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FREEDOM ’ SCRESCENT TheLowerMississippiValleyismorethanjustadistinctgeographical regionoftheUnitedStates;itwascentraltotheoutcomeoftheCivilWar andthedestructionofslaveryintheAmericanSouth.Beginningwith Lincoln’s1860presidentialelectionandconcludingwiththe finalratificationoftheThirteenthAmendmentin1865, Freedom’sCrescent explores thefourstatesofthisregionthatsecededandjoinedtheConfederacy: Tennessee,Mississippi,Arkansas,andLouisiana.Byweavingintoa coherentnarrativethemajormilitarycampaignsthatenvelopedthe region,thedailydisintegrationofslaveryinthecountryside,andpolitical developmentsacrossthefourstatesandinWashingtonDC,JohnC. RodrigueidentifiestheLowerMississippiValleyastheepicenterof emancipationintheSouth.Asweepingexaminationofoneofthewar’ s mostimportanttheaters,thisbookhighlightstheintegralrolethisregion playedintransformingUnitedStateshistory.
JohnC.RodrigueistheLawrenceandTheresaSalamenoProfessorinthe DepartmentofHistoryatStonehillCollege.Hisbook Reconstructioninthe CaneFields receivedtheKemperandLeilaWilliamsPrizefromtheLouisiana HistoricalAssociation.Heisalsoaco-editorofoneofthevolumesof Freedom:ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation,1861–1867.In2016–2017,heservedasthePresidentoftheLouisianaHistoricalAssociation.
CAMBRIDGESTUDIESONTHEAMERICAN SOUTH SeriesEditors:
MarkM.Smith, UniversityofSouthCarolina,Columbia PeterCoclanis, UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill
EditorEmeritus: DavidMoltke-Hansen
Interdisciplinaryinitsscopeandintent,thisseriesbuildsuponand extendsCambridgeUniversityPress’slongstandingcommitmenttostudiesontheAmericanSouth.Theseriesoffersthebestnewworkonthe South’sdistinctiveinstitutional,social,economic,andculturalhistoryand alsofeaturesworksinanational,comparative,andtransnational perspective.
TitlesintheSeries
JohnC.Rodrigue, Freedom’sCrescent:TheCivilWarandtheDestruction ofSlaveryintheLowerMississippiValley ElijahGaddis, GruesomeLookingObjects:ANewHistoryofLynchingand EverydayThings
DamianAlanPargas, FreedomSeekers:FugitiveSlavesinNorthAmerica, 1800–1860
SebastianN.Page, BlackResettlementandtheAmericanCivilWar HaydenR.Smith, Carolina’sGoldenFields:InlandRiceCultivationinthe SouthCarolinaLowcountry,1670–1860
WilsonJeremiahMoses, ThomasJefferson:AModernPrometheus JoanE.Cashin, WarStuff:TheStruggleforHumanandEnvironmental ResourcesintheAmericanCivilWar
DavidStefanDoddington, ContestingSlaveMasculinityintheAmerican South
LawrenceT.McDonnell, PerformingDisunion:TheComingoftheCivil WarinCharleston,SouthCarolina
EnricoDalLago, CivilWarandAgrarianUnrest:TheConfederateSouth andSouthernItaly
DanielJ.Vivian, ANewPlantationWorld:SportingEstatesintheSouth CarolinaLowCountry,1900–1940
EugeneD.Genovese,ed.DouglasAmbrose, TheSweetnessofLife: SouthernPlantersatHome
DonaldG.Mathews, AttheAltarofLynching:BurningSamHoseinthe AmericanSouth
KeriLeighMerritt, MasterlessMen:PoorWhitesandSlaveryinthe AntebellumSouth
KatherineRyeJewell, DollarsforDixie:BusinessandtheTransformation ofConservatismintheTwentiethCentury
SarahGardner, ReviewingtheSouth:TheLiteraryMarketplaceandthe SouthernRenaissance,1920–1941
WilliamThomasOkie, TheGeorgiaPeach:Culture,Agriculture,and EnvironmentintheAmericanSouth
KarlosK.Hill, BeyondtheRope:TheImpactofLynchingonBlackCulture andMemory
WilliamA.LinkandJamesJ.Broomall,eds., RethinkingAmerican Emancipation:LegaciesofSlaveryandtheQuestforBlackFreedom
JamesVanHornMelton, Religion,Community,andSlaveryonthe ColonialSouthernFrontier
DamianAlanPargas, SlaveryandForcedMigrationintheAntebellum South
CraigFriendandLorriGlover,eds., DeathandtheAmericanSouth
BartonA.Myers, RebelsagainsttheConfederacy:NorthCarolina’ s Unionists
