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Burgess Ageing Asia And The Pacific In Changing Times Implications For Sustainable Development Desconocido
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Fiscal Policy for Sustainable Development in AsiaPacific Lekha S. Chakraborty
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Preface
The population aged 65 and above is growing quicker globally than all other age groups, and it is expected that one in six people in the world will be 65 and above by 2050. This global trend is expected to have far-reaching impacts on the socioeconomic landscapes of advanced as well as less advanced economies. Although the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 as a decade of healthy ageing in a timely fashion, the progress in the formulation and implementation of appropriate policies to address the complex nature of ageing population–related socio-cultural challenges remains underrepresented in the literature – especially in the context of Asia Pacifc-Indian Ocean regions. The evidence suggests that population ageing will inexorably lead to a myriad of long-term and wide-ranging challenges with implications for public, for-proft, not-for-proft sectors, and will differ in magnitude and scope across the Asia Pacifc-Indian Ocean regions depending on the stages of development, economic growth levels, and nature and structure of labour markets in each of the countries, amongst other factors. It is in this context that this edited volume examines the trends in ageing across the selected countries included in the collection, with particular emphasis on the policies that are being developed and implemented to address the challenges associated with an ageing population. Drawing on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this book brings together national and regional perspectives on the challenges related to ageing faced by selected countries in the Asia Pacifc-Indian Ocean regions. More importantly, this volume explores the policy implications of the ageing population for government, private and not-for-proft sectors towards the realisation of the SDGs. This book will appeal to researchers and policymakers working in the areas of ageing population and sustainable development.
Armidale, NSW, Australia
Subas P. Dhakal Perth, WA, Australia Alan Nankervis Adelaide, SA, Australia John Burgess
Acknowledgements
We thank all contributing authors, reviewers, the publisher, and copy editors in providing assistance to develop and produce this edited volume.
Part I Context and Setting the Scene
1 Population Ageing: Challenges in the Asia Pacific and Beyond . . . . . 3
Subas P. Dhakal, John Burgess, and Alan Nankervis
2 Addressing the Challenges of Ageing: A Global Perspective on Policies and Practices . .
Roslyn Larkin and Jacqui Larkin
3 A Bibliometric Analysis of Ageing Literature: Global and Asia-Pacific Trends .
Muhammad Nateque Mahmood and Subas P. Dhakal Part II Country Case Studies
4 Ageing, Work, Care in Australia: Progress and Prospects in Meeting Sustainable Development Goals of Inclusive Growth and Gender Equality
Marian Baird and Alison Williams
5 Bridging the Gap in Social Infrastructure for the Ageing Population in Bangladesh
Nishan Chatterjee and Muhammad Nateque Mahmood
6 Ageing Population and Sustainable Development: Evidence from China
Yi Liu, Zhen Liu, Shuang Hu, and Qun Wang
7 Sustainable Development Goals and Ageing: Status, Challenges, and Strategies for Policy Implications for India
Financial Stability or Instability in their Golden Years: An Analysis of the Financial Preparedness of Malaysians . . . .
. . . . 127 R. Rasiah, J. J. Turner, H. Kaur, T. P. L. Kelly, and V. Guptan
9 Ageing Population, the Poverty Nexus and Wellbeing of Elderly in Mauritius .
Karlo Jouan, Vikash Rowtho, Soujata Rughoobur-Seetah, Zuberia Hosanoo, and Christel Ramloll
10 Ageing and Health Agenda for Nepal: Challenges and Policy Responses for Sustainable Development . . . . 165
Subas P. Dhakal and Murari M. Aryal
11 Recalibrating Social Protection for an Ageing Singapore 183 Peter Waring, Chris Vas, and Azad Singh Bali
12 Population Ageing and Societal Inequalities: The Case of Taiwan 195 Min-Wen Sophie Chang
13 Ageing, Work-Life and Lifestyle: Reflections from Thailand 213 Monthon Sorakraikitikul and Alan Nankervis Part III Comparative Analysis and Conclusion
14 Comparative Analysis of Countries’ Ageing Challenges & Policies
Subas P. Dhakal, John Burgess, and Alan Nankervis
About the Contributors
Murari M. Aryal Late Aryal was an academic in the feld of political economy and a renowned historian of Nepal. He was actively pursuing his vision to establish a state-of-the-art aged care facility in an outskirt of Kathmandu before succumbing to COVID-19 in late 2020.
Marian Baird is Professor of Gender and Employment Relations, Head of the Discipline of Work and Organisational Studies and Co-Director of the Women, Work and Leadership Research Group in the University Sydney Business School, Australia. She is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Science of Australia and is a Chief Investigator on the ARC Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research (CEPAR). Her research focus is gender and employment, in particular, how regulation and social norms interact to produce different labour market outcomes for women and men.
Azad Singh Bali is a Senior Lecturer in Public Policy at the Australian National University. His research interests lie in comparative social policy in Asia. Bali’s research has been published in leading international journals including Policy & Society, Public Policy & Administration and Social Policy & Administration, among others. His academic training is from the National University of Singapore, and the University of Madras. Bali also serves on the editorial collective at Policy Design & Practice.
John Burgess is Professor in HRM at Torrens University, Adelaide, Australia. He is also visiting Professor at the Centre for Research on Work and Employment at the University of Greenwich, UK. His research interests include the future of work, transitional labour markets and HRM practices of multinational enterprises, contingent employment arrangements, and skill development in emerging labour markers.
