Life Cycle of Sustainable Packaging
From Design to End of Life
Rafael A. Auras
Michigan State University, MI, USA and Susan E. M. Selke
Michigan State University, MI, USA
© 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Auras, Rafael Antonio, author. | Selke, Susan E. M., author.
Title: Life cycle of sustainable packaging : from design to end of life / Rafael A. Auras, Susan E.M. Selke.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022012690 (print) | LCCN 2022012691 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119878100 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119878117 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119878124 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Packaging--Environmental aspects. | Packaging waste--Environmental aspects. | Packaging--Design.
Classification: LCC TD195.P26 A97 2023 (print) | LCC TD195.P26 (ebook) | DDC 688.8--dc23/eng/20220812
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012690
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012691
Cover image: Courtesy of Rafael A. Auras
Cover design by Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
To our families
Contents
List of Abbreviations xvii
Preface xxii
About the Companion Website xxv
1 The Role of Packaging in Sustainable Development 1
1.1 Learning Objectives 1
1.2 Introduction 1
1.3 Packaging and Sustainable Development 1
1.4 Sustainability 5
1.5 Sustainability Timeline 7
1.6 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) 11
1.7 Sustainability Indicators (SIs) 21
1.8 Life Cycle Thinking 23
1.9 Circular Economy 25
1.10 Packaging for Sustainable Development 26
1.11 Sustainable Packaging Organizations around the World and Their Criteria 28
1.12 Tools to Evaluate Sustainable Packaging 29
1.13 Case Study 1.1. The Living Planet Index (LPI) 30
1.14 Case Study 1.2. Doughnut Economics 31
1.15 Study Questions 32
1.16 Additional Resources 33 References 34
2 Design Thinking: The Packaging Design Process 37 Euihark Lee
2.1 Learning Objectives 37
2.2 Introduction 37
2.2.1 Creativity vs. Innovation 37
2.2.2 Design of Packaging for Sustainability 39
2.3 The Design Thinking Process 40
2.3.1 What Is Design Thinking? 40
2.3.2 The Five Stages of Design Thinking 41
2.4 Tools for Thinking about Innovation 42
2.4.1 Empathy Mapping 42
2.4.2 Mind Map 43
2.4.3 Brainstorming 44
2.5 Packaging Design Process 44
2.5.1 Applying the Design Process to the Packaging System 44
2.5.2 Material Selection 45
2.5.3 Determining Packaging Features 46
2.5.4 Design Shape 47
2.5.5 Color and Packaging 49
2.5.6 Graphics in Packaging 50
2.5.7 Packaging Design Tools 52
2.6 Case Study 2.1. Heinz Single-serve Ketchup Dip and Squeeze 54
2.7 Case Study 2.2. Design for Recyclability 57
2.8 Study Questions 59
2.9 Additional Resources 59 References 59
3 Packaging in the Upstream and Downstream Supply Chains 63
3.1 Learning Objectives 63
3.2 Introduction 63
3.3 Resource Use 64
3.4 Packaging Materials 64
3.4.1 Metal 65
3.4.2 Glass 67
3.4.3 Wood 69
3.4.4 Paper and Paperboard 70
3.4.5 Plastics 71
3.5 Energy 74
3.5.1 Nonrenewables 75
3.5.1.1 Petroleum 76
3.5.1.2 Coal 77
3.5.1.3 Natural Gas 77
3.5.1.4 Nuclear 78
3.5.2 Renewables 78
3.5.2.1 Biomass 78
3.5.2.2 Hydropower 79
3.5.2.3 Wind 79
3.5.2.4 Solar Energy 79
3.5.2.5 Geothermal Energy 79
3.6 Components of the Packaging System 80
3.6.1 Primary Packaging 80
3.6.2 Secondary Packaging 80
3.6.3 Tertiary or Distribution Packaging 80
3.7 Parameters for Quantifying the Environmental Footprint (EFP) of Packaging Systems 81
3.8 Case Study 3.1. Cube Efficiency Estimation Using CAPE® 82
3.9 Study Questions 83
3.10 Additional Resources 85 References 85
4 Pollution and Risk Management 87
4.1 Learning Objectives 87
4.2 Introduction 87
4.3 Pollution Science 88
4.4 Risk Assessment and Management 89
4.4.1 Exposure Assessment 91
4.4.2 Hazard Identification 93
4.4.3 Dose–Response Assessment 94
4.4.4 Risk Characterization 97
4.4.4.1 Carcinogenic Risks 97
4.4.4.2 Noncarcinogenic Risks 99
4.5 Ecological Risk Assessment 100
4.6 Microbial Risk Assessment 101
4.7 Case Study 4.1. Estimation of the Health Risk of Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) 101
4.8 Study Questions 102
4.9 Additional Resources 102 References 102
5 Soil Pollution 105
5.1 Learning Objectives 105
5.2 Introduction 105
5.3 Surface Mining 105
5.4 Deforestation 106
5.5 Soil Acidity and Salinity 107
