Biomass-Based Supercapacitors
Design, Fabrication and Sustainability
Edited by Md. Abdul Aziz
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Syed Shaheen Shah
Department of Material Chemistry
Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Aziz, Md. Abdul (Research scientist), author. | Shah, Syed Shaheen, author.
Title: Biomass-based supercapacitors : design, fabrication and sustainability / Abdul Aziz, Syed Shaheen Shah.
Description: Hokoben, NJ : Wiley, 2023.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023017541 | ISBN 9781119866404 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119866428 (epub) | ISBN 9781119866435 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119866411 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Supercapacitors. | Biomass.
Classification: LCC TK7872.C65 A95 2023 | DDC 621.31/5--dc23/eng/20230501
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023017541
Cover images: © edge69/Getty Images, © browndogstudios/iStockphoto, © petovarga/Adobe Stock, © chombosan/Shutterstock, © ksyproduktor/Shutterstock, Pixabay, © Elnur/Shutterstock
Cover design by Wiley
Contents
About the Editors ix
Preface xi
List of Contributors xiii
Part 1 Biomass 1
1 Introduction to Biomass 3
Md. Almujaddade Alfasane, Ashika Akhtar, Nasrin Siraj Lopa, and Md. Mahbubur Rahman
2 Environmental Aspects of Biomass Utilization in Supercapacitors 23
Runa Akter, Jaber Bin Abdul Bari, Saidur R. Chowdhury, Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, and Syed Masiur Rahman
3 Biomass Utilization in Supercapacitors for the Circular Economy 41
Runa Akter, Md. Raquibul Hassan Bhuiyan, Saidur R. Chowdhury, Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, and Syed Masiur Rahman
Part 2 Fundamentals of Supercapacitors 61
4 Introduction to Supercapacitors 63
Syed Shaheen Shah, Mohammad Rezaul Karim, Md. Abdul Wahab, Muhammad Ali Ehsan, and Md. Abdul Aziz
5 Electrochemical Techniques for Supercapacitors 81
Syed Shaheen Shah, Md Abdul Aziz, and Munetaka Oyama
6 Types of Supercapacitors 93
Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Abdul Aziz, Wael Mahfoz, and Md. Akhtaruzzaman
Part 3 Biomass Derived Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 105
7 Non-activated Carbon for Supercapacitor Electrodes 107
Md. Akib Hasan, Mohammad Anikur Rahman, and Md. Mominul Islam
8 Carbon from Pre-Treated Biomass 121
Syeda Ramsha Ali, Mian Muhammad Faisal, and K.C. Sanal
9 Carbonate Salts-activated Carbon 143
Syed Shaheen Shah , Md. Abdul Aziz , Laiq Zada, Haroon Ur Rahman, Falak Niaz, and Khizar Hayat
10 KOH/NaOH-activated Carbon 161
Nasrin Siraj Lopa, Biswa Nath Bhadra, Nazmul Abedin Khan, Serge Zhuiykov, and Md. Mahbubur Rahman
11 Chloride Salt-activated Carbon for Supercapacitors 179
Eman Gul, Syed Adil Shah, and Syed Niaz Ali Shah
12 CO2-activated Carbon 201
Salman Farsi, Thuhin Kumar Dey, Mushfiqur Rahman, and Mamun Jamal
13 Steam-activated Carbon for Supercapacitors 213
Madhusudan Roy and Hasi Rani Barai
14 Biomass-Derived Hard Carbon for Supercapacitors 237
Himadri Tanaya Das, Swapnamoy Dutta, Muhammad Usman, T. Elango Balaji, and Nigamananda Das
15 Carbon Nanofibers 249
Nasrin Sultana, Ahtisham Anjum, S. M. Abu Nayem, Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Hasan Zahir , A. J. Saleh Ahammad, and Md. Abdul Aziz
16 Biomass-Derived Graphene-Based Supercapacitors 269
Nafeesa Sarfraz, Ibrahim Khan, and Abdulmajeed H. Hendi
17 Biomass-derived N-doped Carbon for Electrochemical Supercapacitors 289
Syed Niaz Ali Shah, Eman Gul, Narayan Chandra Deb Nath, and Guodong Du
18 Biomass Based S-doped Carbon for Supercapacitor Application 315
S. M. Abu Nayem, Santa Islam, Syed Shaheen Shah, Nasrin Sultana, Wael Mahfoz, A. J. Saleh Ahammad, and Md. Abdul Aziz
19 Biomass-derived Carbon and Metal Oxides Composites for Supercapacitors 329 Muhammad Ammar, Himadri Tanaya Das, Awais Ali, Sami Ullah, Abuzar Khan, Abbas Saeed Hakeem, Naseem Iqbal, Muhammad Humayun, Muhammad Zahir Iqbal, and Muhammad Usman
20 Composites of Biomass-derived Materials and Conducting Polymers 347
Wael Mahfoz, Abubakar Dahiru Shuaibu, Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Abdul Aziz, and Abdul-Rahman Al-Betar
21 Composite of Biomass-derived Material and Conductive Material Excluding Conducting Polymer Material 367
Nasrin Sultana, Ahmar Ali, S. M. Abu Nayem, Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Hasan Zahir, A. J. Saleh Ahammad, and Md. Abdul Aziz
Part 4 Binding Materials, Electrolytes, Separators, and Packaging Materials from Biomass for Supercapacitors 383
22 Biomass-based Electrolytes for Supercapacitor Applications 385