Jayanta Chakraborti is Associate Professor of Digital Marketing and Programme Chair, MBA at Woxsen University. He holds a bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering from NIT Agartala, MBA from IMI Europe, MA in Economics from
xi
Devi Ahilyabai University Indore, Diploma in French from Delhi University and Certifcation in German from Max Mueller, Munich.
Min-Wen Sophie Chang is an Adjunct Assistant Professor at International College, Providence University in Taiwan. Prior to joining Providence University, Sophie was working as an assistant research fellow at Commerce Development and Research Institute, which is a think tank set up by Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs for the service industry. Her research interests include human resource management, employability, e-learning, teamwork, creativity, innovation, occupational standards, labour markets, public policies, indigenous psychology, cross-cultural psychology, strategic management, brand management, franchise industry, art and creative industry, and social enterprise
Nishan Chatterjee with a background in civil engineering and fnance management, Nishan is currently undertaking Master of Construction Management at Deakin University. Nishan is currently assisting in several research projects including a review of stage-gate systems and project governance on transport infrastructure delivery and other projects on global social infrastructure.
Subas P. Dhakal is a Senior Lecturer at the University of New England (UNE) Business School, (Armidale). He is a management academic with teaching/research experiences on sustainability strategies in Asia Pacifc/South Asia. He has extensively published in the areas of: (a) Education, Employment & Employability and (b) Sustainable Development Goals. He currently serves as an Editorial Review Board Member of the journal Equality, Diversity & Inclusion. He is also an Adjunct Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Organisational Change and Agility (COCA) at Torrens University (Adelaide).
Vinitha Guptan is currently the Vice-Chancellor of Saito University College, Malaysia. She was previously the Dean of Taylors Business School for 13 years. As a Chartered Accountant with a Doctorate and coupled with industry experience, she actively participates in service-learning and community engagement focusing on diversity and inclusion mainly in South-East Asia and is currently working on projects in Myanmar and West Africa. She has received numerous awards for her community engagement and service leadership work in the region. She is also a recipient of the Women Leadership Achievement Award and Humanitarian Awards. She serves as the Treasurer and Regional Board Member of the Chartered Management Institute, Malaysia (CMI, UK).
Zuberia Hosanoo has been in the Tertiary education sector over the last 14 years. She is now a Senior Lecturer at Curtin Mauritius, a trained psychometrics. She is the holder of a bachelor’s degree in Organisational Psychology, a Master’s in International Business and a PhD in Organisations and Management. Dr. Hosanoo is involved with curriculum development, Corporate Training Programmes and is an
active member of the Association of the HR Professionals – Mauritius. Her research interests are culture, relationships, social capital, and IHRM and business strategy.
Shuang Hu is the Assistant Professor working as HR Manager and Programme Manager of international cooperation at School of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Shandong University, Qingdao China. She has been the visiting scholar at University of Alberta in 2015. Her research interests include: human resource management and international exchange and cooperation
Karlo Jouan joined the higher education sector in 2001 after 18 years of service as a secondary school teacher. He is now the Head of Faculty, Accounting Finance and Law at Curtin Mauritius and leads the Exams Offce. He is the holder of a Diploma in Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, a BA (Hons) in Economics with Management Studies as well as a PhD in Financial Economics. During his teaching career, Dr. Jouan has also been involved with curriculum development and corporate training. His research interest includes changes in the labour market, the NGO sector as well as other contemporary societal issues.
Harpaljit Kaur has been an educator for the past 30 years and is a senior lecturer at Taylor’s University Malaysia. She received her PhD in Economics and a master’s degree in Applied Statistics from University Putra Malaysia. Her research area of interest is in Environmental Economics, Human Capital, Education and Statistics. In terms of research and scholarly activities, she has done a number of collaborative research papers which was presented nationally and internationally, consequently published.
Sanjeev Kumar is working as an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Business, Sohar University, Sohar. He holds a master’s degree in Statistics, Economics and Business Administration. He has more than 18 years of experience that includes teaching, research and administration. He has presented research papers in reputed national and international conferences and also published papers in international journals. He has been part of various international projects. His major areas of research include service quality, work-readiness challenges, Industries 4.0. He has been resource person for various FDPs. He has strong hold on statistical software like- IBM SPSS, AMOS, Smart PLS. He has been involved in teaching varied subjects in area of marketing and decision sciences.
Jacqui Larkin is a psychologist, experienced human resource management (HRM) practitioner and academic. She was Senior Lecturer in HRM at the Australian Institute of Business. Her current research focuses on positive ageing, the impacts of global ageing populations and older workers.
Roslyn Larkin is a Senior Lecturer at The University of Newcastle, Australia. Her research is extends across ethics, leadership, Human Resource Management and
Knowledge Management. Recent research involvement is in the effects of increasing technology on employment.
T. P. L. Kelly is a Lecturer at the School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Taylor’s University, Malaysia. She holds a Master of Arts (English Language) from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). She has more than 13 years of experience in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education and has conducted numerous workshops for students and educators. She also actively undertakes research and scholarly activities which she has published several papers in indexed and non-indexed journals and is currently involved in several research projects either as team leader or team member. Additionally, she serves as a reviewer for local and international journals.
Yi Liu is an Associate Professor at School of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Shandong University, Qingdao China. She is a management academic with expertise in cross cultural studies. Her research interests include: knowledge management, human resource management and emerging country multinationals. Her publications have appeared in the Journal of Knowledge Management, the Journal of Asia-Pacifc Business, Global Business Review and Sustainability
Zhen Liu is an Associate Professor at School of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Shandong University, Qingdao China. He is a management academic with expertise in social entrepreneurship studies. His research interests include: social entrepreneurship and social enterprise. His publications have appeared in Management Decision, Nankai Business Review, R&D Management and the Chinese Journal of Management
Muhammad Nateque Mahmood is currently working as a Senior Lecturer at the School of Architecture and Built Environment, Deakin University. He has more than 13 years of experience in civil and residential constructions. Nateque’s research interests are in sustainability in infrastructure projects, infrastructure asset management and infrastructure policy.