5.6 Soil Erosion 108
5.7 Agricultural Activities 108
5.8 Animal Waste 111
5.9 Industrial Waste 112
5.10 Invasive Species 113
5.11 Case Study 5.1. Kudzu as Invasive Species in the Southern US 113
5.12 Study Questions 114
5.13 Additional Resources 114 References 114
6 Water Pollution 117
6.1 Learning Objectives 117
6.2 Introduction 117
6.3 Groundwater 119
6.3.1 Point-Source Contamination 121
6.3.1.1 Hazardous Organic Chemicals 125
6.3.1.2 Landfill 125
6.3.2 Diffuse Source Contamination 126
6.3.2.1 Agrochemical Contamination 126
6.3.2.2 Saltwater Intrusion 127
6.3.2.3 Microbial Contamination 128
6.3.2.4 Gasoline Additives 129
Contents x
6.3.2.5 Perchlorate 129
6.3.2.6 Arsenic 130
6.3.2.7 Acid-Mine Drainage 130
6.4 Surface Water 130
6.4.1 Marine Water Resources 130
6.4.2 Sources of Water Pollution 131
6.4.3 Sediments as Surface Water Contaminants 131
6.4.4 Metals as Surface Water Contaminants 132
6.4.4.1 Mercury 132
6.4.4.2 Arsenic 132
6.4.4.3 Chromium 132
6.4.4.4 Selenium 133
6.4.5 Nutrients and Eutrophication of Surface Waters 133
6.4.6 Organic Compounds in Water 134
6.4.7 Enteric Pathogens as Surface Water Contaminants 134
6.5 Groundwater and Surface Water Legislation 135
6.5.1 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) 136
6.6 Case Study 6.1. Pine River Contamination Site 136
6.7 Case Study 6.2. The Flint Water Crisis 145
6.8 Study Questions 145
6.9 Additional Resources 146 References 146
7 Air Pollution 149
7.1 Learning Objectives 149
7.2 Introduction 149
7.3 Primary Air Pollutants 151
7.3.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 151
7.3.2 Hydrocarbons (HCs) 152
7.3.3 Particulate Matter (PM) 152
7.3.4 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 153
7.3.5 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 154
7.3.6 Lead (Pb) 154
7.4 Secondary Pollutants 156
7.5 Clean Air Act 158
7.6 Case Study 7.1. Air Quality in Delhi, India, in Winter 161
7.7 Case Study 7.2. Air Quality in the US in Summer 163
7.8 Study Questions 163
7.9 Additional Resources 164 References 164
8 Global Climate Change 167
8.1 Learning Objectives 167
8.2 Introduction 167
8.3 Greenhouse Gases 169
8.4 Impacts on Global Climate 173
8.5 Climate Change Agreements 174
8.6 Case Study 8.1. History of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 175
8.7 Study Questions 176
8.8 Additional Resources 176 References 177
9 Life Cycle Assessment 179
9.1 Learning Objectives 179
9.2 Introduction 179
9.3 Provisions of LCA Study 181
9.4 Different Approaches to Conduct LCI Studies 183
9.5 Steps of an LCA Study 184
9.5.1 Goal and Scope Definition of an LCA 185
9.5.2 Function, Functional Unit, and Reference Flow 188
9.5.3 Life Cycle Inventory Modeling Framework 190
9.5.3.1 Flows and Multifunctionality 190
9.5.3.2 Completeness/Cut-off and Loops 199
9.5.3.3 Provisions for LCI according to Situations A, B, and C of LCA 200
9.5.4 Impact Assessment 200
9.5.5 Interpretation 203
9.5.5.1 Evaluation of the Results 203
9.5.5.2 Analysis of the Results 203
9.5.5.3 Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations 207
9.6 LCA Software 207
9.7 Case Study 9.1. LCA Study of Beverage Packaging Systems 207
9.8 Study Questions 213
9.9 Additional Resources 214 References 214
10 Municipal Solid Waste 217
10.1 Learning Objectives 217
10.2 Introduction 217
10.3 World Picture of Municipal Solid Waste 218
10.4 Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) 218
10.5 Municipal Solid Waste in the US 223
10.6 Municipal Solid Waste in Different US States 225
10.7 Municipal Solid Waste Management Approaches 227
10.8 Case Study 10.1 – Environmental Footprint of PET Bottles Managed According to the US EPA Waste Management Hierarchy 229
10.9 Study Questions 230
10.10 Additional Resources 230 References 231
11 Reduction 233
11.1 Learning Objectives 233
11.2 Introduction 233
11.3 Reduction 234
11.4 Reduction in Packaging 234
11.4.1 Glass 235
11.4.2 Metal 235
11.4.3 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 236
11.4.4 Plastic 237
11.5 Case Study 11.1. Bacon Packaging 239
11.6 Study Questions 244
11.7 Additional Resources 244 References 245
12 Reuse 247
12.1 Learning Objectives 247
12.2 Introduction 247
12.3 Reuse 248
12.4 Reuse in Packaging 250
12.4.1 Metal 252
12.4.2 Glass 253
12.4.3 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 254
12.4.4 Plastic 254
12.5 Case Study 12.1. Reusable Cups 256
