Comparative Approachesto ProgramPlanning
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ISBN9780470126417
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Tothecourageousplannerswhoarewilling toriskthehardthinkingnecessary todesignhumanserviceprogramsthatwill trulybettertheworldforusall
Preface xiii
Acknowledgmentsxxiii
Chapter1DifferencesBetweenLinesandCircles1
LinesandCirclesasPlanningMetaphors5
ABriefHistoryofLinesandCircles7
PlanningTheory:BothLinesandCircles16
ExamplesofPlanningApproaches20
The‘‘Surety’’oftheLineandthe‘‘Tentativeness’’oftheCircle24
AConceptualFramework25
Summary27
DiscussionQuestions28
Chapter2Programs:ContainersforIdeaImplementation31
ProgramsandProjects;ServicesandInterventions32
ProgramsandProjects36
ServicesandInterventions38
ProgramsinOrganizationalContext39
ProgramPlanning43
MandatesandInitiatives44
PlanningDifferentTypesofPrograms46
Summary48
DiscussionQuestions49
CaseExercise:ChronicPain51
Chapter3RationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches59
DiscussionQuestions114 viiiCONTENTS
Case:TheMayorandtheStreetEducators61
Introduction69
HistoryofRationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches71
DimensionsofRationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches75
TheLogicModel75
AssessingNeeds78
DefiningandAnalyzingProblems80
SelectingInterventionStrategies82
WritingGoalsandObjectives87
ProgramDesignandDecision-Making91
AccountabilityinaPrescriptiveApproach96
AccountabilityChallenges97
InformationSystems100
Budgeting103
RationalPlanning104
Mind-sets104
Skills106
StrengthsandChallengesofRationalPlanning110
Summary112
Chapter4InterpretivePlanningandEmergentApproaches117 Case:TheInvisiblePeopleandtheAreaAgencyonAging119
Introduction126
HistoryofInterpretivePlanningandEmergentApproaches129
DimensionsofInterpretivePlanningandEmergentApproaches133
TheLogicofEmergence133
Engagement138
Discovery144
Sense-making146
Unfolding148
AccountabilityinanEmergentApproach155
AccountabilityChallenges156
AccountabilityOptions157
InterpretivePlanning162
Mind-sets163
Skills164
StrengthsandChallengesofInterpretivePlanning165
Summary166
DiscussionQuestions167
Chapter5KnowingWhentoUseWhichPlanningApproach169 Case:AIDSOrphansandthePigIntervention173
SimilaritiesinPlanningApproachChallenges176
GainingEntry177
BecomingOriented179
xCONTENTS
EngaginginCriticalThinking181
MakingEthicalDecisions187
ComparingProgramPlanningApproaches192
ComparingDimensions192
ExaminingAccountability198
ThinkingaboutMind-setsandSkills201
DecisionIssuesforApproachSelection205
Summary208
DiscussionQuestions208
Appendix:ComparingPlanningApproaches210
Chapter6ProgramPlanninginDiverseCulturalContexts213
CultureandContext216
DefiningCulture216
ElementsinCultureDevelopment217
CulturalCompetence220
SkillsoftheCulturallyCompetent222
ChallengestoCulturallyCompetentHumanServiceProgramming225
UnderstandingEmpiricism225
RecognizingRealismandInterpretivism227
RespondingtoAccountabilityDemands229
CulturalCompetenceandProgramPlanning231
PlanningwithSensitivitytoDifference233
PlanningwithSensitivitytoInclusion238
PlanningwithSensitivitytoContext240
PlanningAcrossMultipleOrganizationalSettings244
IssuesWhenPracticingInternationally245
Summary247
Conclusion249
Exercises250
Preface
Oneofthebasicassumptionsoftherationalistschoolisthatdecisions precedeanaction,abeliefthathasenteredpopularfolkloreinthe exhortation:‘‘lookbeforeyouleap.’’Thisis,ofcourse,goodcounsel. Butsupposeyoudon’tknowhowtoleap?Theinabilitytoleapor, moregenerally,theabilityorinabilitytoimplementadecisionis rarelytakenintoaccountintheprocessofdecisionanalysis.