Alan Nankervis is an adjunct professor of human resource management at Curtin (Perth) and Torrens (Adelaide) universities. His research interests include comparative Asian HRM, graduate work-readiness in the Asia Pacifc, the impacts of artifcial intelligence on industries in Asia Pacifc and Australia, and the challenges of ageing populations.
Parth Patel is a Senior Lecturer in Management at the Australian Institute of Business in Adelaide, Australia. Parth holds a PhD in Management from University of Newcastle in Australia and have previously worked as a Lecturer in International Management & HRM at Newcastle University, UK. Parth’s area of expertise in the disciplines of International Management, International HRM and International Business. Parth is also the communications editor for Asian Business & Management journal and sits on the editorial board of Review of International Business & Strategy journal. Parth is the member of Academy of Management, USA, and British
Academy of Management and has presented his research in numerous international conferences and published in elite management journals.
Kartikeya Raina is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management Studies of Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun. He is early career researcher. His area of research includes entrepreneurship and consumer.
Christel Ramloll is the Head of Faculty of Management at Curtin Mauritius since 2013. She joined the institution in 2006 as a lecturer in Management and Business Ethics and has also been involved in corporate training for many years. Her areas of focus for training are Self-Awareness, Leadership and Change Management. Mrs. Ramloll is the holder of an MBA and is about to submit her PhD, titled: “An investigation of the impact of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) legislation in Mauritius”. Her research interests include Strategy, CSR, Poverty Alleviation, Business Ethics, and Sustainability.
Ratneswary Rasiah is an Associate Professor of Economics at Taylor’s University. She has had over 36 years of teaching experience. She provides her students with a positive learning experience as she draws on a wide range of real-world cases and data to enhance and illustrate various economic theories and concepts. She is an active researcher, having received several research grants and published various journal articles in her area of research. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ratneswary has held various leadership positions and received the Taylor’s Education Group Chairman’s Award for Excellence in Teaching.
Vikash Rowtho is the Head of Research at Curtin Mauritius. He is part of the Offce of Innovation, Learning, Teaching and Research at Curtin Mauritius. He completed his undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in Computer Science. Dr. Rowtho is also the holder of a diploma of Sustainability and a PhD in Education. He has worked in the education sector for over 25 years, both in teaching and administration roles. Given his engineering and education background, his research interests include graduate work readiness, technology, and the future of work and other societal issues such as ageing.
Soujata Rughoobur-Seetah is since 2017 actively engaged in the teaching of uundergraduate and master’s programme at Curtin Mauritius in the feld of Management and Human Resource Management. Between 2014 and 2016, she has been a parttime lecturer in her respective feld at the University of Mauritius and at University of Technology. Dr. Rughoobur-Seetah is the holder of a BSc (Hons) Management, a master’s degree in Financial Management and her PhD is in the feld of Management with specialisation in HR. Her research areas are: Employee turnover, Quality of work life, Organisational support, Organisational justice, Higher Education, Tourism
Monthon Sorakraikitikul, PhD is a lecturer at Thammasat Business School, Thammasat University, Thailand. He teaches human resource development, organisational development and knowledge management. He has a bachelor’s degree in
marketing, an MBA and a PhD from the Asian Institute of Technology. He also serves as an external coach for executives from both public and private organisations.
Jason Turner is an Associate Professor and Head of the School of Business at Asia Pacifc University of Technology & Innovation, Malaysia. As an academic for over 17 years he has held and holds a number of external positions and grants. His research is in the areas of human capital, investigating the graduate skills gap, enterprise education, and the digital learning space, which has resulted in a number of books, book chapters and peer-reviewed publications.
Christopher Vas is General Manager of the Western Australian Food Innovation Precinct. He has previously held the roles of Associate Professor and MBA Director at the University of Canterbury and Deputy Dean and Director of Murdoch University’s frst offshore R&D centre – Singapore Centre for Research in Innovation, Productivity and Technology (SCRIPT). He has published in leading journals such as R&D Management, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice and co-authored a book on SME innovation. Dr. Vas holds a PhD in Public Policy from the ANU. He has completed an Executive Certifcate in Strategy and Innovation from MIT Sloan School of Management.
Verma Prikshat has more than 20 years of academic experience, including teaching, research, and programme management and coordination at tertiary level in UK, Australian and Indian universities. He has taught a variety of management courses (for example, Human Resource Management, Organisation Change and Management, Organisation Behaviour, Leadership) at three Australian universities (namely, RMIT University, Melbourne, Central Queensland University, Bachelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, Northern Territory and Australian Institute of Business, Adelaide).He has published and presented his research fndings in journals of repute and numerous international conferences. His major areas of research interests are in areas of Artifcial Intelligence in HRM, Future Workforce: Implications for HRM, Precarious Employment, Transformational Leadership and follower outcomes, Veteran reemployment and graduate work-readiness challenges in the Asia-Pacifc region. Prikshat is also serving as Associate Editor of the Journal of Work-Applied Management by Emerald publishing.
Qun Wang is the Operation Manager of Qingdao Innovation and Entrepreneurship Centre at Shandong University, China. He graduated with a Master from Hong Kong University in 2016. His research interests include: innovation and entrepreneurship.