12.6 Case Study 12.2. Reusable Plastic Containers (RPC) 257
12.7 Study Questions 259
12.8 Additional Resources 259 References 260
13 Recycling 263
13.1 Learning Objectives 263
13.2 Introduction 263
13.3 Requirements for Successful Recycling 265
13.3.1 Consumer Engagement 265
13.3.1.1 Motivation 265
13.3.1.2 Convenience 267
13.3.1.3 Education/Publicity 268
13.3.2 Collection 269
13.3.2.1 Curbside Collection 270
13.3.2.2 Multidwelling Collection 270
13.3.2.3 Drop-off Sites 271
13.3.2.4 Deposit Systems 271
13.3.3 Sortation 277
13.3.4 Reprocessing 279
13.3.5 End Markets 279
13.4 Recycling of Packaging Materials 280
13.4.1 Closed- and Open-Loop Recycling 281
13.5 Metal Recycling 285
13.5.1 Steel Recycling 286
13.5.2 Aluminum Recycling 288
13.6 Glass Recycling 291
13.7 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board Recycling 294
13.8 Plastics Recycling 299
13.9 Labeling 306
13.10 Case Study 13.1. Environmental Footprint of Recycling Polymeric Resins 307
13.11 Case Study 13.2. End-of-Life Scenario of PLA, PET, and PS Clamshells 307
13.12 Study Questions 310
13.13 Additional Resources 311 References 312
14 Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation 317
14.1 Learning Objectives 317
14.2 Introduction 317
14.3 Aerobic Biodegradation 319
14.3.1 Composting 320
14.3.1.1 Home/Backyard Composting 320
14.3.1.2 Industrial Composting 320
14.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Backyard and Industrial Composting Operations 322
14.3.2 Agricultural Soils 324
14.3.3 Other Mostly Aerobic Degradation Environments 325
14.3.3.1 Soil Biodegradation 325
14.3.3.2 Aquatic Biodegradation 326
14.3.4 Measuring Aerobic Biodegradation 326
14.3.5 Standards and Certifications for Aerobic Biodegradable Materials 327
14.3.6 Bio-based Carbon Content 332
14.4 Anaerobic Biodegradation 332
14.4.1 Standards and Certifications for Anaerobic Biodegradable Materials 335
14.5 Main Factors Affecting Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation 335
14.6 Biodegradation of Packaging Materials 337
14.7 Paper Biodegradation 338
14.8 Polymer Biodegradation 341
14.9 Case Study 14.1. Biodegradation of Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) –PBAT – Films in Yard, Food, and Manure Compost 345
14.10 Case Study 14.2. Anaerobic Degradation of PLA Films 346
14.11 Study Questions 348
14.12 Additional Resources 350
References 350
15 Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste with Energy Recovery 357
15.1 Learning Objectives 357
15.2 Introduction 357
15.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration 360
15.4 Types of Waste Combustion Units 361
15.5 Municipal Solid Waste Combustion Plants 362
15.6 Refuse Derived Fuel 364
15.7 Energy Recovery from Burning MSW 365
15.8 Incineration of Metals 369
15.9 Incineration of Glass 369
15.10 Incineration of Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 371
15.11 Incineration of Plastics 371
15.12 Case Study 15.1. Burning of Poly(vinyl chloride) – PVC 374
15.13 Case Study 15.2. Comparison of Emissions from Waste-to-Energy Facilities with Those from Fossil Fuels and Their Greenhouse Gas Emissions 374
15.14 Study Questions 376
15.15 Additional Resources 377
References 377
16 Landfill 381
16.1 Learning Objectives 381
16.2 Introduction 381
16.3 Definition of Terms 385
16.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disposing Municipal Solid Waste in Landfills 386
16.5 Classification of Landfills 386
16.5.1 Landfills Regulated under RCRA – Subtitle D 386
16.5.1.1 Municipal Solid Waste Landfill 387
16.5.1.2 Industrial Waste Landfill (IWLF) 387
16.5.2 Landfills Regulated under RCRA – Subtitle C 388
16.5.2.1 Hazardous Waste Landfills 388
16.5.3 Landfills Regulated under the Toxic Substances Control Act 388
16.6 Location, Building, Operation, Closure, and Financial Assurance of Landfills 389
16.7 Emissions from Landfills 391
16.7.1 Air Emissions 392
16.7.2 Leachate 395
16.8 Energy Recovery from Landfills 397
16.9 Landfilling of Municipal Solid Waste 397
16.10 Landfilling of Metals 400
16.11 Landfilling of Glass 402
16.12 Landfilling of Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 404
16.13 Landfilling of Plastics 404
16.14 Case Study 16.1. Landfilling of Yard Trimmings 406
16.15 Case Study 16.2. Evaluation of Biodegradation of Polyethylene and Poly(ethylene terephthalate) in Simulated Landfill Environments 407
16.16 Study Questions 408
16.17 Additional Resources 409
