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2.3.1.3
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.2
3.4
3.4.3.3
3.7.1.3
3.7.1.4
3.7.1.5
9.1
Preface
From t heir origins, ex ploration a nd i nquiry i n t he Earth sciences have been dependent on conceptual models a nd data v isualizations to test t heories a nd convey fi ndings to t he general public. O ne can appreciate t he power a nd i mportance of conceptual g raphics by flipping t hrough t he pages of a National Geographic magazine. Data v isualization i s i nextricably l inked to quantitative spatial data a nalysis—the t wo major forms of which, for t he Earth sciences, a re statistical i nterpolation a nd modeling. Data a nalysis a nd v isualization are i nvaluable i n assessing t he efficacy of c urrent regulatory a nd consulting practices to ensure t hat political a nd technical i nterventions related to t he management of g roundwater resources a nd contaminated sites a re evidence based a nd lead to desirable outcomes. This book covers conceptual site model development, data a nalysis, a nd v isual data presentation for hydrogeology a nd g roundwater remediation. W hile t his book i s technical in nature, equations a nd advanced t heoretical d iscussions a re m inimized w ith t he focus instead placed on key concepts a nd practical data a nalysis a nd v isualization strategies. As a result, we believe t hat nontechnical stakeholders i nvolved i n g roundwater projects w ill find t his book i nteresting a nd relevant as well. We sincerely hope t hat t he reader’s academic or professional practice, whatever t hat may be, benefits f rom t he t ips a nd techniques contained herein. We w ish to t hank H isham Mahmoud, Don Chandler, Dave Goershel, Dan Grogan, A llen K ibler, Leonard Ledbetter, A nn Massey, Larry Neal, a nd Steve Youngs of AMEC for t heir continuing support a nd advice, a nd Ted Chapin a nd Karl Kasper of Woodard & Curran for their support in the completion of this book.
Authors
Neven K resic i s a hydrogeology practice leader at AMEC Environment a nd I nfrastructure, I nc., a n i nternational engineering a nd consulting fi rm. He i s a professional geologist and professional hydrogeologist working for a variety of national a nd i nternational clients, i ncluding i ndustry, m ining, water utilities, government agencies, a nd environmental law fi rms. Neven holds a bachelor’s degree i n hydrogeological engineering, a master’s degree i n hydrogeology, a nd a PhD in geology, a ll f rom t he University of Belgrade. Before coming to t he United States as a S enior Fulbright Scholar at t he U.S. Geological Survey i n Reston, Virginia, a nd George Washington University i n Washington, DC, Neven was a professor of g roundwater dynamics a nd hydrogeology at t he University of Belgrade. He serves on t he management committee of t he Groundwater Management and Restoration Specialty Group of t he I nternational Water Association, co-chairs t he Karst Commission of t he I nternational Association of Hydrogeologists, a nd i s a past v ice president for international affairs of the American Institute of Hydrology.
Alex M ikszewski i s a l icensed professional environmental engineer i n t he Commonwealth of Massachusetts, where he works for Woodard & Curran, I nc. He holds a bachelor’s degree in c ivil a nd environmental engineering f rom Cornell University and a master’s degree i n environmental engineering a nd science f rom T he Johns Hopkins University. He was a NNEMS fellow i n t he U.S. EPA Office of Superfund Remediation a nd Technology I nnovation. As a consultant, A lex has developed groundwater models for clients i n t he public a nd private sectors i n settings ranging f rom southeastern New Hampshire to the semiarid g roundwater basins of Southern California. H is experience i n statistics a nd geostatistics i nvolves t he u se of computer software to design defensible sampling plans at Superfund sites, delineate contaminant concentrations i n soil and g roundwater, assess surface water–groundwater i nteractions, a nd evaluate t he effects of pumping i n multiple-aquifer systems. A lex has hands-on ex perience w ith a variety of remedial technologies, i ncluding in situ c hemical oxidation, soil vapor extraction, in situ thermal remediation, monitored natural attenuation, and pump and treat.