Peter Waring is Professor and Pro Vice Chancellor Transnational Education at Murdoch University in Singapore. He holds qualifcations in Commerce, Law and Management and has published extensively in the felds of Employment Relations, Corporate Governance and Management. He has lived in Southeast Asia for the last 18 years
Alison Williams is a Research Associate with the Mature Workers in Organisations Stream of the ARC Centre of Excellence in Population and Ageing Research, undertaking research into mature aged workers and organisations. She also teaches in employment relations and human resource management.
Part I
Context and Setting the Scene
Chapter 1 Population Ageing: Challenges in the Asia Pacifc and Beyond
Subas P. Dhakal, John Burgess, and Alan Nankervis
Abstract Population ageing is presenting challenges to policy makers across the globe. This chapter outlines the concept of ageing, discusses the factors contributing to ageing, and identifes the associated policy and community challenges. The links between population ageing and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals are also outlined. In this book the experience, challenges and policy responses to ageing are discussed in the context of selected countries in the Asia- Pacifc-Indian Ocean region. The chapter identifes the key issues and outlines the structure of the book.
Keywords Ageing · Asia · Dependency ratio · Discrimination · Healthcare · Labour force participation · Life long learning · Migration · Pension systems · Poverty · Quality of life · Retirement · Sustainable development goals
1.1 Introduction
The world is experiencing a staggering rise in the number of old people and they will live longer than ever before. By 2060, the share of people older than 65 will double globally, from 9 to 18%, and the share of people over 80 will triple to 5.1% (Rouzet et al. 2019: 7)
S. P. Dhakal (*)
UNE Business School, University of New England (UNE), Armidale, NSW, Australia
e-mail: subas.dhakal@une.edu.au
J. Burgess
Torrens University, Adelaide, Australia
e-mail: john.burgess@torrens.edu.au
A. Nankervis
School of Management & Marketing, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
S. Dhakal et al. (eds.), Ageing in Asia and the Pacifc in Changing Times, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6663-6_1
There is evidence that the global population is becoming disproportionately skewed towards people over sixty-fve years old – regarded as ‘elderly’ – both in the workforce and more broadly, in many but not all countries. This trend has been related to such key factors as the longevity of the ‘baby-boomer’ generation facilitated by modern health systems, declining fertility rates, and smaller birth cohorts due partly to marriages at older ages amongst dual career couples. It has also been encouraged by many government policies which have proscribed age discrimination and economic considerations, leading to the abolition of mandatory retirement ages; or in some countries, the staged extension of retirement ages in order to compensate for the reduction in the proportion of younger employees in the labour market, in order to maintain essential technical skills and work experience; to promote more diversifed workplaces; or to reduce the national economic costs of superannuation, health and welfare schemes for retired employees (Barrett and Riddell 2019: 60).
However, despite the global ageing trend in developed and many developing countries, there are also signifcant differences between countries in diverse regions and at different development stages with respect to both current and future population trends, as Table 1.1 shows. Thus, regions with high proportions of aged persons include Latin America and the Caribbean, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Europe and North America, Australia, and New Zealand, and Central and Southern Asia; whilst the lowest proportions are in Sub-Saharan Africa, land-locked and least developed, and Oceania regions. While currently population ageing appears to be linked to economic development, with relatively large ageing populations in Europe and parts of Asia (Japan and Korea), in the coming decades the main source for the growth in the aged population will be in developing economies (UNDESA 2017). It should be noted also that Table 1.1 shows differential changes in the proportions of the ageing population in different regions between the projected future periods.
Table 1.1 Percentage of population aged 65 years or over for the world, SDG regions and selected groups of countries, according to the medium-variant projection
Source: UNDESA (2019: 18)
S. P. Dhakal et al.
The highest levels of ageing growth between the current and future projections are seen in the fve regions with the highest current proportions of aged persons. For the purposes of this book, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Australia and New Zealand and Central and Southern Asia regions, together with one small island developing state in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius), are those that will be examined in the following chapters.
To put these statistics in perspective, the UNDESA (2019) predicted that one in six people globally will be over sixty-fve years old by 2050 (compared with only one in eleven presently), and that the proportion of aged people in Central and Southern Asia and Eastern and Southeast Asia will likely double (Chomik and Piggott 2015: 205). Khasru et al. (2019: 2) estimated that by 2100 almost all G20 countries will have a quarter of their populations aged over sixty-fve years, and Dobriansky et al. (2019) predicted a one hundred and forty percent increase in ageing proportions in developing countries by 2030, resulting in ‘a shrinking of the workforce relative to the number of pensioners’ (p. 18). Rouzet et al. (2019) suggested that the G20 proportions are likely to double by 2060, exacerbated by a tripling of those aged over eighty years – ‘ongoing and projected population ageing across G20 economies … (will lead to) implications for economic growth, productivity, inequality within and between generations and the sustainability of public fnances’ (p.5).
As mortality and fertility rates decline across the world, the UNDESA (2019:2) reported that persons over sixty-fve years of age already outnumber those aged under fve years, and projected that by 2050 they will constitute double that proportion; and further, that aged people will also surpass the numbers of those aged between 15 and 24 years, with signifcant implications for global labour markets. These outcomes are likely to seriously threaten the aspirations included in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals framework, as UNDESA (2019: iii) notes – ‘people, and thus populations, are at the centre of sustainable development’, suggesting a need to focus on the ‘four global demographic megatrends…population growth, population ageing, migration and urbanisation’.