References 410
17 Litter and Marine Pollution 413
17.1 Learning Objectives 413
17.2 Introduction 413
17.3 Litter in the US and around the World 414
17.4 Marine Litter 416
17.4.1 Shoreline and Beach Litter 417
17.4.2 Oceans and Gyres 417
17.4.3 Litter in Other Bodies of Water 419
17.4.4 Cleanup and Prevention 419
17.4.5 Sources of Ocean Plastics 420
17.5 Litter and Wildlife 420
17.6 Microplastics 421
17.7 Biodegradability and Litter 422
17.8 Case Study 17.1. Emission of Plastic from Rivers to the World’s Oceans 422
17.9 Case Study 17.2. Presence of Microplastics in Drinking Water and Food 423
17.10 Study Questions 426
17.11 Additional Resources 426
References 426
18 Keeping in Perspective 429
18.1 Learning Objectives 429
18.2 Introduction 429
18.3 Environmental Footprint of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Packaging Systems 430
18.4 Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package System 431
18.5 The Role of Packaging in Waste Creation 433
18.6 Impact of Transportation on the Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package 434
18.7 Impact of Consumer Behavior on Waste Creation and the Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package System 435
18.8 Impact of End-of-life Scenarios on the Environmental Footprint of Packaging Systems 436
18.9 Case Study 18.1. Environmental Footprint of Milk Package Containers in the US 439
18.10 Case Study 18.2. The Perceived and Actual Environmental Footprint of Glass, Plastic, and Aluminum Beverage Packaging 439
18.11 Study Questions 443
18.12 Additional Resources 444
References 444
Index 447
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation Definition
AAGI Annual Greenhouse Gas Index
AD Average Dose
AFO Animal Feeding Operation
AFPR Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers
ALCA Attributional Life Cycle Assessment
APC Air Pollution Control
APR Association of Packaging Recycling
AQI Air Quality Index
ASTM ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
BACT Best Available Control Technology
BF Bioreactor Landfill
BMP Best Management Practices
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
BOF Basic Oxygen Furnace
BOPP Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene
BPI Biodegradable Products Institute
CAA Clean Air Act
CAFO Concentrated Animal Feedlot Operation
CAGR Compound Average Growth Rate
CBW Corrugated Board Basis Weight
CDC Centers for Disease Control
CE Circular Economy
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CISWI Commercial and/or Industrial Solid Waste Incineration
CLCA Consequential Life Cycle Assessment
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CWA Clean Water Act
DALY Disability-Adjusted Life Years
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEQ Department of Environmental Quality
DRC Display Ready Corrugated
EDF Environment Defense Fund
EF Ecological Footprint
EFP Environmental Footprint
EG Emission Guidelines
EGLE Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy
EKC Environmental Kuznets Curve
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPCA Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority
EPD Environmental Product Declaration
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
EUROPEN The European Organization for Packaging and the Environment
EVOH Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol
FA Fly Ash
FCM Food Contact Material
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FFDCA Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FLW Food Loss and Waste
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
FWG Food Waste Generation
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse Gas Emissions
GMA Grocery Manufacturers Association
HAP Hazardous Air Pollutant
HC Hydrocarbon
HDPE High-Density Polyethylene
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
HMIWI Hospital/Medical/Infectious Waste Incineration
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISBM Injection Stretch Blow Molding
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IWLF Industrial Waste Landfill
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCI Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment
LCM Life Cycle Management
LCRS Leachate Collection and Removal System
LCT Life Cycle Thinking
LCV Lower Calorific Value
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
LF Landfill