LouisA.FerlegerandJohnD.Metz, CultivatingSuccessintheSouth:Farm HouseholdsinPostbellumGeorgia
LukeE.Harlow, Religion,Race,andtheMakingofConfederateKentucky, 1830–1880
SusannaMicheleLee, ClaimingtheUnion:CitizenshipinthePost–Civil WarSouth
KathleenM.Hilliard, Masters,Slaves,andExchange:Power’sPurchasein theOldSouth
AriHelo, ThomasJefferson’sEthicsandthePoliticsofHumanProgress: TheMoralityofaSlaveholder
ScottP.Marler, TheMerchants’ Capital:NewOrleansandthePolitical EconomyoftheNineteenth-CenturySouth
RasMichaelBrown, African-AtlanticCulturesandtheSouthCarolina Lowcountry
JohannaNicolShields, FreedominaSlaveSociety:Storiesfromthe AntebellumSouth
BrianSteele, ThomasJeffersonandAmericanNationhood
ChristopherMichaelCurtis, Jefferson’sFreeholdersandthePoliticsof OwnershipintheOldDominion
JonathanDanielWells, WomenWritersandJournalistsintheNineteenthCenturySouth
PeterMcCandless, Slavery,Disease,andSufferingintheSouthern Lowcountry
RobertE.Bonner, MasteringAmerica:SouthernSlaveholdersandthe CrisisofAmericanNationhood
FREEDOM ’ SCRESCENT TheCivilWarandtheDestructionofSlaveryinthe LowerMississippiValley JOHNC.RODRIGUE StonehillCollege UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
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ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
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Informationonthistitle: www.cambridge.org/9781108424097
DOI: 10.1017/9781108539715
©JohnC.Rodrigue2023
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
Firstpublished2023
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Rodrigue,JohnC.,author.
Title:Freedom’screscent:theCivilWarandthedestructionofslaveryinthelower MississippiValley/JohnC.Rodrigue,StonehillCollege,Massachusetts. Othertitles:CivilWarandthedestructionofslaveryinthelowerMississippiValley Description:Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2023.|Series:CambridgestudiesontheAmericanSouth|Includesbibliographical referencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2022034272(print)|LCCN2022034273(ebook)|ISBN9781108424097 (hardback)|ISBN9781108539715(ebook)
Subjects:LCSH:AfricanAmericans – History – 1863–1877.|Freedpersons – UnitedStates –History – 19thcentury.|Slaves – Emancipation – UnitedStates – History – 19thcentury.| Reconstruction(U.S.history,1865–1877) – MississippiRiverValley.|AfricanAmericans –MississippiRiverValley – Socialconditions – 19thcentury.|Slavery – MississippiRiver Valley – History – 19thcentury.|MississippiRiverValley – History – CivilWar,1861–1865. Classification:LCCE185.2R632023(print)|LCCE185.2(ebook)|DDC973.7/14–dc23/ eng/20220823
LCrecordavailableat https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034272 LCebookrecordavailableat https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034273
ISBN978-1-108-42409-7Hardback
ISBN978-1-108-43934-3Paperback
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toSylvia
Itmaylooklikeboasting – butwhatItellyouistruth – Ibeganto reflecthowmagnificentathingitwastodieinsuchamanner,and howfoolishitwasinmetothinkofsopaltryaconsiderationasmy ownindividuallife,inviewofsowonderfulamanifestationofGod’ s power.IdobelievethatIblushedwithshamewhenthisideacrossed mymind.AfteralittlewhileIbecamepossessedwiththekeenest curiosityaboutthewhirlitself.Ipositivelyfelta wish toexploreits depths,evenatthesacrificeIwasgoingtomake;andmyprincipal griefwasthatIshouldneverbeabletotellmyoldcompanionson shoreaboutthemysteriesIshouldsee.These,nodoubt,were singularfanciestooccupyaman’smindinsuchextremity – and Ihaveoftenthoughtsince,thattherevolutionsoftheboataround thepoolmighthaverenderedmealittlelight-headed.