S. M. Abu Nayem, Santa Islam, Syed Shaheen Shah, Nasrin Sultana, M. Nasiruzzaman Shaikh, Md. Abdul Aziz, and A. J. Saleh Ahammad
23 Biomass-based Separators for Supercapacitor Applications 403
S. M. Abu Nayem, Santa Islam, Syed Shaheen Shah, Abdul Awal, Nasrin Sultana, A. J. Saleh Ahammad, and Md. Abdul Aziz
24 Binding Agents and Packaging Materials of Supercapacitors from Biomass 417 Md. Mehedi Hasan and Md. Rajibul Akanda
Part 5 Biomass-Based Supercapacitors: Future Outlooks and Challenges 435
25 Biomass-based Supercapacitors: Lab to Industry 437
Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Abdul Aziz, Muhammad Usman, Abbas Saeed Hakeem, Shahid Ali, and Atif Saeed Alzahrani
26 Future Directions and Challenges in Biomass-Based Supercapacitors 461
Syed Shaheen Shah, Md. Abdul Aziz, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Usman, Sikandar Khan, Farrukh Shehzad, Syed Niaz Ali Shah, and Sami Ullah
Index 485
About the Editors
Dr. Md. Abdul Aziz is a Research Scientist-II (Associate Professor) at the Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES), King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia. He also served as research scientist-III (Assistant Professor) at the Center of Research Excellence in Nanotechnology (CENT), KFUPM. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) in the Department of Material Chemistry, Kyoto University, from 2009–2011. He is a serving editorial board member of ChemistrySelect-Wiley; Current Nanomaterials – Bentham Science and served/serving as guest editor of The Chemical Record-Wiley; Chemistry-an Asian Journal-Wiley; Chemistry – a European Journal-Wiley.
Dr. Aziz has authored 187 papers in well-reputed peer-reviewed journals in addition to numerous numbers of conference proceedings/presentations/book chapters, and holds 30 US patents. His research interests are the preparation and characterization of nanomaterial and carbonaceous materials for different electrochemical applications such as energy storage and generation, sensor, CO2 conversion, water splitting, sensors etc. Dr. Aziz received his B.Sc. in Chemistry in 1999 and M.Sc. in organic chemistry in 2001 from University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. In 2009, he earned his PhD in chemistry from BioMEMS and Nanoelectrochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Pusan National University, Republic of Korea.
Dr. Syed Shaheen Shah is a JSPS Post-Doctoral Fellow in the Department of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan. Dr. Shah received his Bachelor’s degree in 2015 and Master’s degree in 2017 from the Department of Physics, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. He earned his PhD degree in 2022 from the Physics Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia. His research interests focus on the development and mechanistic investigation of advanced nanomaterials for energy harvesting and storage applications, such as supercapacitors, electrochemical water splitting, and electrochemical sensors.
Preface
Due to recent technological developments energy demands are rising with time, and our planet currently faces enormous energy-related challenges, including fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emission. Renewable energy resources provide a considerable alternative to meet global energy demands. However, due to its time-dependent operations, a powerful energy storage system is required that can store vast amounts of energy in a short time. In this regard, supercapacitors based on biomass materials have recently received tremendous attention. A supercapacitor is an energy storage device with high energy and power densities and can be completely charged in seconds. Supercapacitors can be developed to store renewable energy on a larger scale by carefully selecting electrode materials and electrolytes and using cost-effective and simple preparation methods. Supercapacitors are now a reality in the market and are used in various wearable and automobile systems. When intermittent renewable sources are added to the energy mix, supercapacitors can also help stabilize the output energy and power. Supercapacitors are currently commercially accessible; however, they still need to be improved, mainly to increase their energy density. In addition to enhancing electrode materials, electrolytes present, and system integration, a thorough comprehension of their properties and precise operating principles is required. All of these issues over the decade greatly influenced both academia and business.