One of the key measures of the effects of ageing populations on countries and their future economic growth is the old age dependency ratio, which associates the numbers of retired people and the workforce required to support them in their retirement years. According to Gong and He (2019:1), this ratio is expected to increase from twenty one percent in 2011 to around thirty-eight or thirty-nine percent by 2050 in Australia, thus adding extra burdens to the economy and its workforce. Further, citing projected declines in labour participation rates in Australia from 65% in 2012 to 60% in 2060, and a 5% decrease in labour supply per capita during the same period (Gong & He:2), the Productivity Commission (2013) recommended adopting a ‘3Ps’ approach to analyses of the potential challenges – namely, population, participation and productivity (p.26).
With respect to one of the key countries discussed later in this book, Campbell (2019) asserted that with even more pressing ageing challenges than most of its regional neighbours China (with approximately 330 million aged people by 2050) is ‘uniquely ill-prepared for the societal changes this grey wave will bring…the
S. P. Dhakal et al.
country will get old before it gets rich’ (para 10). Chapter 6 provides more detailed analysis of the extent of ageing in China and the government’s policy responses. Although with a considerably smaller population and workforce, and a relatively proactive government, Sze-Yunn and Arivalagen (2019) urged Singapore’s policymakers (see Chap. 11) to adopt a ‘whole-of-government approach to make sure they are suffciently prepared to reap a longevity dividend’. Overall, in the Asia Pacifc region, Chomik and Piggott (2015) concluded that ageing ‘will likely impact the Asian demographic transition and its economic and social correlates, through migration, sources of critical investment, trade patterns, and ultimately the global level of economic activity’ (p. 48). Such recommendations undoubtedly apply to all regions, countries and organisations included in subsequent chapters of this book.
1.2 The Purpose of the Book
Although the research on various aspects of ageing remains limited globally (WHO 2015), as the Chap. 3 in this volume indicates, broader ageing-related research in the Asia Pacifc region has been gaining traction in recent years. However, other than an edited volume titled Ageing in the Asia-Pacifc Region Issues, Policies and Future Trends (Phillips 2002), more contemporary and comprehensive analysis of the region has been lacking. Given that a landmark report titled Live Long and Prosper: Aging in East Asia and Pacifc highlights the fact that the region is “home to over a third of the global population ages 65 and older … and has been ageing rather rapidly than any time in history” (World Bank 2016: xv) it is imperative to respond to this gap in research. It is in this context that the purpose of the book is to examine the trends in ageing across the selected countries included in the collection; to analyse the implications of population ageing across a number of indicators including national fnances, workforce development, health systems, support services and infrastructure for the elderly; to examine what policies are being developed and implemented in the selected countries to address the challenges associated with an ageing population; and to frame the discussion and analysis of ageing against the UN’s sustainable development goals (SDG). Importantly, the book explores the implications of ageing populations and the associated government and private sector policies on the realisation of the SDGs for the selected countries. Whilst the choice of countries included in this study was to some degree infuenced by prior research partnerships with regional colleagues, the subsequent country chapters provide a relatively representative snapshot of the nature and scope of, as well as the challenges associated with, the ageing of populations and workforces in the Asia Pacifc-Indian Ocean regions. Thus, there is a blend of medium-sized and smaller developed economies (Australia, Malaysia, Singapore & Taiwan); larger (China & India) and smaller (Bangladesh, Mauritius, Nepal & Thailand) developing nations.
1.3 Research Methods and Limitations
The approaches to the research vary across the chapters. Although the original intent of this project was to rely on primary data collection and analysis, the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic meant that data collection could not be carried out in many of the countries represented in this volume. Some countries were able to conduct original data collection and analysis, but the majority of chapters are based on secondary data sources, including scholarly, government and industry reports, and media articles, complemented with local case studies from the countries studied. All chapter authors presented their material from their local perspectives, using literature published in English and in their local languages, and analysed them using a standard framework specifcally designed for the book.
The book does have a number of limitations that should be noted. First, it does not cover all countries in the region, notably, absences include countries like Indonesia and the Philippines. Although an expression of interest to submit an Indonesian case study was received, colleagues in Indonesia could not complete the research due to COVID-19. Second, the socioeconomic differences across the countries included in terms of population size, stage of economic development, and political challenges as well as uncertainties (see Dhakal et al. 2019) meant that it was not possible to fully capture the implications of this diversity and complexity for the ageing agenda. Finally, the use of secondary data in country case studies are not exhaustive in terms of the coverage of key social indicators such as census data were not available.
The following sections of the chapter discuss broad aspects of the challenges associated with the ageing population in the selected countries, and government and private sector responses to them.
1.4 Measures of Ageing
There are a range of measures that are used to indicate population ageing, including life expectancy, the number of persons above a set age; the proportion of the population that is older than an age associated with retirement (for example 60 years), and/ or the dependency ratio (cited above), which is the ratio of the population above retirement age to the working age population (15–64 years).
The UNDESA (2019) provides data on ageing using different measures that refect diverse implications associated with population ageing. In turn the extent of population ageing in any one country is dependent on the measure of ageing that is applied. More details on the differences across the ageing measures, especially for the countries covered in this volume, are presented in Chap. 2. From the 2019 UN report (UNDESA 2019) the following measures of ageing are applied:
(a) In absolute terms, and following general population growth, the number of persons aged 65 years and over is growing across all regions, but at different rates.
High growth rates (200% plus) are forecast between 2019–2050 in Sub Sahara Africa, North Africa, and West Asia; and less than 50% for Europe and North America.