EdgarAllanPoe, “ADescentintotheMaelström” (1841)
ListofFigurespage xi
Acknowledgments xii
ListofAbbreviations xvi
Introduction 1
Prologue:Life – andLabor – ontheMississippi 22
parti FromWarforUniontoMilitaryEmancipation, 1860–1862
1 “AnIndependentPower” 43
2OfStampedesandFreePapers 65
3 “BrokenEggsCannotBeMended” 82
4 “TheUnsatisfactoryProspectBeforeThem” 100
partii: FromMilitaryEmancipationtoStateAbolition, 1863
5 “TheReturnoftheSecededStatestoThisUnionasSlave States” 115
6 “RepugnanttotheSpiritoftheAge” 132
7 “TheGreatestQuestionEverPresentedtoPractical Statesmanship” 145
8 “TheNameof ‘Slavery’” 165
9 “RepudiatingtheEmancipationProclamation andReestablishingSlavery” 185
partiii: Abolition:StateandFederal,1864
10 “SlaveryIsIncompatiblewithaRepublicanForm ofGovernment” 223
FIGURES 1ThelowerMississippivalley page xviii
2Thepercentageofslavesinthetotalpopulation,bycounty(orparish), 1860 xx
3EmancipationandabolitioninthelowerMississippivalley xxi
4FugitiveslavesenterUnionlines 204
5BatonRougecontrabandcamp 204
6UlyssesS.Grant 205
7JohnEaton 205
8SamuelR.Curtis 206
9FrederickSteele 206
10BenjaminF.Butler 207
11NathanielP.Banks 207
12LorenzoThomasaddressesfreedpeople 208
13NathanielP.BanksaddressesLouisianaplanters 208
14AbrahamLincoln 209
15JamesM.Ashley 210
16HenryWinterDavis 210
17AndrewJohnson 211
18WilliamG. “Parson” Brownlow 211
19IsaacMurphy 212
20WilliamM.Fishback 212
21EdwardW.Gantt 213
22MichaelHahn 214
23J.MadisonWells 214
24TheinaugurationofMichaelHahn 215
25WilliamB.Campbell 216
26EmersonEtheridge 216
27ChristianRoselius 217
28WilliamH.Grey 218
29Blacktroopsmusteredout,Arkansas,1866 218
30Memphismassacre 219
31NewOrleansmassacre 219
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Giventhatthisbookhasturnedouttobeamuchmoreambitiousundertaking –andhasconsequentlytakenfarlongertocomplete – thanIhadoriginally intended,itisapleasure finallytobeabletothankallofthepersonswhohave helpedtobringittofruition.I firstbegantodeveloptheideaforthisbookwhile workingonmypreviousone, LincolnandReconstruction.Itoccurredtomethen thattherewasalargerstorythanIwasabletotellatthetime.LittledidIknow howmuchlarger,andittookmeawhileto figurethingsout,butIthank everyonewhowasassociatedwiththatbookforthisoneaswell.
AchanceencounterwithDavidMoltke-Hansenatthe2016annualmeeting oftheOrganizationofAmericanHistorians(OAH)inProvidence,Rhode Island, firststeeredmeinthedirectionofCambridgeUniversityPress’ s StudiesontheAmericanSouthseries.Davidhadpreviouslyeditedtheseries withMarkM.Smith,butitnowwasbeingedited,Davidinformedme,byMark andPeterA.Coclanis.IthankDavidforthesuggestion(whichneverwould haveoccurredtome).IcannotexpressmyappreciationenoughtoMarkand Peterforalloftheirsupport,encouragement,andpatienceduringtheselast fewyears,especiallywhenthelengthofthemanuscriptwasbeginningtocause, asMarksoeloquentlyputit, “someheartburn.”