One fundamental technical and financial development is turning biomass into energy, transport, and storage. R&D and industrial applications for collecting all types of biomass resources have made significant progress in recent years. All the non-fossilized biological materials on Earth are referred to as biomass, including animal and plant wastes, agricultural residues, industrial residues, food wastes, municipal wastes, forest residues, and agricultural residues. Biomass has been utilized as a renewable resource for both energy and non-energy purposes, including the production of fuels and power as well as uses in agriculture and industry. As a result, biomass meets roughly 10% of the global energy demand and 35% of that in developing nations. Biomass and its derivatives have increased as science and technology have advanced, not only for use in producing energy and fuel but also in applications such as energy storage, sensors, and catalysis. Producing electrodes, electrolytes, binder materials, separators, and packaging materials from biomass has sparked a prospective interest in developing electrochemical supercapacitors.
Our book, Biomass-Based Supercapacitors, provides extensive knowledge about the developments of supercapacitors, with a complete package of using biomass-based materials and
their various industrial applications. No other thorough book has dealt extensively with the subject of biomass-based supercapacitors. A comprehensive study is necessary due to the new concepts that have emerged over the last few years, including a better explanation of how biomass can efficiently be utilized in developing high-performance supercapacitors. This book has been specifically designed to satisfy the academic and scientific needs of students, aspiring researchers, and material scientists working in the area of biomass-based materials and their numerous applications in the field of electrochemical energy storage devices. The book was written in collaboration with experts in the field of supercapacitors from around the world, and state-of-the-art studies are covered in detail. This book is structured into several sections that discuss different aspects of biomass in the field of supercapacitors. We are confident that this book will satisfy all of needs and expectations. There are 26 chapters in the book: the first three chapters being devoted to an introduction to biomass, the environmental aspects for utilization in supercapacitors, and circular economy. The next three chapters explain the basic concepts, fundamental electrochemical principles, electrochemical characterization methods, and fundamental supercapacitor attributes to enable reading the book without any prior knowledge. Afterward, fifteeen chapters are devoted to very important component of supercapacitors i.e., biomass-derived carbonaceous electrode materials, including non-activated carbon, carbon from pretreated biomass, carbonate salts-activated carbon, KOH/NaOH-activated carbon, chloride salt-activated carbon, CO2-activated carbon, steam-activated carbon, hard carbon, carbon nanofibers, graphene, nitrogen-doped carbon, sulfur-doped carbon, composites of biomass-derived carbon and metal oxides, composites of biomass-derived materials and conducting polymers, and composites of biomass-derived materials and conductive materials excluding conducting polymers. Next, three further chapters explains the production of supercapacitor’s electrolytes, separators, binding agents, and packaging materials from biomass, and the last two chapters provide a comprehensive insight into the industrial applications, future directions, and challenges in biomass-based supercapacitors. Each chapter strives to provide the most comprehensive information possible using everyday language.
We are pleased that we were able to bring together the top experts in biomass-based supercapacitors research and technology in one book. They all graciously consented to offer their time to write chapters, for which we are grateful. We would also like to thank the Wiley team for their patience and for providing us with this amazing opportunity to provide an excellent platform for researchers and students working in electrochemical energy storage. Finally, we would like to dedicate this book to our teachers and parents, who would be incredibly proud of our small contributions to assist in resolving global issues facing humanity.