(b) In terms of population distribution, the share of the population aged 65 years and above is highest in East and South-East Asia (37%), and lowest (4%) in North Africa and West Asia.
(c) Life expectancy is increasing across all regions with the highest life expectancy of 83 years in Australia and New Zealand and the lowest (60 years) in Sub Sahara Africa. Over the coming 30 years the greatest percentage increase in life expectancy is forecast to be in Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan.
(d) The old age dependency ratio (OADR) is the ratio of old age dependents (above 65 years) to the working age population (20–64 years). It is a measure of the relationship between the inactive and active population and presumes that the active populations support the inactive population. In 2019 the three countries with the highest dependency ratio were Japan, Finland, and Italy, and in 2050 it is forecast that it will increase in all countries, with Japan, Korea, and Spain as the top three countries.
(e) The prospective old age dependency ratio (POADR). OADR is approximate and potentially misleading because of variations in labour force participation and unemployment rates across countries. Not all those aged 20–64 participate in the labour force or fnd work. Similarly, those aged over 65 are not necessarily outside of the workforce since retirement ages and labour force participation rates vary across countries. In addition, those aged over 65 years are not necessarily dependent on tax-funded transfers from those in employment. Many have self-funded pensions and accumulated wealth to draw upon. The POADR is the ratio of those aged within 15 years of average life expectancy and above to those aged between 20 years and average life expectancy. If average life expectancy is 82 years, then POADR is the ratio of those aged 67 years and above, to those aged between 20 and 66 years.
The data for POADR yields lower dependency ratios and different country rankings. In 2019 the top three countries were Bulgaria, Serbia, and Ukraine, with Bulgaria, Martinique, and Italy predicted to be the top three by 2050. Japan, one of the highest ranked countries by OADR, declines under POADR. In 2019 its ratio was 51% under OADR, whilst under POADR it was 22% (UN 2019).
1.5 Ageing and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals
It is important to examine the record across the region with respect to population ageing and the UN development goals. Specifcally, whether countries are recognising and supporting the rights of the elderly to access care and income security, education and training opportunities, equal employment opportunities,
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age-appropriate health services and formal support networks (UNDESA 2019: 38). The UN Sustainable Developments Goals capture the key objectives that are linked to supporting a nation’s citizens into the future with programs that sustainably support living standards and the quality of life. There are 17 sustainable development goals that are set out in Appendix. The purpose of the goals is to promote an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth –all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests (UNDESA 2021).
The UNDESA (2019) in its global population report identifed the links between population ageing and sustainable development. The key challenges identifed are:
Persons aged 65 or over make up the world’s fastest growing age group. Virtually all countries are anticipating an increase in the percentage of older persons in their populations. Countries need to plan for population ageing and ensure the well-being of older persons by protecting their human rights and economic security and by ensuring access to age- appropriate health care services, lifelong learning opportunities, and formal and informal support networks (SDGs 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10 and 16) (UNDESA 2019, 37).
The specifc goals identifed are: ending poverty (1); good health and wellbeing (3); quality education (4); gender equality (5); decent work and economic growth (8); reduced inequalities (10); and peace, justice, and strong institutions (16). (UNDESA 2021).
The key issues of rights and opportunities, retirement incomes, health care, education and employment availability, quality of life opportunities, and support networks and infrastructure are explored in the constituent chapters of this volume. The task is to examine the record across the region with respect to population ageing; and whether countries are recognising and supporting the rights of the elderly to access care and income security, education and training opportunities, equal employment opportunities, age-appropriate health services and formal support networks (UNDESA 2019: 38). Access to pensions and the eligibility to state funded pensions varies across countries, and having income support in old age is an important factor contributing to the alleviation of old age poverty (UNDESA 2017).
The analysis considers what programs employing organisations have developed to retain and attract older workers. The evidence suggests that in several countries across the region (Australia, Singapore, China, Taiwan) there are looming skills shortages that will have to be flled either through a combination of upskilling available workforces; labour force participation and retention; or attracting skilled migration (Verma et al. 2018). Within the region some countries like Australia and Singapore will be likely to attract international migration, and this will mitigate both ageing and skill shortages. However, the short and longer-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic may have provided signifcant constraints to these expectations. Other countries such as China, India, Nepal, the Philippines, and Bangladesh will have net emigration (UNDESA 2019: 34). This may exacerbate skill shortages if the emigrants are skilled and educated workers.
1.6 Key Challenges & Policy Implications
Population ageing will inevitably produce a myriad of long-term and wide-ranging challenges and implications for governments, industries, societies as a whole, and individual employees; and will differ in breadth and depth across the Asia PacifcIndian Ocean regions depending on different countries’ stages of development, economic growth levels, the nature and structure of their labour markets and industrial organisation, amongst other factors. However, as indicated by Table 1.1 it is expected that all regional countries will be impacted in signifcant ways as a consequence of the growth in the aged population across the world. As Gong and He (2019) have suggested, the challenges will be ‘complex and multi-dimensional’ (p. 2), encompassing societal, institutional and individual components such as government policies, labour supply, fnances, and health and welfare - notably age pensions, medical insurance, retirement and superannuation schemes.
The same authors posited that it will be likely to lead to workforce shortages, when combined with declining fertility rates and government fscal unsustainability due to signifcant increases in health services costs and a degree of welfare dependency amongst the elderly (p. 1). The UNDESA report (2019), also pointed to ‘ongoing global increases in longevity and the narrowing gap between rich and poor countries … (coupled with) signifcant disparities in survival that persist across countries and regions’ (p. iii). A salutary warning to governments and industry in all regions, but none more than in the Asia Pacifc-Indian Ocean regions. Finally, Macinlyte-Sniukiene et al. (2019) noted that ageing populations can lead to challenges for the size and structure of labour supply, production, employment and unemployment levels, wage levels and labour costs, income tax revenues and social security costs (p. 2).