1
Introduction
The physics of g roundwater flow, geochemistry, contaminant fate a nd t ransport, g roundwater remediation, a nd g roundwater resources development a nd management a re a ll subjects t hat have been covered extensively i n i nnumerable textbooks. T hus, a student or a practicing g roundwater professional has access to a wealth of i nformation regarding hydrogeological t heory. A strong technical background i n hydrogeology a nd related d isciplines, such as fluid mechanics, forms t he foundation for a successful career i n academia or t he public or private sectors. However, t his i s t ypically where t he education ends, a nd continued development i s generally only possible by obtaining real-world ex perience i n field hydrogeology, quantitative spatial data a nalysis, a nd data v isualization t hat i ncludes mapping. T he novice g roundwater professional may a lso fi nd t hat t here a re c ritical hydrogeological concepts applicable at varying i nvestigatory scales t hat a re not t ypically covered in conventional textbooks. T he political a nd regulatory f ramework t hat a hydrogeologist must operate w ithin i s a nother a rea where i mproved educational materials a re desirable but lacking.
The i ntention of t his book i s to fi ll t he void i n hydrogeological l iterature t hrough identification a nd ex planation of key concepts i n professional hydrogeology a nd to provide practical guidance and real-life examples related to the following applications:
• Hydrogeological conceptual site models (Chapter 2)
• Data management and geographic information systems (Chapter 3)
• Contouring (Chapter 4)
• Groundwater modeling (Chapter 5)
• Three-dimensional visualization (Chapter 6)
• Site investigation (Chapter 7)
• Groundwater remediation (Chapter 8)
• Groundwater supply (Chapter 9)
Data v isualization i s u nderestimated i n its i mportance to t he practice of g roundwater professionals. Efficient a nd clear presentation to stakeholders w ith varying technical backgrounds i s essential to t he success of a ny project. T he content a nd design of v isual presentations depend on t he t arget audience, which, i n t he case of professional hydrogeology, may include:
• Regulators such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA)
• Commercial and industrial clients
• Attorneys involved in litigation or real-estate transactions
• Juries
• Communities affected by a contaminated site or a water supply project
It i s t he hope of t he authors t hat t his book w ill be i nteresting a nd u seful to a ny of t he above stakeholders i nvolved i n g roundwater projects. W hile t his book i s technical i n nature, equations a nd advanced t heoretical d iscussions a re m inimized, w ith t he focus placed on key concepts, practical data analysis, and visualization strategies.
In addition, concepts a re presented t hroughout t his book related to t he c urrent state of the hydrogeological practice, focusing on prevailing ideologies a nd recommendations for improvement. T hese topics a re often controversial, a nd t he authors hope that this book provokes t hought a nd d iscussion on how we can evolve c urrent policies a nd practices to achieve better outcomes at a lesser cost to society. T he authors have no agenda or u nderlying motivation i n t hese d iscussions, a nd it should be noted t hat t his book was completed without financial support from any public or private entity.
One example of a t hought-provoking topic similar to others i ncluded i n t his book i s the c urrent regulatory policy related to a rsenic (As) i n private d rinking-water supplies i n eastern New England. A rsenic occurs naturally i n metasedimentary bedrock u nits i n t he region t hat a re extensively t apped by private water-supply wells. I n 2003, it was estimated that more t han 100,000 people across eastern New England were u sing private water supplies w ith a rsenic concentrations above t he federal maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 µg/L (Ayotte et a l. 2003). T his represents a w idespread ex posure to a c hemical at dangerously high levels.
Figure 1.1 i s a map of a rsenic concentrations measured at private bedrock wells i n southeastern New Hampshire during a 2003 study performed by t he United States Geological Survey. Despite t hese a larming data, a rsenic i s not regulated by t he state of New Hampshire in private d rinking-water wells, a nd t here a re no c urrent requirements to even test ex isting wells for t he contaminant. I n 2010, a bill (HB 1685) t hat would have made it a requirement to test new wells a nd wells i nvolved i n home sales was k illed by t he New Hampshire Legislature (Susca and Klevens 2011).
In contrast to t his policy of a llowing a rsenic ex posure, environmental regulations require t he ex penditure of m illions of dollars to remediate Superfund a nd state-led contaminated sites where t he ex posure often constitutes a very low r isk (e.g., one i n a m illion excess l ifetime cancer r isk) or i s hypothetical i n nature (e.g., potential f uture consumption of g roundwater). For example, at t he Visalia Pole Yard Superfund site, well over $20 m illion was spent to remediate g roundwater contamination t hat was not posing a n actual r isk (see Chapter 8 for a more detailed d iscussion). T his i s a classic example of policy t hat permits self-inflicted r isk while d isproportionately t argeting externally i nflicted r isk, ignoring t he relative costs a nd benefits of t he overall outcome. O ne potential declaration of t his ideology is
When protecting human health a nd t he environment, it i s not our place to address r isk related to n aturally o ccurring contamination or i ndividual l ifestyle c hoices, but we w ill act aggressively to remedy any minimal level of risk caused by a third-party agent.