—JohnFreidmannandBarclayHudson, KnowledgeandAction:
AGuidetoPlanningTheory
GENERALAPPROACHTOTHEBOOK
‘‘Programplanning’’isaconstructthatcanmakecomplexsituationsmoremanageable.Inaworldinwhichchangeisaconstant, programplanningapproachesthatprovideanillusionofbeingin controlmaybecomforting.Infact,thecertitudeofknowinghowto plansomethingfrombeginningtoendisadesiredskillsetforthose whowantto‘‘lookbeforetheyleap.’’Thiscertitudeisdesignedby professionalswhowanttodemonstratethattheyhavesomethingto offerandwhomightwanttobehiredasaprogramcoordinator, grantswriter,ormanager.Manyaprofessionalhascarriedacopyof aplanorgrantproposalwiththemtoajobinterviewtodemonstrate theirabilitytodesignaprogram.
Basedonourunderstandingofstudents’aspirationsandneeds, foryearswetaughtprogramplanningwiththeassurancethatifa goalcouldbeestablished,andifmeasurableobjectivescouldbe articulated,thensomehoworsomewaytheirprogramdesigns couldbeimplementedinareasonablemanner.Yetmanyprograms
xiii
thatlookeddoableonpaperwereanythingbutdoableinreallife. Eventhoughourgraduates’facilitywith‘‘logicmodels’’wowed employersandevenpotentialfunders,whenitcametoimplementationmanywereoftensurprisedtofindthatprogramdesigns didnotalwaysunfoldintheenvisionedmanner.Infact,welearned inthisprocessthatexcellent,precise,evidence-baseddesignscould winaccoladesfromprofessionals and funders,butthattheprocess ofenactingplansrevealedunexpectedgapsandbarriersforstaff taskedwithimplementation.Ironically,whilesomefundedprogramswerenotalwayscreativelydesignedforaddressingcomplex situationsthatneededalternativeapproaches,staffofcommunitybasedprogramsthatappearedtoworkcouldnotalwaysarticulate whyandhowtheirprogramsdidwork.Theycouldnotdiscuss theirplanningexperiencesintermsthatcouldbegraspedbyexactingprofessionalaudiences.Ourchallenge,then,becametoprepare ourstudentstothinkandtalkintheestablishedlanguageofprogramplanning,aswellasofferthemalternativewaysofplanning, thinking,talking,andsurviving.Theyneededtobefacileatenteringtheestablishedworldofprogramplanningwhilealsoknowing whentousedifferentapproaches.Mostofall,theyneededto recognizethattherewasnoonebestwaytoplan.Withthiscame anecessitytoaccuratelyassessthesituationforwhichtheywere planningand,fromthat,determinetheappropriateapproachfor thecircumstancesathand.Toaccomplishthis,wehadthestimulatingchallengeofdetermininghowtoimparttheneededknowledge, skills,andattitudes.Ourstudentshavetoldusthatwehavebeen abletomeetthechallenge.
Therefore,wedecidedtowritethisbookwiththepurposeof comparingandcontrastingdifferentwaysofprogramplanning. Wedosooutofabeliefthattherearemultiplewaysofknowing, andthattherearemultiplewaysofplanninganddoing.Because thesewaysaredifferentdoesnotmakeonesuperiortoothers,and
Preface xv
wehavefoundthatrecognizingthattherearedifferencescan befreeing.Itallowsthepurposeoftheplanningprocessto drivethemethodsused,ratherthanthemethodsdrivingthe design.Thisgoesalongwaytowardfacilitatingprofessionalprogramplannersinacquiringresourcesforplanningandhaving increasedflexibilityforfunctioninginvaryingsocial,economic, andculturalsettings.