In response to these challenges, Gong and He (2019) argued that ‘promoting health and sustainable work capacity among mature age and older workers becomes the most important and critical way’ (p. 2) to address them. Rouzet et al. (2019) are more specifc with their predictions, suggesting that a worse-case scenario could lead to greater inequality in the workforce, with younger employees facing ‘higher inequality and poverty risks’ in the future (p. 6); ever-increasing old-age dependency ratios; and government fnancial diffculties in funding health systems and pension schemes. As support for the latter prediction, the authors cite the anticipated 180% of gross domestic product (GDP) increase in the public debt burden of G20 advanced economies, and 130% in G20 emerging countries over the next three decades (p. 7).
On the positive side, they also suggested that the rise of the ‘silver economy’ (p. 8) - older workers pursuing innovative and entrepreneurial small and medium enterprises (SMEs) post-retirement from full-time employment – could help to retain ageing workers in productive work, reduce early access to superannuation or pension benefts and consequently decrease the public fnancial burden, as well as contributing to national productivity and older workers’ job satisfaction. Chomik and Piggott (2015) emphasised, inter alia, the importance of recognising and
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effectively managing intergenerational work relationships as the baby-boomer generation co-exists with Gen Y, Gen Z and the Millennials (p. 46). Echoing similar sentiments, Piggott (2019) characterised the challenges as a ‘demographic time bomb’.
One of the purposes of this volume is to identify the national responses to the potential economic, social, and cultural challenges associated with population ageing. It emerges that the extent of the policy challenges associated with ageing differs across the countries, as do the policy responses. The International Longevity Centre (2011) set out a suite of issues that were seen as central to addressing the range of potential public policy challenges associated with population ageing. The broad areas identifed were largely linked to medical and care reforms:
(a) Pension reforms, covering access, funding, and eligibility.
(b) Flexible working arrangements, lifelong learning, and gradual retirement to increase the labour force participation rates of the elderly, draw on their experience, provide further income support, and the opportunity to upgrade and acquire new skills.
(c) Access to suitable housing and accommodation, to promote independence and community access.
(d) Preventive health programs to reduce the incidence of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
(e) Life course vaccination programs to reduce the transmission of communicable diseases.
(f) Community health care arrangements to support independence and reduce the burden on the hospital system.
(g) Supporting technological solutions to medical care such as E health systems.
1.7 The Organisation of the Book
The book is comprised of fourteen chapters, with Chap. 2 providing a global perspective to the ageing population challenges, and Chap. 3 presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the key research themes associated with the nexus between the global ageing population and society. These chapters are followed by ten country-level chapters which provide brief country contexts followed by comments on their diverse defnitions of ‘ageing’ and retirement ages; key ageing challenges; government and private sector responses to these challenges; and recommendations for future strategies, policies and plans in the Asia Pacifc and Indo-Pacifc regions. These aspects are framed within in the context of the seventeen United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see Appendix).
Thus, in Chap. 4 Baird & Williams present an Australian policy analysis based on secondary data sources and focus on SDG 8 – ‘inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all’ – and SDG 10 –‘reducing inequalities’, suggesting that the key challenges for the Australian
ageing population include the diminishing age dependency ratio – less workers supporting aged persons – and the need for more fexible working hours for older employees in order to balance their work and eldercare responsibilities. The following chapter by Chatterjee & Mahmood on Bangladesh also utilises a document analysis method by framing the ageing issues against SDG 9 – ‘developing qualitative, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, inclusive of regional and transborder infrastructure to support economic development and wellbeing’ – addressing poverty amongst older people, the decline in family support, inadequate old age fnancial support and the lack of an integrated social security systems.
Like Chap. 4, but in an entirely different country context, Chap. 6 utilises secondary data analysis and focuses on SDG 8 with emphases on enhancing China’s social welfare and healthcare systems and supporting long-term employment for ageing workers. As Liu, Liu & Hu argue, the Chinese government will need to explore ‘smart aged care’ strategies together with ‘asset pensions’ for older people in order to sustain its future economic growth. The following chapter on India, by Kumar, Chakraborti, Prikshat, Patel & Kartikeya present a policy analysis based on secondary data sources in relation to various SDGs and identifes similar infrastructure challenges as in China and Bangladesh, but with additional concerns about social issues, such as isolation, poverty and distress, and the lack of accessibility and affordability of heath care for its ageing population.
In the Malaysian context, with relatively developed healthcare and social welfare systems, Rasiah, Turner, Kaur, Kelly & Guptan utilise self-administered survey data to argue that the primary challenges for the ageing population are associated with fnancial illiteracy and over-dependence on the government’s Employee Provident Fund in retirement, and that this needs to be addressed through education and training programs at all education levels. The chapter also discusses SDG 1 (poverty), SDG 3 (health and wellbeing), SDG 10 (inequality) and SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities). Financial security for the ageing population is also an important theme in of the Mauritius chapter contributed by Jouan, Rowtho, Rughoobur-Seetah, Hosanoo & Ramloll. The authors use a mixture of quantitative survey data as well as qualitative data from semi-structured interviews and acknowledge the government’s attempts to provide a ‘decent social protection net’, but suggest that in the future it will need to design longer-term strategies and engage in collaborative programs with the private sector in order to implement a ‘Silver Economy Strategy’ which effectively addresses SDG 1 (poverty) and SDG 3 (health and wellbeing).