The reader should consider how t his logic i mpedes efforts to protect human health a nd the environment. Developing sound conceptual models a nd u sing effective data a nalysis and v isualization tools can help address problems even at t his philosophical scale; practicing g roundwater professionals a re encouraged to u se t heir ex pertise to be active agents of change. A h istorical example of t he power of t hese methods i s provided i n t he following section.
FIGURE 1.1
Arsenic concentrations i n private bedrock wells i n southeastern New Hampshire a nd g rouped geologic u nits showing t he percentage of wells w ith concentrations of a rsenic g reater t han t he c urrent MCL of 0.010 mg/L. (Modified f rom USGS, 2003. A rsenic Concentrations i n Private B edrock Wells i n S outheastern New Hampshire. US Department of the Interior, USGS Fact Sheet 051-03.)
1.1 H istorical E xample
It i s l ikely t hat most hydrogeologists, environmental engineers, epidemiologists, a nd medical doctors have heard t he famous story of D r. John Snow a nd t he Broad Street pump in m id-19th-century London. D r. Snow has been voted t he g reatest doctor of a ll t ime by Hospital Doctor magazine (edging out H ippocrates) a nd i s a lso k nown as t he father of modern epidemiology (Frerichs 2011). T he authors have a lso heard h im referred to as t he fi rst environmental engineer. W hile D r. Snow was a pioneering a nesthesiologist, he i s best known for h is staunch advocacy of t he waterborne t heory of c holera t ransmission, a nd h is innovative work in this area led to his great posthumous fame. In t he m id-19th century, c holera outbreaks were common i n t he c ities of t he i ndustrial revolution, spreading rapidly t hrough densely settled a reas a nd i nflicting f righteningly
high mortality rates. At t he t ime, t he spread of c holera a nd most other d iseases was blamed on foul i nner-city a ir. T his conceptual model for d isease t ransmission by odors was termed t he m iasmatic t heory a nd was w idely accepted by sanitation professionals, public officials, a nd Parliament i n London by t he late 1840s ( Johnson 2006). D r. Snow w ill forever be remembered for his fight against this flawed, superstition-based theory.
Dr. Snow’s i nterest i n c holera was l ikely spurred by t he London c holera outbreak of 1848–1849, which k illed 50,000 people ( Johnson 2006). T he doctor became obsessed w ith the d isease a nd, during t hat outbreak, developed a n original conceptual model for c holera transmission based on h is k nowledge a nd ex perience as a medical doctor. He reasoned t hat cholera i s f undamentally a d iarrheic d isease of t he g ut a nd, t herefore, i s caused by something i ngested rather t han i nhaled. W here advocates of t he m iasmatic t heory a rgued t hat cholera was a poison i nhaled a nd c irculated t hrough t he blood, causing fever, D r. Snow argued t hat t he pathology of c holera i s caused by dehydration f rom severe d iarrhea (Koch 2011). He f urther built h is a rgument on waterborne t ransmission t hrough t wo populationbased studies conducted during t he 1848–1849 epidemic. H is fi ndings were communicated through a landmark 1849 publication On the Mode and Communication of Cholera. W hile Dr. Snow’s work garnered much public i nterest, it was generally concluded, at t he t ime, that h is publication failed to provide sufficient evidence l inking c holera to water supply. He t herefore stewed for a n additional five years before getting a nother c hance at conclusively proving t he accuracy of h is conceptual model. T his opportunity came i n t he form of another c holera outbreak i n t he Soho neighborhood centered on t he famous Broad Street pump (Johnson 2006).
The Soho outbreak was particularly swift a nd v irulent, yet both D r. Snow a nd h is r ival working for t he Board of Health, Reverend Henry W hitehead, were able to conduct r igorous, on-the-ground data collection during t he outbreak itself. A rmed w ith h is correct conceptual model, D r. Snow collected site-specific data l inking t he spread of d isease to t he Broad Street pump. He presented h is i mmediate fi ndings to t he Board of Governors of St. James Parish, a nd t he evidence was compelling enough to convince t he board to remove the handle f rom t he pump, t hereby eliminating public access to t he well. T he action was met w ith jeers by t he observing public. W hile t he data i ndicate t hat t he outbreak was already waning by t he t ime of t he pump handle removal, D r. Snow’s actions l ikely contributed to its decline a nd, at t he m inimum, prevented a second wave of d isease spread (Tufte 1997). T he toll of t he c holera outbreak was devastating; 90 out of t he 896 Broad Street residents died within two weeks (Johnson 2006).