Dr. Md. Abdul Aziz
Dr. Syed Shaheen Shah
List of Contributors
A. J. Saleh Ahammad
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Rajibul Akanda
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Ashika Akhtar
Department of Botany
University of Dhaka
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Akhtaruzzaman
Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI)
Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia
Runa Akter
Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences
University of Chittagong
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Md. Almujaddade Alfasane
Department of Botany
Curzon Hall Campus
University of Dhaka
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Syeda Ramsha Ali
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
UANL, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
Av. Universidad, Cd. Universitaria
San Nicolás de los Garza
Nuevo León, México
Awais Ali
Department of Chemical Engineering
Technology
Government College University
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ahmar Ali
Physics Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Ali
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Shahid Ali
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
List of Contributors
Abdul-Rahman Al-Betar
Chemistry Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Atif Saeed Alzahrani
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Materials Science and Engineering Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Ammar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Technology
Government College University
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ahtisham Anjum
Physics Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Abdul Awal
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Abdul Aziz
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
K. A. CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
T. Elango Balaji
Department of Chemistry
Utkal University
Bhubaneswar
Odisha, India
Hasi Rani Barai
Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Mechanical and IT Engineering
Yeungnam University
Republic of Korea
Jaber Bin Abdul Bari
Department of Oceanography
Noakhali Science and Technology University
Noakhali, Bangladesh
Biswa Nath Bhadra
International Center for Materials
Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA)
National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS)
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Md. Raquibul Hassan Bhuiyan Department of Architecture
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Dhaka
Saidur R. Chowdhury
Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering
Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University (PMU)
Al khobar
Saudi Arabia
SC Environmental Solutions
Toronto ON, Canada
List of Contributors
Himadri Tanaya Das
Centre for Advance Materials and Applications
Utkal University
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Nigamananda Das
Department of Chemistry
Utkal University
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Thuhin Kumar Dey
Department of Leather Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna, Bangladesh
Guodong Du Department of Chemistry University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, North Dakota
United States
Swapnamoy Dutta
Bredesen Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Education University of Tennessee Knoxville, TN, USA
Muhammad Ali Ehsan
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Mian Muhammad Faisal
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
UANL, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
Av. Universidad, Cd. Universitaria
San Nicolás de los Garza
Nuevo León, México
Salman Farsi
Department of Materials Science & Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna, Bangladesh
K.C. Sanal
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
UANL, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
Av. Universidad, Cd. Universitaria
San Nicolás de los Garza Nuevo León, México
Eman Gul Institute of Chemical Sciences University of Peshawar Peshawar, Pakistan
Md. Akib Hasan Department of Chemistry University of Dhaka Bangladesh
Abbas Saeed Hakeem
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Mineral
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Md. Mehedi Hasan
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Khizar Hayat
Department of Physics Abdul Wali
Khan University
Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistan
List of Contributors
Muhammad Humayun
Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics
Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Wuhan, China
Abdulmajeed H. Hendi
Physics Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Md. Mominul Islam
Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Sciences
Dhaka University
Bangladesh
Santa Islam Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Naseem Iqbal
U.S. Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS−E)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Zahir Iqbal
Nanotechnology Research Laboratory
Faculty of Engineering Sciences
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
Topi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Mamun Jamal
Department of Chemistry
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET)
Khulna, Bangladesh
Mohammad Rezaul Karim
Center of Excellence for Research in Engineering Materials (CEREM)
Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR)
College of Engineering
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
K.A. CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Nazmul Abedin Khan
Department of Mathematical and Physical Sciences
East West University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Ibrahim Khan
School of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science
Chung-Ang University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Syed Niaz Ali Shah
Center for Integrative Petroleum Research
King Fahad University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Sikandar Khan
Department of Mechanical Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Abuzar Khan
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES) King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Nasrin Siraj Lopa
Center for Environmental & Energy Research
Ghent University Global Campus
Incheon, Republic of Korea
List of Contributors
Wael Mahfoz
Chemistry Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Narayan Chandra Deb Nath
Department of Chemistry University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, North Dakota, United States
S.M. Abu Nayem
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Munetaka Oyama
Department of Material Chemistry
Graduate School of Engineering
Kyoto University
Kyotodaigaku Katsura
Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
Md. Mahbubur Rahman
Department of Energy and Materials
Konkuk University
Chungju, Republic of Korea
Mushfiqur Rahman
Department of Materials Science & Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna, Bangladesh
Muhammad Muhitur Rahman
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
College of Engineering
King Faisal University
Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
Madhusudan Roy
Department of Physics
National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan
Falak Niaz
Materials Research Laboratory Department of Physics University of Peshawar Peshawar, Pakistan
Syed Masiur Rahman
Applied Research Center for Environment & Marine Studies
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Eastern Province
Saudi Arabia
Mohammad Anikur Rahman Department of Chemistry University of Dhaka Dhaka, Bangladesh
Haroon Ur Rahman
Department of Physics
Abdul Wali Khan University
Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
Nafeesa Sarfraz
School of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science
Chung-Ang University Seoul, Republic of Korea
Syed Adil Shah
National Laboratory of Solid-States Microstructures
Department of Physics
Nanjing University
Nanjing, China
Syed Shaheen Shah
Department of Material Chemistry
Graduate School of Engineering
Kyoto University, Nishikyo-ku Kyoto, Japan
List of Contributors
M. Nasiruzzaman Shaikh
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage (IRC-HES)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran
Saudi Arabia
Farrukh Shehzad
Department of Chemical Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Abubakar Dahiru Shuaibu
Material Science and Engineering Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Nasrin Sultana
Department of Chemistry
Jagannath University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Sami Ullah
K. A. CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Usman
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Hydrogen and Energy Storage
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Md. Abdul Wahab
Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN)
The University of Queensland St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
Laiq Zada
Department of Microbiology
Faculty of Biological Sciences
Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad, Pakistan
Md. Hasan Zahir
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy and Power Systems (IRC-REPS)
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Serge Zhuiykov
Center for Environmental & Energy Research
Ghent University Global Campus
Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, South Korea
Part 1
Biomass
1
Introduction to Biomass
Md. Almujaddade Alfasane1,*, Ashika Akhtar1, Nasrin Siraj Lopa2, and Md. Mahbubur Rahman3,*
1 Department of Botany, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
2 Center for Environmental & Energy Research, Ghent University Global Campus, 119–5 Songdomunhwa-ro,Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21985, Republic of Korea
3 Department of Applied Chemistry, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
* Corresponding authors
1.1 Introduction
Biomass refers to the organic materials that come from biological bodies [1]. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are the major elements of biomass-based organic compounds that can be derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems [1, 2]. Terrestrial biomass consists of various plants, animals, and microorganisms, whereas aquatic biomass mainly comprises micro-/macro-algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, aquatic plants and animals, and other microorganisms [3–5]. Biomass encompasses different compounds such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, starches, sugars, lipids, proteins, lignin, hydrocarbons, and trace amounts of Si, Na, K, Mg, Al, Fe, Mn, Ca, P, and S contained in inorganic ash [6–8]. Among them, lignocellulosic materials, including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, are the major compounds of the biomass (Figure 1.1) [6–8].
Humans have utilized biomass since time immemorial and its use has fostered the birth of civilization. Among all the sources of biomass, plant-derived biomasses are significantly used for energy and fuel production. Plants produce biomass by absorbing solar energy through photosynthesis and converting carbon dioxide (CO2) and water into carbohydrates [1, 2]. This chemical energy produced by biomass can be converted to usable heat and electrical energy or can be processed into biofuel through pyrolysis [9]. Thus, biomass is currently regarded as the fourth energy source in the world after oil, coal, and natural gas. With the world’s increasing energy demand, biomass utilization has been growing substantially to fulfill a significant proportion of this demand as one of the cheap, available, and renewable energy sources [10]. For example, in 2019, biomass satisfied approximately 10% of the energy requirement worldwide [11]. However, biomass has not been utilized equally by the world’s countries for energy production. Developing countries depend more on
Biomass-Based Supercapacitors: Design, Fabrication and Sustainability, First Edition. Edited by Md. Abdul Aziz and Syed Shaheen Shah.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
biomass-based energy than industrialized countries due to their limited technology, infrastructure, and poor economies [12]. For instance, almost half of the energy supply in Africa comes mainly from biomass-based sources, whereas in Europe, only about 10% of the energy supply comes from renewables, the lowest among the continents [13]. Meanwhile, considering the total global production of biomass (~150 billion tons/year), a large amount of these biomasses is still underutilized for energy and fuel production [14]. Interestingly, most of them are generally considered waste materials, commonly to be decomposed or subjected to waste management methods.
Awareness and concern among the world population have increased regarding the use and valorization of biomass not only for energy and fuel production but also for synthesizing nanomaterials and dyes for various applications [15, 16]. The utilization of biological residue materials obtained from biomass represents ecologically friendly and considerably higher-value alternatives to conventional fossil fuels [17]. For example, peanut shells, which was previously considered waste and was given low value, has the potential to be applied to hydrogen, biodiesel, bioethanol, carbon nano-sheet, and dye production [18, 19].
Another example is phytoplankton, which was earlier considered a disturbance and a hazardous ecosystem component. It is now being commercially cultured for biofuels, bioactive pigments, lipids, and energy production [20]. Similarly, many examples of biomass that have never been considered valuable previously are now valorized as precious materials. Accordingly, researchers’ interest in using biomass for energy production increased steeply, as is evident from the number of publications that appeared in the last decade (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1
The main compounds and the chemical structures of lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 1.2 The number of publications having keywords of “biomass for energy production”, “biomass for supercapacitors”, and “activated carbon from biomass for supercapacitors” from 2013 to October 17, 2022. Source: Scopus
In addition to energy and fuel production, biomass can be utilized to produce biochar (BC), a lightweight black carbon residue, through the carbonization processes (e.g., pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization) [21]. The biochar can be treated for producing activated carbon (AC) through various chemical, physical, and mechanical activation methods [22, 23]. Moreover, AC can be produced from biomass using a single step [23]. These ACs derived from biomass could solve environmental problems such as air and water pollution and the accumulation of industrial, food, and agricultural wastes. Furthermore, using ACs from lignocellulosic biomass instead of fossil fuels such as coal can reduce global warming effects. ACs derived from lignocellulosic biomass can potentially be utilized in various industrial sectors such as chemical processes, petroleum refining, wastewater and air pollution treatment, volatile organic compounds adsorption, catalysis, gas separation, deodorization, and purification [24]. This is due to the rich carbon content of ACs derived from BC with high surface area, microporous structure, and favorable pore size [24, 25]. Along with this improved physical property, facile controlling of the dimensions and structures, heteroatom doping, chemical functionalization, and enhanced degree of graphitization of ACs prepared from suitable biomass help to increase its electrical conductivity, which is beneficial for the development of high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices such as electrochemical supercapacitors (ESCs) and batteries [26–30].
In particular, the application of ACs derived from biomass has increased sharply for ESC applications, as is evident from the number of publications that appeared in the last decade (Figure 1.2). ESCs have received tremendous recognition as energy storages device in recent years due to their intermediate energy density between battery and capacitor [31]. The ultra-high-power density, extended life cycles, and prompt charge/discharge rate of ESC widen its application in various technologies, including consumer electronics, voltage stabilizers, micro-grids, low-power equipment, etc [32]. Principally, ESCs fabricated using carbons or ACs store the charge by reversible adsorption of ions in a non-Faradaic process and are commonly known as electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) [33, 34]. To develop high-performance ESCs based on ACs derived from biomass, the optimal pores corresponding to the size of the electrolyte ions, high degree of graphitization for improved electrical conductivity, heteroatom doping (e.g., N and P), and chemical functionalization
Introduction to Biomass
(e.g., carboxylic, carbonyl, and hydroxyl) are significantly important [35, 36]. Moreover, enduring cyclic stability and capacitance retention in ESCs can be obtained by tuning the structural stability of the AC framework [29, 37–40]. All other main parts of supercapacitors, including binder, electrolyte, and membrane (separator), can be produced via biochar and biomass derivatives [41–45]. Therefore, biomass could be considered a complete material source for the fabrication of efficient energy storage devices, supercapacitors, and for future research (Figure 1.2). Considering the importance of biomass for energy and fuel production and ESCs applications, this chapter briefly discusses the fundamentals of biomass by highlighting its classification, environmental and energy aspects, and pyrolysis process. Additionally, the application of biomass for ESCs is discussed briefly by highlighting the current challenges and future directions.
1.2 Categories of Biomass
A wide range of materials, including agricultural and forest residues, food wastes, animal wastes, wastes of the wood processing industry, wastes of the zoo-technical industry, biodegradable industrial/household solid wastes, and algal and other aquatic organisms with varying compositions of lignocellulosic compounds are termed as biomass [46–48]. Accordingly, biomass can be mainly classified as plant and organic wastes/residues (Figure 1.3).
1.2.1 Plant Biomass
Plants are the largest biomass energy source worldwide and can be categorized mainly as woody and non-woody biomass based on the plant’s origin and chemical compositions [49]. Woody biomass is primarily derived from stems and branches of trees and shrubs or their residue products [50]. The proportions of lignocellulosic compounds are not the same
Figure 1.3 Types of biomasses based on the sources.
1.2 Categories of Biomass 7 in all woody biomass. Accordingly, woody biomass can be reclassified as hardwoods and softwoods [51]. Hardwoods generally contain higher proportions of cellulose and hemicelluloses than softwoods, but the amount of lignin is higher in softwoods (Table 1.1) [52]. Generally, hardwoods contain approximately 35% hemicelluloses and 22% lignin by dry weight. In contrast, softwoods have a composition of approximately 43% cellulose, 28% hemicelluloses, and 29% lignin by dry weight [50, 52].