LFG Landfill Gas
LLDPE Linear Low Density Polyethylene
LMOP Landfill Methane Outreach Program
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MCL Maximum Contaminant Level
MCLG Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
MRDL Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level
MRDLG Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal
MRF Material Recovery Facility
MSU Michigan State University
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MSWI Municipal Solid Waste Incineration
MSWLF Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
MWI Manufacturing Waste Incinerators
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAPCOR National Association for PET Container Resources
NDIR Nondispersive Infrared Spectroscopy
NFP Nutrition Facts Panel
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
NIAS Nonintentionally Added Substances
NIMBY Not in My Backyard
NMOC Nonmethane Organic Compounds
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
List of Abbreviations xx
NOL No Objection Letter
NPDES National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
OCC Old Corrugated Containers
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OLR Open-Loop Recycling
ONP Old Newspaper
OPP Oriented polypropylene
OSWI Other Solid Waste Incineration
PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
PBAT Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
PBB Polybrominated Biphenyls
PBT Persistent, Bio-accumulative, and Toxic
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PCL Polycaprolactone
PCR Post Consumer Recyclate
PDO 1,3-Propanediol
PE Poly(ethylene)
PERC Tetrachloroethene
PET Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
PETG Glycol-modified PET
PFAS Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
PHA
PHB
PHO
Poly(hydroxyalkanoate)
Poly(hydroxybutyrate)
Poly(hydroxyoctanoate)
PKG Packaging
PLA Poly(lactic acid)
PM Particulate Matter
PP Poly(propylene)
PRF Plastic Recycling Facility
PS Poly(styrene)
PTMAT Poly(tetramethylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
PVC Poly(vinyl chloride)
PVDC Poly(vinylidene chloride)
PVOH Poly(vinyl alcohol)
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
List of Abbreviations
RPC Reusable Plastic Containers
RPP Reusable Plastic Pallets
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SI Sustainability Indicators
SoP School of Packaging
SPA Sustainable Packaging Alliance
SPC Sustainable Packaging Coalition
SPI Society of the Plastics Industry
SRI Steel Recycling Institute
TCE Trichloroethylene
TFI The Fertilizer Institute
TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load
TPS Thermoplastic Starch
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
UFP Ultrafine Particle
UN United Nations
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USCC US Composting Council
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USP US Pharmacopeia
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WHO Word Health Organization
WRAP Waste & Resource Action Programme
WtE Waste to Energy
Preface
Packaging has become an essential instrument for sustainable development since it can guarantee protection, distribution, and safe consumption of food, medicine, and general goods. Civilization’s history and development are highly intertwined with the materials used to produce packages and their construction, transportation, and commerce. From the clay amphoras used to deliver olive oil and wine across the Mediterranean during Roman and Egyptian times, to the local delivery of food in modern societies, to the freight transportation of goods from China to the USA, to the delivery of goods to the current space mission, and the future Mars exploration program, packaging has played a fundamental role in making all these enterprises possible.
Yet, the other side of packaging that has become an issue for modern society as population numbers expand is its disposal and the contamination of the environment by single-use packaging, mainly due to the lack of formal collection and waste management systems in low-income economies worldwide. As societies have become more dependent on packaging systems to guarantee their well-being and development, our relationship with packaging has become more complex, requiring a deep and all-inclusive understanding of the benefits and responsibility of implementing packaging systems.