Ourbookisgearedtofutureprogramplannersinmaster’sprogramsinsocialwork,publicadministration,nonprofitmanagement,publichealth,communitypsychology,appliedsociology, humanservices,andrelatedfields.Itmayalsobeusefulinrequired senior-levelcoursesonlargesystemschangeofferedinbaccalaureateprograms.Insocialwork,communitypsychology,applied sociology,andhumanservicesprograms,wheremanystudents expecttoperform‘‘directservicework,’’itcanincreaseunderstandingofdirectserviceprograms.Coursesinprogramplanning, macrosocialworkpractice,programevaluation,organizationpractice,policyimplementation,andrelatedsubjectswillbenefitfrom usingthisbookforcreatingexpandedapplicationsofprogram planningstrategies,tactics,andskills.
Reasonsforallpractitionerstobecomefamiliarwiththeskills offeredinthisbookwillbecentralinthepagesthatfollow.All practitionersbothimpactandareimpactedbyprogrammingat somestageintheirdirectservicedeliverywork.Theyarealso sometimesalienatedbythelanguageandtechniquesoftraditional planning,thinkingthatplanninghasnothingtodowiththeirefforts inrelationshipbuildingandproblem-solvingwiththeirclients.We believethatanalternative,nonlinearapproachtoplanningthat takesintoaccountintuitionandserendipityandcreativelycapitalizesoncomplexcircumstancesissuretomakesensetomany studentswhoareturnedoffbymoretraditional,prescriptiveplanningapproaches.
Weareawarethatsomepeopleprefertohaveagreatersenseof order,andthattheybelievethereisapreferredwaytoplana program,throughprecise,linearthought.Fortheseplanners,linear reasoningisapriority.Thisbookisdesignedtoshowthatnonlinear (sometimescallednonrationalorcircular)thinkingisnotonly usefulinreasoning,butthatitsupportsanalternativetypeof interpretiveplanningcalledanemergentapproach.
Interpretiveplanningtranslatesdifferentwaysofknowingand understandingintothe‘‘doing’’aspectsofplanninghumanservice programs.Linearplanningmodelscanbecomparedwithalternative,nonlinearapproaches,anditispossibletoassessthecostsand benefitsofeachapproach.Ideasaboutwhendifferingapproaches areusedmosteffectivelyareofferedhereasaguideforprogram plannersfacedwithsituationsthatdonotalwaysresemblethe clean,clearopportunitiesforwhichrational,prescriptiveplanning isusuallydiscussed.Waystosystematicallyapproachmessysituations(e.g.,whenyouarecalledontobegintoplaninthemiddle, notatthebeginning,ofaproject;orwhenyouareaskedtohelpin situationsinnontraditionalornon-Westerncultureswithdiffering approachestologic)willbeaddressedwhileapplyingreasonable waysofassuringandaccountingforqualityinhumanservice programming,regardlessofthecontext.Ouremphasisisonplanninganddesign,withimplementationandevaluationoftheresults ofplanningalsorecognized.Thisisaflexibleconceptualizationof theplanningprocessthatcanbeusefulregardlessoftheculture, mission,orgoalsofthehumanservicesettingororganization withinwhichplanningoccurs.Throughdifferentapproaches,alternatewaysofknowingareintroducedintoplanningprocesses, facilitatingprogramstargetedtomeetneedsintraditionalor alternativecontexts.
ORGANIZATIONOFTHEBOOK
Thebookiscomposedofsixchapters,successivelybuildingboth understandingandcompetenceforgoodprogramplanning.Endof-chapterdiscussionquestionsandexercisesfocusonskillsdevelopmentderivedfrommaterialineachchapter.Practicalapplication ofplanningconceptsismadethroughreal-lifecaseexamples intendedtobeofhelpinthinkingabouttheissuesandtheway theyarepresented,andtoassistthosenotyetengagedwiththe challengesandopportunitiesofcomplexproblem-solvinginprogramplanning.Aglossaryisofferedtoaidthinkingalongtheway andtoclarifyouruseofterms.
Conceptually,weexaminetwotypesofplanningbasedondifferentworldviews:rationalandinterpretive.Theseworldviewsare joinedbytwoapproachestoplanning:rationalplanning,whichis tiedtowhatwearecallingprescriptiveapproaches;andinterpretiveplanning,whichisconnectedtowhatwearecallingemergent approaches.Throughoutthebookwerefertoproblem-solvingasa processthatcanbeundertakenthroughprescriptiveapproaches,in whichagoalispredetermined,orthroughemergentapproaches,in whichplansunfoldinanunpredictablemanner.Wehavecarefully chosenourterms,inhopesthattheywillprovidethereaderwith viableconceptualframeworksandlanguagesinwhichtocommunicateaboutprogramplanning.
InChapter1,weintroducethepossibilitythattheneedidentificationforasocialprograminterventionmaycomefromchoices raisedbydifferentwaysofconceptualizinganopportunityor problem,thattherearechoicesinprogramdesign.Someofthese choicesarestronglycognitive,butothershaveaffectiveandpower dimensions.Throughanexplorationofthedifferencebetweena lineandacircle,Chapter2alsoseeksanevenhandedunderstandingofthedifferencesinthesechoicesandtheprocessesbywhich
programsaredesignedandplanned.Thissubsequentlytakesus intohowtoknowandunderstanddifferencesbetweeninduction anddeductionandpositivist/rationalandinterpretivistwaysof knowing.Wethinkaspectsofrationalandnonrationalthought(as opposedtoirrationalthought)areatthebasisoftheacceptanceof bothtraditionalandnontraditionalwaysofplanning.Throughthe discussionofinductionanddeduction,aswellaspositivistand interpretivistwaysofknowing,wepresentindetailthedifferent assumptionsthatarepartoflinearandmorecircularthinking problem-solvingprocessesandhowthosedifferencesareimportanttotheplanningprocess.Whilethesedifferentnotionsmaybe basedinrationalandnonrationalthoughtprocesses,theintentisto distinguishbothfromirrationalthinking.
Chapter2providesanoverviewoftheelementsthatconstitutea program;itintroducesplanningtermsandidentifiescategoriesof stakeholdersthatwillappearthroughoutthetext.Herewedescribe howprogramsdifferfromprojects,services,andpolicies.The varioussourcesofneedsidentificationandtheprogrammingideas developedtomeetthoseneedsarediscussed.Thechapteralso emphasizesthatsocialprogrammingisdependentonauthorizing andfundingsources,frompolicyenactmenttoneedsassessmentto governmentorotherfundermandatestograssrootsdemands,allof whichreflecthowdifferentlyprogramscanbethoughtabout, designed,andplanned.
Chapter3isdevotedtotraditionalrationalprogramplanning, basedontheprescriptiveapproachessuchasplannedchangeand logicmodels.Buildingontheworkofwell-knownscholarsin planningandadministration,wereviewthelogicmodelthatmoves fromneedsassessmentandproblemanalysisthroughhypothesis development,goalsandobjectivessetting,anddesigningprograms thataremonitoredandevaluatedusingtraditionalmethods.The prosandconsofusingprescriptiveapproachesareintroduced,as
Preface xix
arethespecificsofhowtheseapproachesworkandinwhich situationstheywouldlikelybemostvaluable.
Chapter4focusesoninterpretiveprogramplanning,basedon emergentapproachestoproblem-solving.Todate,textbookson programplanninghavefocusedonrationalplanningandprescriptiveapproaches,stoppingthere,assumingthatprogramplanners wouldnotneedalternativemodelsandmightnotdrawoncreative, fluidaspectsintheirwork.Usinganinterpretiveviewofplanning, thechapteroutlinesacollaborative,lessreductionistic,approachto decision-makinginprogramplanning.Politics,goals,problems, solutions,andpoliticalreasoningandpragmaticthoughtfocus andguidethereaderintoopportunitiesandchallengesofusing anemergentapproach,aswellasthespecificsofhowitworksand inwhichsituationsitwouldbevaluable.