In contrast, non-woody biomass is described as those plants with weak stems, such as herbaceous plants, grasses, and agricultural crops. In non-woody biomass, the proportion of hemicellulose is generally higher, with a low proportion of lignin [52]. However, the chemical composition of non-woody plants is highly dependent on the soil properties and climate conditions. Furthermore, their chemical compositions are also varied based on the structure of cell walls, species, and maturity. Other than lignocellulosic compounds, nonwoody biomass is richer in silicate and various nutrient contents than is woody biomass [53]. Also, the plant biomass’s chemical composition depends on the plant’s type and portions (e.g., root, leaves, trunk). For example, Albizia procera leaves contain a significant amount of protein and lignocellulosic components [54]. It is well known that protein is used to develop bioelectrolyte for supercapacitor fabrication.
1.2.2 Organic Wastes and Residues-based Biomass
Organic wastes and residues from different sources, such as forest products, agricultural, industrial, municipal and urban activities, and animals, produce a massive amount of biomass, more than 13 × 109 tons/year [55]. Based on the sources, this type of biomass can be generated in different stages of its processing, growing, production, and uses. For example, agricultural wastes are produced during crop harvesting, such as wheat straw, rice husk, rice straw, etc. Industrial waste, such as sawdust, is produced in the timber and furniture industry. All these different forms of organic waste biomass are also rich in lignocellulosic materials (Table 1.2) and are potential energy sources. Among all these sources, residues from agriculture account for 87% of the total supply of organic wastes and residues-based biomass, while municipal and industrial wastes occupy 5% [13]. However, almost 99% of this form of biomass remains unused due to the lack of proper knowledge and ability to commercialize it [56].
Table 1.1 Chemical composition of lignocellulosic hardwood and softwood biomass.
Reproduced with permission [52]. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY 3.0 license. Copyright 2015, Isikgor et al., Royal Society of Chemistry
Table 1.2 Composition of different organic waste biomass.
1.3 Utilization of Biomass
Biomass can be utilized as an energy and non-energy source to produce fuels and power, and for agricultural and industrial uses (Figure 1.4). For example, woody biomass is mainly used for household heating, cooking, and electricity generation, and for producing paper, particle boards, and furniture. Moreover, woody biomass is also used as animal food and as a raw material for chemical synthesis. While fast-growing vegetal species, which are not fit for agriculture, are generally cultivated for biofuel production [70]. Agricultural biomass residue is widely applied in generating electric and thermal energies [71]. Other than the production of energy and fuels, biomass is extensively used to produce animal feed and food, construction materials, compost, and composite materials. In particular, composites from natural fibers have gained considerable attention in the manufacturing industry, particularly for transportation, automotive, and electronics applications [72–84]. This is due to their light weight, resistance to corrosion, abundance, and biodegradability [85].
Furthermore, biomass polymer composites can provide a sustainable, eco-friendly, and cheap structural material with improved mechanical properties different from traditional polymer-reinforced glass and carbon composite materials [85]. For instance, carbon derived from feedstock waste or undervalued sources such as coir fibers, shell particles, coffee ground powder, and olive seed flour can be used to prepare carbon/poly(propylene) as an effective composite for automobile parts with light weight and low-cost [86–89]. Binoj et al. reported that an optimized amount of tamarind fruit fiber incorporated into polyester resins substantially improves the thermal stability and aquatic properties suitable for lightweight automotive and marine applications [90]. Biomass/polymer composites are also used to produce hybrid particle boards with improved mechanical properties. For example, a hybrid particle board was
1.4 Biomass as an Energy Source
Figure 1.4 Utilization of biomass for practical applications.
prepared by reinforcing rice straws/coir fibers in phenol formaldehyde resin [91]. This particle board possibly improves the toughness, vibration damping, and flame retardancy compared to the board made with only phenol formaldehyde resin. Some other researchers embedded celery root fibers, poplar seed hair fibers, and hazelnut shell flour into the polylactic acid matrix to prepare biodegradable plastic films, bottles, and medical devices [92, 93].
1.4 Biomass as an Energy Source
The resources that meet the basic needs of energy demand for humans and civilizations can be divided into primary resources (renewable and non-renewable energy resources) and secondary resources obtained by converting primary energy resources [94]. Primary energy sources can be classified as non-renewable (e.g., coal, natural gas, oil) and renewable
energy sources (e.g., solar, hydrothermal, biomass, etc.) [95–97]. Biomass is a renewable energy source that can provide a sustainable energy supply at a low cost and mitigate global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Energy generation from biomass is growing faster due to the quick depletion of conventional fossil fuels. Plants, rice husks, waste plastics, sawdust, algae, and trees are the common biomass sources for producing different energy and products (Figure 1.4). Currently, biomass energy sources produce 50 × 1018 J, accounting for 10% of the world’s energy demand and 35% of that of developing countries [98]. These sources include the production of electrical and thermal energy, fuels (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and valuable chemicals (e.g., ethanol and methanol) through thermal (e.g., pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion) and chemical treatments.
