditsEEvalue(andmagnifiesSingapore’s).Therefore,althoughtheamountof solarradiationinSingaporeissubstantiallygreaterthaninHelsinki,theirEEvalues arerelativelysimilar.AccordingtotheresultsofthesimulationtrialsofPVenergy generation,LondonPVgenerationis1%morethanHelsinki,Singaporeis54%more thanLondonandPhoenixis26%morethanSingapore.Therefore,althoughthereisa 55%differencebetweenthePVgenerationpotentialofHelsinkiandSingapore,their EEvaluesremainsimilar.

Asdiscussedabove,forthecaseswith θ = 65°,theEEofLondonisverycloseto thatofPhoenix(andinthelastcasetheyarealmostequal).Thereasonagainisthatin planswithhighcut-offangle,buildingenergydemandinLondonisincreasedwhilein Phoenixitisdecreased(Fig. 2),whichcausesanoppositeimpactontheEE.Moreover, thereasonthatinthelastcasetheirEEisequalisthatthisisatunnel-courtformwith θ = 65°.Forthetunnel-courtformtheroofsurfaceareaavailableforPVinstallationisgreater thaninotherbuiltforms,andinPhoenix,theintensityofsolarradiationisgreaterthan theotherstudiedcities,especiallyLondon.Thesetwofeaturescombinedconsiderably increasetheEEofPhoenixwhichresultsinequalityofitsvaluewithLondon’s.

4Conclusion

Inthisstudy,fourcitiesareanalysedtoinvestigatetheimpactofclimatesontheirbuilding energyperformanceanditsrelationshipwithurbangeometricvariablesandbuiltforms. Theresultsshowthatbyincreasingthecut-offangle,theenergydemandofbuildings inLondonandHelsinkirisewhileitreducesbuildingenergydemandinSingaporeand Phoenix.ThereasonisthatenergydemandinLondonandHelsinkiisheating-dominated whileinSingaporeandPhoenixiscooling-dominated.Theﬁndingsshowthatclosely packedbuildingsprovideshadefortheirneighbours,resultingincoolerenvironments thatincreasestheheatingloadwhiledecreasescoolingload.Theimpactofcut-offangle onthebuildingenergydemandofcooling-dominatedbuildingsissigniﬁcantlyhigher thanonheating-dominatedbuildings.

Thedirectcomparisonofthestudiedbuiltformsinthechosencasestudiesshows thatyearlybuildingenergydemandisaminimuminLondonwhileitismaximumin

Singapore.HelsinkiandPhoenixareinthemiddle,thoughPhoenixshowshigherenergy demandthanHelsinki.BuildingEEisthehighestforLondon(i.e.,buildingsinLondon canachieveenergyself-sufﬁciencyeasierthanintheothercasestudies)thatisfollowed byPhoenixbecauseoftheirhigherpotentialforsolarenergygenerationwithrespect totheirbuildingenergydemand.ThevalueofthisindicatorislowforSingaporeand Helsinkiwithapproximatelysimilarvalues.Whenthecut-offangleofthebuildingplan islow,HelsinkiacquireshigherEEwhileSingaporeshowshighervaluesincaseof havingagreatercut-offangle.

Ingeneral,pavilionformacquireshighestenergydemandinallcasestudies.TunnelcourtformshowsthelowestenergydemandinSingaporeandPhoenix,whiletheterrace andcourtformsshowthelowestenergydemandinHelsinkiandLondon.Meanwhile, thetunnel-courtformachievesthehighestvalueofEEinallcasestudies,wherethe lowestvaluebelongstothepavilion.ThemagnitudeofdifferencebetweenEEoftunnelcourtandpavilionformsissigniﬁcantlyhigherforcooling-dominatedbuildings.The tunnel-courtformperformsbetween7%and32%higherthanpavilionforminLondon andHelsinki,whileitperformsbetween27%and67%higherthanpavilionformin SingaporeandPhoenix.Itdemonstratesthehigherimportanceofchoiceofbuiltformin hotterclimates.Hence,althoughthetunnel-courtformisthebestchoiceinallclimates, itisspeciﬁcallyrecommendedtobeusedinhotclimates.Thisbuiltformtogetherwith alowcut-offangleisthebestchoiceforcoldclimateswhileitshouldbeplannedwith alargecut-offangleinhotclimatestoachievetheenergeticallysustainablesolutionsin thebuiltenvironmentsaroundtheworld.

Itshouldbenotedthatenergyperformanceisnottheonlyvariabletobeconsidered whiledesigningabuilding,andthereareotherprioritiessuchassocialandeconomic aspectsthatshouldbeconsideredatthesametime.Hence,thisstudysuggestsdesign recommendationstoidentifythehighestenergy-performancebuiltformsandurban geometryfordifferentclimates,andthemainvariablesanddesigncriteriaaffectingit.