IwouldliketoexpressspecialgratitudetoeveryoneIhavehadtheprivilege ofworkingwithatCambridgeUniversityPress.DeborahGershonowitz first assumedresponsibilityforthisproject,andsheofferedimportantadviceand supportduringmyearlyassociationwiththepress(inadditiontoenablingme togettoself-importantlysaythat “Ihaveameetingwithmyeditorin NewYork”).CeceliaCancellarosubsequentlyinheritedstewardshipofthis project,andIespeciallyappreciateherguidance,support,andsaintlypatience inbringingalongandunwieldymanuscripttocompletion.Ialsothankthe anonymousoutsidereviewersoftheoriginalbookproposaland,later,the manuscriptfortheirchallengingbuthelpfulinsights,questions,and – yes –criticisms,allofwhichmadethebookmuchbetter.Asthingsgotdowntothe wire,VictoriaPhillipshandledmyinnumerablequestionswithaplomb. ThankstothemembersofthePress’soutstandingproductiondepartment –MelissaWardandVidyaAshwinandherteam,especiallycopyeditorVinod Kumar – whomadethisbookatrulyglobalendeavor.
Ihadtheopportunitytopresentpartsofthisworkbeforevariousaudiencesovertheyears,muchtomybene fi t.Ihadthespecialprivilegeof presentinganearlyversionoftheprojectinApril2015before asymposiuminhonorofIraBerlinattheUniversityofMaryland,College Park.ThereactionfromtheaudiencesuggestedtomethatImightinfactbe ontosomething,butIamespeciallygratefulforthecommentsandresponses fromStevenF.Miller(myformercolleagueontheFreedmenandSouthern SocietyProject[FSSP]),LawrenceN.Powell,ThavoliaGlymph,Steven Hahn,andIrahimself.Thatgathering,forvariousreasons,trulywas ahighlightofmycareer.IhadtheopportunitytopresenttheTennessee dimensionofthisstoryataconferenceattheUniversityofMemphisin May2016markingthesesquicentennialofthe1866Memphismassacre. IwouldliketothankSusanE.O’ Donovan(anotherformerFSSPcolleague whowaspresentattheIraevent)forrefusingtotakenoforananswerwhen sheinvitedmetoparticipateintheconference.IalsothankSusanand BeverlyGreeneBondforputtingtogetherabrilliantlyconceptualizedprogram,andtheotherparticipantsandaudiencemembersfortheirquestions, suggestions,andpositivevibes.
Igaveamuch-abbreviatedversionoftheLouisianastoryinmypresidential addressbeforethe2017annualmeetingoftheLouisianaHistoricalAssociation (LHA)inShreveport.Igreatlyappreciatetheresponsetomyaddressfrom LHAfriendsandassociatesfartoonumeroustonamehere,butIwould especiallyliketothankmydearfriendsChuckShindoandMichaelFontenot fortraipsingallthewayupfromBatonRougetohearmyaddress,andFaye Phillipsforallofhersupportthroughoutmyacademiccareer,datingbackto whenwe firstmetinthespringof1988attheLouisianaStateUniversityspecial collections,asIwasjustcommencingmydissertationresearch.
LouisFerleger,anotherdearfriendofmorethanthirtyyearsandoneofmy mostearnestadvocates,mademetheproverbialofferIcouldn’trefuseby insistingthatIpresentbeforetheAmericanPoliticalHistoryInstituteof BostonUniversity’sHistoryDepartment.IthankLouandBruceJ.Shulman, whoadministerstheInstitute,fortheinvitationtospeakinSeptember2018. IalsogreatlyappreciatethechallengingquestionsandwordsofencouragementthatIreceivedfromNinaSilber,SarahT.Phillips,andtheother contributorstoourcollegialdiscussion.
Ihadthegreathonor,alongwithEdwardAyers,ofparticipatinginthe DistinguishedScholarsSeriesatNichollsStateUniversityinThibodaux, Louisiana,inMarch2019.IgreatlyappreciatetheinvitationfromDavid D.Plater,authorofa finebookontheButlerfamilyofsouthLouisiana,to givethetalk.IaskedDavidwhatheneededmeforifhealreadyhadEdAyers linedup,butheinsisted,andforthatIthankhim.Iwouldalsoliketothank PaulWilson,ChairoftheDepartmentofHistoryandGeography;JayClune, PresidentofNichollsState;TomBecnel,retiredfacultymemberintheNicholls
historydepartment;andtheentireNichollsState/Thibodauxcommunityfor theirgracioushospitality.ItisalwaysnicetogobacktoLouisiana.
IpresentedanearlyversionofthisprojectataDean’sForumatStonehill College.Iwouldliketothankthefriends,colleagues,andstudentswho attendedthepresentationandwhoaskedprobingandchallengingquestions andofferedhelpfuladviceandsuggestions.IalsothankthoseofmyStonehill colleagueswhoofferedencouragementandsupportduringsometryingtimes. Moreover,twoseparatesabbaticalleaves(yetanotherindicationofhowlong thisprojecttook)alsoprovidedmewiththetime,inbothinstancesatcritical junctures,toundertakesignificantbutessentialrevisionsofthemanuscript.
IthankthestaffsofthevariousarchivesIhavevisitedovertheyearsfortheir assistanceandoftherepositoriesfromwhichIsecuredillustrationsforreproducingthemandforpermissiontousethem.TheStonehillCollegelibrary’ s interlibraryloanstafflikewiseprovidedinvaluableaidintrackingdown materials.TomWillcocksoncreatedtheexcellentmaps.
IunabashedlyabusedthefriendshipofPaulA.Cimbala(fellowEmorygrad andNewJerseyguitarist),MichaelW.Fitzgerald,theaforementionedLou Ferleger,andJosephP.Reidyintakingthemupontheirgraciousofferstoread aramshacklemanuscript.I’dliketothinkourfriendshipshavesurvived,but Ioweeachofthematremendousdebtofgratitudeforofferingadviceand suggestionsthatgreatlyimprovedwhatIwastryingtosay.Theyreallydid makethebookbetter,andtherewassimplynogettingaroundthefactthat Ihadtohavesympatheticbutdiscerningreaderslookatit.Ihopetobeableto repaythedebt.StevenHahnalsoreadpartsofthemanuscriptandprovided sagaciousadvice,inadditiontohisgeneralsupportandencouragement. RichardFrank(myuncle-in-law)graciouslyreadtheentiremanuscript – the longversion – andmadeanumberofgoodcatches.
IthankMichaelVorenbergforhisassistanceonacoupleofspecificmatters thatmadeabigdifference.Hemaynotrememberit,butJamesOakesoffered areassuringendorsementwhenthisbookwasbarelyatwo-paragraph proposal.
FriendswithwhomIhavediscussedthisprojectovertheyearsalsooffered advice,suggestions,andencouragement,orjusthelpedtokeepmesane.They includeMikeRoss(whoseinsistencethatIincludeAlabama,since “people writesongsaboutAlabama,” Iultimatelyhadtotakeapasson);ScottMarler (whoseexcellentbookonNewOrleanshelpedmegreatly);AndrewSlap;Mark Schantz;PaulCimbala(again)andElizabethVozzola;RexPalmerandClaudia Rizzini;andGloriaandKenNykiel.JimRoark,mydissertationadviserfrom backinthedayandlongtimefriend,alsoreadpartsofthemanuscriptandwas willingtotalkendlessly – onthoseall-too-rareoccasionsweareabletoget togetheranymore,andonthephone – abouttheproject.Inanentirely differentrealmofmyexistence,JimThorpe,DaveBetten,DonDistaso, WayneJarger,TomTozzi,andTonyChibaro,asalways,keptitreal.
MyfriendJohnMerrimanhasservedasanunindictedco-conspiratoron thisproject.Inthenearlyfortyyearssincewe firstmetatEmoryUniversityin preparingforthefall1986semester,Johnhasbeenadearandtruefriend, acomrade,andanintellectualpartner.Eventhoughhenowliveshalfaworld away,ourregularphoneconversationshavehelpedtoshapemythinkingon thisbookandonmanyotherthings.Andonceagain,Johngenerouslygaveof histimeandworkedhismagiconthefootnotesandbibliography.Whenit comestohistoriographicalorbibliographicmatters,hecanvirtuallyreadmy mind.Anyerrorsin “thenotesandbib” areonme,butsuchvirtuesastheymay haveareowingtoJohn’sselflessefforts.
IwouldagainliketoexpressmydeepestappreciationtothelateLawrence SalamenoandtoTheresaSalamenoforcreatingtheprofessorshipthatIhave beenprivilegedtoholdandfortheirsupportofStonehillCollege.Despite Larry’spassing,Ialwayshadhiminmindasmyidealreaderandintended audience:someonewhoheldanabidingpassionforhistoryandunderstoodits importance,andwho,thoughnotanacademic,couldappreciatethe finer pointsofserious,scholarlydebate.IdomissLarryandourconversations abouthistory,theYankees,thecats,andothermatters.
Severalotherfriendsandfamilymembershavesadlypassedawayinthe yearsIwasworkingonthisbook,twoofwhomImustmention.Myfather, JohnRodrigue,wasdiagnosedwithcancerinearly2017,justasIwaspreparing togivemyLHApresidentialaddress,andhepassedayearlater.Adearfriend frommyLouisianadays,RexStem,wastakenmuchtoosoon.AnApril2013 triptonorthernCaliforniawithmywifeSylvia – fortheOAHmeetinginSan Francisco,todoacoupleofdaysofresearchatStanford,andtovisitwithRex, Melissa,andtheirchildrenHenryandNathalieinDavis – remainsatreasured memory.Imisstheseandallofthelovedoneswhohavepassedinrecentyears.
Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepestappreciationtomyfamilymembers, includingmymotherMaureen,mysistersAnn-MarieandTerry,myvarious in-laws,andmyniecesandnephewsKelly,Glen,Jackie,Eddie,Abigail,and Emily,foralloftheirloveandsupport.ThankstootoGranite,Zydeco, Mr.Friendly,Minnie,Maxx,andShadowforgreatlyenrichingSylvia’sand mylives(andtoMr.FriendlyandMaxxinparticularfortheirthoughtful emendationswhilestrollingacrossthecomputerkeyboard).
ThededicationofthisbookacknowledgesabondthatIdeeplytreasure.
ABBREVIATIONS FullcitationsforpublishedmaterialareprovidedintheBibliography
ALPThePapersofAbrahamLincoln,LibraryofCongress
CGCongressionalGlobe
CWLTheCollectedWorksofAbrahamLincoln (Basler) Freedom:BMEFreedom:ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation.Series2: TheBlackMilitaryExperience Freedom:DSFreedom:ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation.Series1. Volume1:TheDestructionofSlavery Freedom:L&L-1865Freedom:ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation.Series3. Volume1:LandandLabor,1865 Freedom:WGFL-LSFreedom:ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation.Series1. Volume3:TheWartimeGenesisofFreeLabor:TheLower South
LSUTheLouisianaandLowerMississippiValleyCollections,Hill MemorialLibrary,LouisianaStateUniversity
OROfficialRecordsoftheWaroftheRebellion
PAJThePapersofAndrewJohnson
UNCTheSouthernHistoricalCollection,WilsonLibrary, UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill
Figure1
Figure1 (Cont.)
Figure2 Thepercentageofslavesinthetotalpopulation,bycounty(orparish),1860
ALABAMA
FLORIDA
MISSISSIPPI
LOUISIANA
Extent of Union military control just prior to the issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation.
Areas that were included within the Emancipation Proclamation.
Areas that were excluded from the Emancipation Proclamation.
States that abolished slavery by state means during the war (with date).
State that abolished slavery under Federal dictate after the war (with date).
ARKANSAS (March 1864)
LOUISIANA (September 1864)
MISSISSIPPI (August 1865)
TENNESSEE (February 1865)
Cartography by Mapcraft.com
Figure3 EmancipationandabolitioninthelowerMississippivalley. Note: TheThirteenth Amendment,whichbecameoperativeinDecember1865,prohibitedslaveryinallofthe statesandinallterritoryunderFederaljurisdiction.
Introduction Thelegacyofslaverycontinuestohauntthenationalconscience,andquestionssurroundingraceremainamongthenation’ smostintractablechallenges.Despite – orindeedbecauseof – thedramatictransformationsthat Americansocietyhasundergoneinrecentdecades,alongwithconcomitant changesinthehistoricalprofessionandhistoricalscholarship,anyattemptto understandthenation ’ spast,orpresent,revolvesmorethaneveraroundthe studyofslaveryanditsdestruction,an dscholarlyinterestinthesetopics showsnosignsofabating.Slavery,itiswellunderstood,wasnottangential to – orsomehowanaberrationof – theAmericanexperience.Itwascentral, anditsoverthrowprecipitatedafundamentalreorderingofeveryaspectof USsociety.Nothingwasimmunetoslavery’ s – oremancipation’ s – consequences.Paradoxically,whilenotionsofrace,asthehistoricalrecordhas amplydemonstrated,are “ constructs” thatevolveovertime,racismand racialistthinkingalsoappeartobeimmutableelementsofmodernsociety. Tothisday,Americanscontinuetograpplewithslavery ’ sbitterlegacy.They probablyalwayswill.
Aspartoftheefforttounderstandthatlegacy,thisbookexaminesthe destructionofslaveryinthelowerMississippivalley – thevastgeological basindrainedbytheMississippiRiveranditsmaintributariesanddistributariessouthoftheconfluencewiththeOhioRiver – duringandimmediately followingtheUSCivilWar.BeginningwithAbrahamLincoln’selection aspresidentinNovember1860andendingwith finalratificationofthe ThirteenthAmendmentinDecember1865,itfocusesonthefourstatesof theregionthatsecededfromtheUnionandjoinedtheConfederateStatesof America – Arkansas,Louisiana,Mississippi,andTennessee.Inparticular,this studyplacesspecialemphasisonthepartsofthosestateswhereslaveryand plantationagriculturepredominated,includingwestandcentralTennessee, thesoutheasterlyhalfofArkansas,andthewesternhalfofMississippi,aswell asalmostallofLouisiana.Ofthesestates,onlyMississippididnotabolish slaveryduringthewarorexperiencewartimeReconstruction.Thelower Mississippivalleyencapsulatedthedestructionofslaveryintherebelliousstates asawhole,somethingthatcanbesaidofnootherpartoftheConfederacy.
EventakingintoaccountD.W.Meinig’sobservationthat “[m]ostgeographicregionsareabstractionsandapproximations,” thisbookconsidersthe lowerMississippivalleyasadistinctgeopoliticalentity.1 Fromthisvantage point,itintegratesintoacoherentnarrativethemilitaryexperience,political developmentsinthefourstatesandWashington,DC,andtheunderminingof slavery “fromthebottomup” inexaminingwhatwasundoubtedlythegreatest socialrevolutioninUShistory.ThelowerMississippivalleyboastsof auniverseofscholarshiponvariousaspectsoftheCivilWarandthedestructionofslavery,andscholarshavelongunderstoodthecentralityoftheregion tothewar’soutcomeandtoslavery’sdownfall.Consideringhowmuchhas beenwrittenonthelowerMississippivalleyduringthewar,itseemsremarkablethatnosinglebookexaminestheendingofslaveryinthisdistinctand vitallyimportantregion.Thisbookattemptsto fillthatgap.2
Whileframedasachronologicalnarrative,thisbookputsforwardtwo overarchingthemes.First,itarguesthatthemultidimensionalnatureof emancipationandabolitioninthelowerMississippivalleyelucidatesthe variousmeansbywhichslaverywasbroughttoanendintheUnitedStates. Second,itcontendsthatthedestructionofslaveryintheUnitedStateswas evenmorecontingentthanpreviousscholarshiphasallowedfor,andthatthe exigenciesofwar,emancipation,andwartimeReconstructioninthestatesof thelowerMississippivalleyprovedintegraltothisprocess.The firsttheme pullstogetherthemyriadstrandsofastorywithwhichscholarsofemancipationarefamiliar,whilethesecondoffersarevisionofwhatmightbe consideredthestandardaccountofthedestructionofslaveryintheUnited States.
1 Meinig, TheShapingofAmerica,xvii.AlthoughAmericansduringthenineteenthcentury employedthetermMississippivalleyimprecisely,theyhadageneralawarenessofthearea asadistinctgeographicalregion.
2 OnecrucialexceptionisArmsteadL.Robinson’s1977dissertation, “DayofJubilo.” The storyofthisworkislegendaryinthescholarshiponemancipation.Thebookthatwas eventuallypublishedposthumously(in2005)wasverydifferentfromRobinson’sdissertation,thoughthelowerMississippivalley figuresprominentlyinbothworks.Robinson’ s BitterFruitsofBondage takesamuchmoreexpansiveviewoftheMississippivalleythan doesmine,incorporatingalmosttheentireareafromtheAppalachianMountainsto Texas.Italsofocusesmostofitsattentiononthe firsttwoyearsofthewar,untilthe Confederacy’s1863militarylossesatVicksburgandChattanooga.Whiletheendingof slaveryisobviouslycriticaltoRobinson’sanalysis,heexaminesthe(lower)Mississippi valleyasameansofdemonstratingthatclassconflictamongwhiteSouthernersover slaverywastheprimarycauseofConfederatedefeat.Aswillbeseen,myexaminationof thelowerMississippivalleyseekstoexplainhowtheformalabolitionofslaverycame about.Ironically,Robinson’sdissertationprobablyhadamoreprofoundimpactonthe scholarshiponslavery,emancipation,andtheCivilWarthandidthebookwhenit finally appeared.Nonetheless,allofthisscholarshipsincethelate1970sowesatremendousdebt ofgratitudetoRobinson’strulypathbreakingdissertation.
The firstthememaintainsthatthelowerMississippivalleyexperiencedallof the fivemajordimensionsofwartimeemancipationandabolition.First,partsof allfourstateswitnessedtheliberatingofslavesbyUnionmilitaryforces – or limitedmilitaryemancipation – undervariousFederaledictspriortoLincoln’ s issuingoftheEmancipationProclamationonJanuary1,1863.Althoughcircumscribedintheory,suchemancipationwaswidespreadinpractice.Second, thefreeingofallslavesindesignatedgeographicalareas – or universalmilitary emancipation – undertheEmancipationProclamationtookplacethroughout allofArkansasandMississippiandmostofLouisiana,includingpartsofall threestatesthatUnionmilitaryforcescontrolledwhentheproclamationwas issued.Third,theregionexperienced exclusions fromtheproclamation,includingsouthernLouisianaandallofTennessee,asaconcessiontosouthern Unionistsinthosestateswhowereattemptingtoorganizeloyalgovernments. Fourth, state-levelabolition,aspartofwartimeReconstruction,occurredin ArkansasandLouisianain1864andinTennesseeinearly1865.Theseactions providedconstitutionalsanctiontothefreedomformerslaveshadgained viamilitaryemancipation,andtheyabolishedslaveryasaninstitution,somethingtheEmancipationProclamationcouldnotdo.Finally, Federalcivil authoritydefinitivelyendedslavery.Mississippiessentiallyabolishedslavery underFederaldictateafterthewar,whiletheThirteenthAmendmentprohibitedanystatetoreintroduceslavery.OtherConfederateareasexperiencedone ormoreofthesedimensionsofemancipation,butnoneexperiencedallofthem. Itwouldnotbeanoverstatementtosaythatthedestructionofslaveryinthe SouthasawholecanbeunderstoodbylookingatthelowerMississippivalley.3
Thesecondtheme,whichrequiresgreaterelaborationthanthe first,seeksto revisetheconventionalnarrativethatexplainshowtheCivilWarwastransformed,formostNortherners,fromawartopreservetheUnionintooneboth topreservetheUnionandtoendslavery.Italsocallsforadeeperappreciationof thedifficultiesthatwereinvolvedintranslatingmilitaryemancipation – orthe freeingofslavesasa consequence ofsuppressingtherebellion – intothepolitical
3 PossibleexceptionstothisgeneralizationincludetheVirginia–WestVirginiasituation andKentucky.AlthoughVirginiaestablishedaUnionistgovernmentthatabolished slaveryandwasinstrumentalincreatingthestateofWestVirginia,wartime ReconstructioninthatstatewasoffarlesssignificancethaninthelowerMississippivalley. BecauseKentucky(whichwasexcludedfromtheEmancipationProclamation)didnot abolishslaveryduringthewar,andwasnotrequiredtoabolishslaveryasaconditionfor restorationtotheUnion(sinceitdidnotsecede),slaveryonlyendedinthestatewith final ratificationoftheThirteenthAmendmentinDecember1865.Duringthewar,Kentucky experiencedothermodesofFederalemancipationparticulartoitscircumstances:in April1864,theWarDepartmentapprovedanorderallowingfortherecruitmentof maleslavesinKentucky(therebyemancipatingthem)withtheirowners’ permission;in March1865,Congressapprovedaresolutionfreeingthewivesandchildrenofblack soldiersandfuturerecruits,apolicythatwasenforcedwidelyinKentucky.Thesemeasures stilldidnotabolishslaveryinthestate. Freedom:BME,193,196–97.