As in several other chapters, Dhakal & Aryal’s Nepal chapter presents a policy analysis based on secondary data sources, and argues that the priorities in the context of ageing in Nepal are to align the health system with the needs of the older population and to establish a ‘sustainable and equitable aged care industry’ (SDG 3). Whilst in an entirely different economic position from Nepal, the developed country of Singapore also faces considerable challenges associated with its ageing population. Thus, using document analysis, Waring, Vas & and Bali point to similar problems as Australia in relation to its declining age dependency ratio and the
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adverse effects on the labour market and healthcare system. However, unlike Australia, the Singapore government has to date neither developed an old age pension or a universal healthcare funding system, issues which the authors argue need to be urgently addressed.
The fnal two country chapters discuss ageing challenges faced by one developed country economy (Taiwan) and one emerging economy nation (Thailand). In the frst, Chang utilises document analysis to suggests that ageing in her country is a major economic and social issue as it is projected to become a ‘super-aged society’ by 2015, leading to signifcant labour shortages, exacerbated by its shrinking population due to decreasing fertility rates; increasing inequalities; and excessive strains on its government pension scheme. Although Taiwan is not a member of the United Nations, its government has attempted to address SDGs 5 and 10 in particular, to provide comprehensive support mechanisms to help women to balance their work and domestic care duties, and to safeguard equal treatment in all workplaces. Sorakraikitikul & Nankervis’s Thailand chapter also employs document analysis to explore ageing in Thailand and suggests that the major challenges in his country are the low savings levels of many older people and thus their inability to support themselves in their retirement years, coupled with an inadequate government welfare system. He also discusses the need to provide more opportunities for older people to continue to be engaged in social, health and voluntary activities – ‘all generations need good work, good health, and enough savings for their life after retirement’ –focused on SDG 8.
The chapters exhibit both similar and disparate themes associated with the UN Sustainable Development Goals including full and productive employment and decent work; sustainable infrastructure in health, social welfare, and pension systems; the reduction of inequalities; long-term government strategies in collaboration with other stakeholders such as the private sector and not-for-proft organisations; and serious attention to all relevant economic, labour market and broader social issues.
The fnal chapter in this collection summarises the ageing challenges faced by these countries within their global, regional, and local contexts; compares and contrasts the responses of the multiple stakeholders (governments, private and not-forproft organisations, local communities and the ageing population itself); and provides a series of strategic, policy and practical recommendations that are derived from the country chapters and designed to enhance the approaches adopted in all countries to address these inevitable population ageing challenges.
United Nations (2021). Communications materials. Available at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/news/communications-material/
References
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Campbell C (2019) China’s Aging Population is a major threat to its future, Time, February 7. https://time.com/5523805/china-aging-population-working-age/ Chomik R, Piggott J (2015) Population ageing in Asia – National Policy Challenges. Asian Econ Policy Rev 10(2):199–222
Dhakal SP, Nankervis A, Burgess K, Verma P (2019) Chapter 9: challenges and strategies of transition from graduation to work in the Post-2020 Asia Pacifc and beyond: a comparative analysis of nine countries. In: Dhakal et al (eds) The transition from graduation to work challenges and strategies in the twenty-frst century Asia Pacifc and beyond. Springer, Singapore, pp 241–253
Dobriansky PF, Suzman RM, Hodes RJ (2019) Why population ageing matters: a global perspective. National Institute on Ageing/Department of Health and Human Services/US Department of State
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International Longevity Centre (2011) Ageing, health, and innovation: policy reforms to facilitate healthy and active ageing in OECD countries. International Longevity Centre, London
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Khasru SM, Nahreen A, Radia MM (2019) Role of innovative policies in incentivizing women’s participation in the formal workforce: a response to the trends in the aging population, March 15, T20, Japan, https://t20japan.org/policy-brief-role-innovative-policies-women-formalworkforce/. Accessed 11.4.2020
Macinlyte-Sniukiene A, Matuzeviciute K, Ruplilne D (2019) Evaluating the impact of an ageing population on the labour market. In: International scientifc congress on contemporary issues in business, management & economic engineering, May, https://doi.org/10.3846/ cibmee.2019.005
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Chapter 2 Addressing the Challenges of Ageing: A Global Perspective on Policies and Practices
Roslyn Larkin and Jacqui Larkin
Abstract There are various challenges associated within an ageing population and the policy responses to ageing across the globe. First, the fnancing of ageing is dependent on current taxation programs. Second, the need for reducing barriers for increasing labour force participation for those of working age and the elderly. Third, innovation and investment in human and productive capital in order to increase labour force productivity. Fourth, one-size-fts all policies to support ageing population is not suitable as not all the elderly are outside the labour force and not all depend on state transfers. Fifth, while increased health risks are associated with ageing, especially dementia, it is possible to minimise health risks through preventive programs and to reduce the costs of health care through community health programs and e-medicine. Finally, there are large fows of migrants to fll labour and skill shortages in developed countries of the region such as Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand. It is in this context that this chapter reviews some of the initiatives from key international agencies such as the International Labour Organisation (ILO), World Health Organisation (WHO), and the United Nations (UN) in order to provide an overview of the policy challenges and potential policy approaches to addressing an ageing population.
Keywords Health systems · Human rights · International Labour Organisation · Labour standards · Retirement incomes · United Nations · World Health Organisation
R. Larkin (*)
Newcastle Business School, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia