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G.Evola1(B) ,G.Margani2 ,V.Costanzo2 ,A.Artino2 ,D.L.Distefano2 , G.Semprini3 ,M.Lazzaro4 ,andD.Arnone4

1 DepartmentofElectric,ElectronicandComputerEngineering(DIEEI),UniversityofCatania, VialeA.Doria6,95125Catania,Italy

gevola@unict.it

2 DepartmentofCivilEngineeringandArchitecture(DICAR),UniversityofCatania,ViaSanta Soﬁa64,95123Catania,Italy

3 DepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,UniversityofBologna,VialeRisorgimento2,40136 Bologna,Italy

4 ResearchandDevelopmentDepartment,EngineeringIngegneriaInformaticaS.p.A.,Viale DellaRegioneSicilianaN.O.7275,90122Palermo,Italy

Abstract. Theinnovationprojecte-SAFE,fundedbytheEUundertheH2020 Programme,isdevelopinganewdeeprenovationsystemfornon-historicalreinforcedconcrete(RC)framedbuildings,whichcombinesenergyefﬁciencyand improvedseismicresistance.ThepresentpaperdescribesthemainfunctionalitiesofaDecisionSupportSystem(e-DSS)thatisbeingdevelopedbye-SAFE experts,aimedatguidingthetechniciansandthebuildingownersthroughaconsciouspreliminaryco-designactivity,andleadingtothechoiceofthemostsuitable renovationsolutionamongstthoseenvisagedbythee-SAFEportfolio.Thee-DSS allowsassessing—withareasonabledegreeofapproximation—theenergyperformanceofthebuildingbeforeandaftertheproposedrenovationaction,the environmentalbeneﬁtsintermsofdecarbonization(i.e.reductioninCO2 emissionforspaceheating,spacecoolingandDHWpreparation),theexpectedcosts andtimeforthebuildingrenovationandtheexpectedtimeofReturnoftheInvestment(ROI),basedalsoonthesavingsintheannualoperatingcosts.Thepaper explainsthecriteriausedbythetooltoidentifythosesolutionsthatarenotsuitable fortheselectedbuilding,anddiscussesthedegreeofapproximationbehindthe calculationofenergy,costandenvironmentalperformance.

Keywords: Energyrenovation · Seismicrenovation · Decisionsupport · Energy saving Decarbonization

1Introduction

Thetopicofcombinedenergyandseismicupgradingofbuildingshasbecomeincreasinglyimportantbecauseofthegrowingattentiontotheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalsustainabilityintherealestatesector.However,frequentlyretroﬁtactionsarenot

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2023 J.LittlewoodandR.J.Howlett(Eds.):SEB2022,SIST336,pp.12–21,2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8769-4 2

chosenbasedonadetailedevaluationandcomparisonoftheseveralpossiblealternatives,butratheronthedesigner’sexperienceandwidespreadbestpractices.Inaddition, thebuildingprocesscanbeparticularlycomplexfrombothatechnical(e.g.becauseof thelownumberofcompaniesspecializedincombinedseismicandenergyretroﬁtting) andanadministrativepointofview(e.g.becauseofbottlenecksintheapprovalprocess forrenovationactionsinapartmentbuildings).

Forthesereasons,therehasbeenagrowinginterestinthedevelopmentofDecision SupportSystems(DSS)toguidethedecisionprocessofvariousretrofitinterventions. Asanexample,someauthors[1–3]analyzedandgroupedthemostcommondecisionmakingmethodsandfoundthatmulti-criteriaapproachesarewidelyusedinDSSswithin theconstructionsector.Inaddition,somecompaniesanduniversitieshavealreadystarted developingdecisionsupporttoolsthemselves.Amongstthem,Kamarietal.[4, 5]applied ahybridapproachbasedonageneticalgorithmabletodefineseveralscenariosand toevaluatetheirperformancesintermsofenergyconsumption,thermalcomfort,and investmentcosts.AnotherinterestingreferencecanbefoundintheRENO-EVALUEtool [6],whichismeantasabasisfordialogueamongbuildingprofessionalsandbuilding userswhilealsosupportingtheformulationofspecificobjectivesforrenovationprojects. Thissystemcanalsobeusedforcomparingalternativeprojectproposalsandtofollowuponaprojectandassessitsactualperformance.Furthermore,CamposandNeves-Silva developedaDSStoolcalledEnPROVE(“Energyconsumptionpredictionwithbuilding usagemeasurementsforsoftware-baseddecisionsupport”)thatsupportsinvestorsin theselectionofthemostsuitablerenovationscenariosbyconsideringbudget,technical, andusageconstraints[7, 8].Althoughbeingapowerfultoolforrankingenergy-efficient long-termprojects,itneedsatechnicalconsultanttodefinelegislationandincentive schemesthatcanbeappliedinthespecificlocationwheretherenovationshouldtake place.

WhatemergesfromthereviewofexistingDSStoolsisthatseveralrenovationscenariosarefirstgeneratedthroughgeneticalgorithmsoruser-definedschemes,andthen theyareassessedandfinallyorderedaccordingtothestakeholders’priorities.

Differentlyfromsuchapproaches,thispaperintroducesanewDecisionSupport Systemcallede-DSS,developedwithintheH2020projecte-SAFE.Indeed,thistool isspeciﬁcallydesignedtosupportprofessionals,buildingmanagersandresidentsin choosingamongstthedifferenttechnologiesmadeavailablebythee-SAFEproject.The mainoutcomeofthetoolisthecomparisonbetweenenergy,environmentalandeconomic performanceofthebuildinginitscurrentstateandaftertherenovation:theseresultsare helpfultothedesignerduringthepreliminarydesignprocess,sinceitallowshim/herto showtheresidentsallthepotentialbeneﬁtsoftheselectedsolution.Furthermore,the e-DSSguidesthedesignerintheselectionofthemostappropriaterenovationsolution amongstthoseenvisagedine-SAFE,basedonaseriesofchecksregardingtheshapeof thebuilding,thenearbycontextandthepresenceofbalconiesandlargeglazedsurfaces.

Thepaperdescribesthemainfeaturesofthee-DSSinitsﬁrstrelease,itscurrent limitationsandthecriteriabehindtheselectionprocessforthemostsuitablerenovation solutions.Furtherdevelopmentsandfunctionalitiesarebeingimplementedandwillbe availablein2023inthesecondreleaseofthetool.