Considering the chemical compositions of biomass and fossil oils, biomass’s main disadvantage in producing biofuels is its higher oxygen content with less carbon and hydrogen ratio (C/H) [99]. To replace fossil oils with biofuels, the C/H ratio in biomass must be improved by removing oxygen from the biomass in the form of H2O, CO, and CO2 [100]. This is challenging and costly since pyrolysis, gasification, combustion, and chemical processes for energy production and the enhancement of C/H ratio are still required for using other primary and secondary energy sources and chemical reagents. However, the high O/C atomic ratio in lignocellulosic biomass is advantageous for synthesizing valuable chemicals and residues.
1.5 Pyrolysis of Biomass
Pyrolysis is a process that decomposes the lignocellulosic polymer chains in biomass by thermal treatment in the absence of air or an inert atmosphere [101]. This led to the use of BC to generate solid fuels, bio-oil as liquid fuels, and non-condensable gases (Figure 1.5) [102, 103]. In the process of biomass pyrolysis, first the biomass feed materials are
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of the products and technologies of the pyrolysis of biomass.
1.6 Biomass-derived Carbon for Electrochemical Supercapacitors 11 decomposed by the removal of moisture contents [104]. This also induces the breaking of bonds in lignocellulosic polymers and the formation of CO, CO2, and residues [105–107]. The remaining compounds or materials are further converted to secondary BC, crude biooil, and gases using cracking and polymerization processes. The pyrolysis products and their yields are highly dependent on the conditions and parameters of the pyrolysis technologies and biomass sources. These include the reactor’s temperature, gas flow rate, heating rate, residence time, catalysts, and reactor configurations [105, 106].
Depending on the operating conditions, the pyrolysis process can be categorized as either slow, fast, or flash pyrolysis [108]. In the slow pyrolysis process, lower temperature (550–950 K), slow heating rate, and long residence time (several hours to days) are applied to prepare BC as the primary product [109]. While in the fast pyrolysis method, moderate temperature (850–1250K), high heating rates (on the order of 100 οC/sec), and short residence time are used to prepare bio-oil with a maximum yield of ~75% [109]. The prepared crude pyrolytic bio-oil can be further upgraded and purified to advanced biofuels or biochemicals through fast pyrolysis. In contrast, flash pyrolysis is based on heat treatment at a higher temperature (1050–1300 K) for less than two seconds producing a higher yield of bio-oil than gas and BC [109]. However, bio-oil produced by flash pyrolysis is acidic, unstable, and highly viscous, and contains solids and dissolved water [110, 111]. Hence, reducing the oxygen content in the final product (bio-oil) is essential by using advanced methods, such as hydrogenation and catalytic cracking. To improve the yield and properties of biooil, BC, and gas-derived from biomass, many pyrolysis techniques, including co-pyrolysis [112], catalytic pyrolysis [113], microwave pyrolysis [114], and solar pyrolysis [115] have already been developed (Figure 1.5).
1.6 Biomass-derived Carbon for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
The main component of an ESC consists of two electrodes separated by a thin and porous insulator soaked in an electrolyte. Various materials are used to fabricate ESC electrodes, including metal oxides, carbon-based compounds, and conducting polymers [116]. The energy storage mechanism in ESCs depends on the types and properties of electrode materials, broadly classified as EDLC and pseudocapacitor (Figure 1.6) [117]. In particular, both non-activated carbon (NAC) and AC derived from biomass sources are attractive materials for fabricating high-performance EDLC-type ESCs due to their low cost, easy processing, availability, and improved physicochemical properties [118–120]. NAC and AC materials can be prepared from a wide variety of biomass sources such as coffee beans, rice husk, coffee endocarp, bamboo species, apricot shell, sugarcane bagasse, rubberwood sawdust, jute stick, wood, anthracite, bitumen charcoal, peat shells, date seeds, coconut, etc [23, 29, 120, 121]. NAC, which is generally obtained from biomass by simple hydrothermal/pyrolysis method, generally exhibits inferior physical and chemical properties and energy storage capacity in ESCs compared to the ACs [119]. For example, Saini et al. compared the energy storage capacity of AC and NAC derived from sugar [119]. Results demonstrated that the sugar-derived AC exhibited a 35% improved energy storage capacity compared to the NAC. This research further revealed a significantly high capacity of ACs compared to the reduced