Together,Chapters3and4outlinethedetailsofthetraditional plannedchangeorlogicmodelapproachbasedonrationalthought andthemoreinterpretivemethodsofanemergentapproachto planningbasedonnonrationalthinking.Bothchaptersuseacritical lenstodiscusswheneachapproachismostuseful,sothatin Chapter5,thereadercanengageinanassessmentofboththecosts andbenefitsofeachapproachinordertodeveloptheskillsnecessarytodeterminewhenandhoweachworksbest.Thecomparative aspectofthetextbookispursuedinChapter5.Weinvitereadersto critiquethetwoplanningapproaches,basedonwhattheylearned inChapters3and4,helpingthemtoclarifythequestionsthat shouldbeaskedandansweredindeterminingwheneachapproach worksbest.Wealsoelaborateoncriticalthinkingandethical decision-making,andexplainhowtoassesstheunintendedconsequencesofplanningchoicesinprogramimplementationand evaluation.Examplesfrompracticeexperienceareusedtocompare thedifferentapproaches.
Usingaglobal,culturallysensitiveperspectiveontheprogram planningprocess,Chapter6assiststhereaderinexploringthe sociopoliticalbenefitsofhavingmorethanoneapproachtoplanning,regardlessofculturalcontextororganizationaltradition.In thischapter,webrieflyreturntothephilosophyofsciencedialogue introducedatthebeginningofthebookasawaytochooseappropriateresponsestoculturalneeds,sothattheplannercandemonstrateskillsinculturalcompetency.Thegoalistosignalthe possibilityofconsideringanalternativeway.Ourhopeisthatthe readerwilltakeadvantageoftheopportunitytoconsiderand evaluatealternativeplanningapproachesandnotassumethat somesituationsonlyreflectalackofcompetenceforengagingin planning.Chapter6isintendedtoassistthereaderinidentifying consequencesofculturalcontextaspectsofplanningandrecognizingboththechallengesandpossiblebenefitsofembracingalternativeapproachesforsuccessfulprogramplanning.
Thematerialinthistextisintendedtohelpreadersmanagethe difficultiesofteachingandlearningalinearprocessofplanning whiletheyareexperiencingtheserendipitous,sometimesnonlinear,natureofthehumanserviceenvironment.Italsohelpsthem addressplanninginasystematicwaywhentheactualprocessisnot strictlyalinearone.Allofusshouldallwanttoencounter,manage, andenjoyplanninginvaryingculturalsettings,andcompetepositivelyandeffectivelyinaglobalhumanservicemarketplacein whichdesigningculturallysensitiveprogramsmeansbeingable toadapttothewaysofvaryingcultures.Itshouldalsoaidusin creatingandmaintaininghumanserviceorganizationculturesthat continuallyevolvestandardsforoperationalizingculturalcompetencewithinourorganizations(see,forexample:NASW,2001;U.S. DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,2001).
Atthebeginninghere,weindicatedthat,conceptually,program planningmaybeemployedtocastanillusionofbeingincontrolofa
Preface xxi
processthatisoftennotaslinearasitisoftenconceptualized. Professionalscanbecomfortedbythatillusion,aswehaveattimes. Inthisbook,wehopetoconvincethereaderthatcomfortcanalso comefromrecognizingtheinevitabilitiesofdifferenceandfrom havingarepertoireofskillstobeusedasneeded,ratherthanusing onlyoneestablishedway.Inourclasses,studentsareheardto exclaim,ineffect,‘‘Thisishard,andmyheadhurts!’’Ourresponse isusuallysomethinglike:‘‘Thisisnotaneasycookbookapproach, andyourheadishurtingbecauseyouarethinkingsohard.If programplanningwereeasy,itcouldbedonewithoutskills,and youwouldn’tbeinschool.Ifyoumasterthevarietyofprogram planningskillsallowingyoutoworkindiversesituations,thenyou willmakearealdifferenceintherealworldofsocialprogram designandimplementation.’’Thus,wehopethefollowingpages willmakeyourheadhurtingoodways!