Seizing t he opportunity to f urther promote h is t heory, D r. Snow quickly compiled h is data on t he Soho outbreak for scientific publication. He summarized h is fi ndings i n a now famous map originally presented to t he Epidemiological Society i n December 1854 and i ncluded as Figure 1.2. Cholera deaths a re represented as t hick black bars, which a re clearly clustered a round t he Broad Street pump. W hile many declare t hat D r. Snow’s map “solved t he mystery” of c holera (e.g., F lowingData 2007), it was not u sed to get t he pump handle removed (Dr. Snow’s weight of on-the-ground evidence was sufficient to get a desperate board to t ry a nything), a nd it d id not convince t he board or t he general public of t he waterborne t heory of c holera t ransmission. T he i mpact of t he map has t herefore been somewhat exaggerated. T he m iasmatic t heory persisted for several decades a fter D r. Snow’s work u ntil it was replaced by t he germ t heory, a nd German scientist Robert Koch isolated t he c holera m icrobe i n 1883. I ronically, Vibrio cholerae had a lready been identified i n 1854—the same year as t he Soho outbreak—by t he Italian Fillipo Pacini, a fi nding that was largely ignored by h is contemporaries but later acknowledged by t he parasite’s renaming in 1965 to Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854 (Johnson 2006).
FIGURE 1.2
Dr. John Snow’s famous m ap of t he 1854 Broad Street c holera outbreak fi rst presented i n December 1854 a nd later published in 1855. Available at http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html.
This fascinating story i s presented i n detail i n t he work of Johnson (2006). It has been summarized here to provide a h istorical example of how conceptual models, data a nalysis, and data v isualization can be u sed to t ackle even t he most d ifficult scientific a nd societal problems. D r. Snow developed a conceptual model based on h is professional k nowledge, collected a nd a nalyzed data quantitatively, a nd presented h is results i n a n effective visualization (which a lso served as a n additional test on h is original t heory). However, as previously stated, D r. Snow u nfortunately d id not solve t he mystery as h is contemporaries remained u nconvinced. Koch (2011) proposes t hat D r. Snow could have u sed more detailed quantitative a nalysis to bolster h is study a nd potentially w in over even t he most ardent m iasma believers. D r. Snow d id not calculate relative mortality rates i n t he i ndividual pump catchments, which i s a form of quantitative a nalysis t hat Koch (2011) asserts was practiced at t he t ime. A rendering of D r. Snow’s data c reated u sing modern mapping
FIGURE 1.3
Cholera deaths per 1000 persons for t he pump catchments i n t he a rea of t he 1854 c holera outbreak. (Mortality rates a nd approximate georeferenced catchment, c holera death, a nd pump locations f rom Koch, T., Disease Maps: Epidemics on the Ground, University of C hicago Press, C hicago, 2011, 330 pp.). World Street Map sources: Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ, TomTom, USGS, I ntermap, i PC, NRCAN, Esri Japan, METI, Esri C hina (Hong Kong), Esri (Thailand).
techniques i s presented as Figure 1.3, i ncluding clear delineation of t he pump catchments and labeling t he number of c holera deaths per 1000 persons i n each catchment. T he mortality per 1000 persons i n t he Broad Street pump catchment (149 per 1000 persons) clearly overwhelms t he rates of t he adjacent catchments (Koch 2011). It i s i mportant to note t hat Dr. Snow produced a second version of h is original map t hat i nnovatively u sed a Voronoi diagram to delineate t he a rea where t he Broad Street pump was t he closest source of water. This results in a similar effect to the catchment-area delineations presented in Figure 1.3.
If D r. Snow h ad performed t hese mortality calculations a nd presented t hem i n such a manner, m ight he h ave ended t he c holera debate once a nd for a ll? T he authors believe it is h ighly u nlikely. W hile t he addition of mortality rates does enhance t he v isualization, it often t akes generations for entrenched ideologies to be purged f rom t he public m ind. I n
some cases, it t akes extreme acts of self-sacrifice, such as self-experimentation, to prove t he validity of a scientific concept. W hile not necessary for c holera, self-experimentation was critical i n demonstrating t he role of t he mosquito i n yellow fever t ransmission. T he yellow fever saga i s brilliantly c hronicled by Crosby (2006). If D r. Snow had voluntarily consumed cholera-impacted water, or conducted a study u sing other human subjects, maybe t he t ransition to t he waterborne t heory would have been ex pedited. However, apart f rom martyrdom or u nethical ex perimentation, D r. Snow contributed as much as humanly possible to the fight against c holera. At t he t ime of t his w riting, c holera has still not been eradicated, and a deadly outbreak continues i n t he Caribbean country of Haiti. As of July 31, 2011, there have been more t han 400,000 reported cases of c holera associated w ith t he epidemic in Haiti t hat began i n fall 2010 (World Health O rganization 2011). T he reader may ex plore how entrenched ideologies have contributed to the persistence of this outbreak.
The John Snow story i s relevant to t his publication for multiple reasons. For starters, it involves contaminated g roundwater a nd associated i mpacts on public health. More i mportantly, t hough, it outlines t he f ramework for conducting spatial scientific studies t hat i s t he fundamental topic of this book. The key elements of this framework are
• Conceptual model development based on education a nd ex perience i n hydrogeology and available information from historical studies
• Data collection at the site-specific level
• Spatial data analysis to evaluate the original conceptual model
• Data visualization to present study conclusions and refine the conceptual model as needed
A flow c hart i llustrating t he relationship of t hese elements i s provided i n Figure 1.4. Note that t his f ramework i s c yclical as it i s valuable to perform data v isualization or a nalysis first before focusing on t he conceptual model, particularly where h istorical data a re l imited or completely absent. However, w ithout a conceptual model, data collection, a nalysis, and v isualization a re u ninformed a nd can lead to erroneous i nterpretations. If D r. Snow had blindly plotted t he c holera deaths on h is map w ithout providing substantive technical and conceptual justification for h is t heory, t he map could have just as easily l inked c holera
FIGURE 1.4
Flow c hart of t he f ramework for spatial i nvestigation advanced by D r. Snow a nd applicable to modern hydrogeology. Note that data analysis and visualization often occur cooperatively.
to a former plague burial site i n t he Broad Street a rea, which would have fit n icely i nto t he miasmatic model (Koch 2011).
The failure to i nclude conceptual models i n hydrogeological studies results i n t he propagation of major errors i n professional practice. Examples of such f undamental errors h ighlighted in this book are
• Failure to identify karst and other predominant geological features (Chapter 2)
• Data management and technical mapping errors (Chapter 3)
• Default contouring with computer programs (Chapter 4)
• Blindly accepting models published by “authorities” or “experts” i ncluding government agencies (Chapter 5)
• Performing g roundwater remediation w ithout a conceptual basis for t he design (Chapter 8)
It i s t he hope of t he authors t hat t his book educates g roundwater professionals a nd stakeholders a like about t hese major errors. However, more i mportant objectives a re to encourage i ndependent t hinking about c urrent g roundwater i ssues a nd to promote t he u se of conceptual models a nd advanced data a nalysis a nd v isualization tools to better solve hydrogeological problems.
The breakdown of independent analysis and the failure to use appropriate conceptual and quantitative models a re symptoms of g roupthink, a term d iscussed f urther i n Chapter 5. Groupthink has led to i nnumerable engineering failures i ncluding such disasters as the Space Shuttle Columbia accident i n 2003. According to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), foam shedding from space shuttles was originally viewed as a potential safety issue early i n the shuttle program. However, foam shedding occurred so frequently over the course of 112 m issions without major i ncident that it was eventually accepted as a nuisance management issue rather than a significant hazard. Even when it became apparent from analytic evidence that the Columbia accident was caused by damage to the shuttle’s thermal protection system from a collision with detached foam debris, there remained “lingering denial” that foam could really be the root cause (CAIB 2003). As a result, the CAIB had to conduct impact a nd a nalysis testing using a real-life physical model to provide irrefutable proof that foam can i nflict potentially catastrophic damage to shuttle paneling.
Volume I of t he CAIB report i s i ncluded on t he companion DVD for reference. I n addition to t he flawed notion t hat foam shedding was solely a maintenance problem, t he report identifies many other factors that contributed to the fatal accident:
• The u se of a semiempirical quantitative model beyond its calibration range rather than a physics-based model
• Poor communication of decision u ncertainty a nd r isk to National Aeronautics a nd Space Administration (NASA) management (see also Tufte [2006])
• Concern regarding jumping the chain of command
• Fear of being ridiculed for expressing dissenting opinion
• Decision-making processes t hat were obscured by scheduling metrics a nd political pressures
All t he above factors can similarly a ffect projects i n hydrogeology a nd g roundwater remediation, leading to engineering failure and associated consequences.
1.2 E xample U ses o f T his B ook
With t he previously stated objectives i n m ind, it i s u seful to l ist several example scenarios of how t his book may be u sed to assist d ifferent entities i nvolved i n g roundwater projects.
Example 1
A consulting fi rm h as just been awarded a contract for a Phase II/Comprehensive Site Investigation Assessment at a former i ndustrial facility. T he primary component of t he Phase II report i s a conceptual site model (CSM), which w ill d ictate where a nd how environmental data w ill be collected a nd what t he significance of t he data w ill be. T his book can help t he consultant develop a n effective CSM for t he site, leading to defensible characterization strategies a nd study conclusions. Concepts related to CSMs a nd site investigations a re presented i n Chapters 2 a nd 7. Data management a nd contouring a re also key elements of Phase II i nvestigations, which a re d iscussed at length i n Chapters 3 and 4, respectively.
Example 2
A hydrogeologist becomes a n expert w itness i n a lawsuit regarding t he contamination of several public water-supply wells. T he hydrogeologist develops a fate a nd t ransport groundwater model t hat demonstrates t he c lient i s not responsible for t he contamination. For t he upcoming t rial, t he hydrogeologist h as been a sked to produce simplified graphics i llustrating t he principles behind t he g roundwater model a nd its overall conclusions. T he hydrogeologist can u se t his book a s a resource for producing data t ables, graphs, maps, i llustrations, a nd a nimations of modeling results t hat may be easily understood by t he nontechnical t rial jury. T he hydrogeologist can a lso fi nd key i nsight in t his book regarding t he u se of g roundwater models i n professional practice. Concepts and v isualizations related to g roundwater models a re presented i n Chapter 5 Chapter 6, covering t hree-dimensional v isualizations, may a lso be u seful for t his application. Numerous examples including animations are provided on the companion DVD.
Example 3
An environmental engineer i s responsible for t he design a nd operation of a n in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) a nd monitored n atural attenuation (MNA) remedy at a h ighprofile Superfund site. A n i nitial round of ISCO i njections at t he contaminant source area h as been completed. T he potentially responsible parties (PRPs) paying for t he cleanup h ave just a sked t he environmental engineer to demonstrate to t he US EPA t hat the source a rea remediation h as been completed to t he extent practicable a nd t hat t he remedy can f ully t ransition to long-term M NA. Similarly, t he US EPA h as a sked t he engineer to verify t hat M NA processes a re o ccurring at t he site to substantiate t his transition. T he engineer can u se t his book to learn about key concepts i n ISCO, technical impracticability, a nd M NA a nd a lso a s a reference for developing compelling v isualizations of field data to justify remedial decisions to t he US EPA. Groundwater remediation is discussed at length in Chapter 8.
Example 4
A municipality h as just completed a long-term pumping test at a n extraction well t hat is being considered for u se a s a public water supply. T he town hydrogeologist needs to present t he results of t he test at a town h all meeting to local conservation committees,
state regulators, a nd t he general public. A major concern of t he conservation g roups a nd regulators i s t he dewatering of a small r iver located near t he extraction well site. T he hydrogeologist can u se t his book to better u nderstand su rface water a nd g roundwater interactions, which a re described i n Chapters 2, 4, a nd 9. I n addition, t his book can help t he hydrogeologist perform g roundwater modeling a nd contouring t hat a ssess t he potential for i nduced i nfiltration u nder pumping conditions (Chapters 4 a nd 5). Lastly, the hydrogeologist can fi nd example v isualizations t hroughout t his book a nd t he companion DVD t hat may be helpful i n developing simplified data t ables, g raphs, maps, and i llustrations for t he town h all meeting, helping nontechnical stakeholders c learly understand the study conclusions.
References
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