On the journey of creating, teaching, and researching packaging systems, the soul of this book was born through a long relationship by the authors with packaging systems and their challenges and opportunities for creating packaging for sustainable development. Although it took a long time to complete this first edition, several different pieces of the work presented here are an evolution of material previously developed for several audiences in conferences and publications. In this journey, we learned that creating packaging systems for sustainable development requires a transdisciplinary approach, extensive and meaningful collaborations, and an examination of the entire life cycle of the packaging materials, processing, and end of life so that the future packaging systems can be conceived. So, to reflect on this journey and facilitate learning, we decided to organize this book so that students and teachers can learn and develop future packaging systems considering the holistic benefits and impacts they produce for society.
We start the book by providing a general framework of sustainability and circular economy related to packaging – Chapter 1. This chapter provides an available description of sustainability and the evolution of this concept, and implications for packaging. We introduce the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) and how to create sustainable indicators for the evaluation of systems in general and in packaging. As any new packaging begins with an idea and a desire to solve a need, we continue with an invited chapter about design thinking and how to use this methodology in packaging – Chapter 2. This chapter also provides a general discussion of the tools used to create packaging systems. Since not all the readers will have training on the primary
packaging materials and the types of energy required to produce them, Chapter 3 provides a general overview of packaging materials, processing, and the energy used to make them as well as a general description of the main components of packaging systems.
In this book, we gave much attention to the concept of life cycle assessment (LCA) as the primary tool to evaluate the environmental footprint (EFP) of packaging systems; therefore, we spend several chapters building the necessary background knowledge about pollution and how to create EFP indicators. Chapter 4 defines the main criteria of pollution created by natural and anthropogenic factors and explains risk assessment and management. Chapter 5 further explores the main reasons and culprits causing soil pollution. Chapter 6 introduces the concepts of groundwater and surface water pollution. It describes the main vectors responsible for water pollution and dives into the primary US legislation regulating it. Chapter 7 discusses air pollution and examines the primary or criteria air pollutants responsible for modern air pollution. In this chapter, we also introduce the main framework of the Clean Air Act. Although most of the chapters in this section are US centered due to the regulatory bodies for soil, water, and air pollution, they apply to almost any region worldwide with some considerations. We close the section on pollution with Chapter 8 –global climate change that has become one of modern society’s most significant and most concerning issues. This chapter elaborates on the primary sources of greenhouse gases and their impact on global climate. We also provide a discussion of the leading climate change agreements. After the background for dealing with pollution and creating EFP indicators are presented, we concentrate in Chapter 9 on providing a general review of LCA and the main steps to conduct a streamlined LCA when considering cradle to gate, grave, or cradle boundary conditions. This chapter also provides a general discussion of the main steps to complete an LCA according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards.
Chapter 10 introduces the concept of municipal solid waste (MSW) and the leading waste management systems for MSW – reduction, reuse, recycling, incineration with energy recovery, and residuals management. Chapter 11 expands on the reduction method of MSW and combines streamlined LCA to quantify the EFP of the reduction strategies, further focusing on the primary packaging materials (i.e., glass, metal, paper, and plastic). Chapter 12 focuses on reusing and the main scenarios and systems where reusing is beneficial, discussing how to improve them. Chapter 13 deals with recycling from the consumer, collection, and separation perspectives. Chapter 13 also includes issues about the economy and the main systems to recycle packaging materials. Chapter 14, although also considered a recycling method, deals with aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation of packaging and explores the requirements to certify a package as compostable and derived from bio-based resources. Incineration with energy recovery is an essential and growing method to deal with MSW, more in other countries than in the US, and it is discussed in Chapter 15. This chapter also discusses the main types of waste combusting units. Finally, we finish this section with Chapter 16 discussing sanitary landfills and the methods to control and deal with the pollution created by these units. The principal regulations for building and operating landfills according to the US framework are discussed.
Although not a waste management system but an important consideration when discussing packaging and its impact on current society, Chapter 17 introduces the impact of littering in the terrestrial and marine environments. It provides some relevant data mainly on the effect of littering plastics on the environment and the impact of global climate change on increasing littering in the environment. We finalize the book with Chapter 18, which we called “keeping in perspective,” where we evaluate the entire supply chain and the impact of packaging systems on the whole EFP of packaging systems and their products. We also introduce some notions of the impact between consumer perceptions and the creation of packaging for sustainable development.
As a reader, learner, or instructor of or for this book, please, feel free to combine, remove, and mix and match the chapters as they fit you and your learners since the book was written principally keeping in mind students with packaging, material science, and supply chain backgrounds. But it should be easily implemented for an array of learners with different experiences by complementing or reducing the material covered in selected chapters. We provided case studies for each chapter to help illustrate the main concepts. Still, since pollution as well as packaging are transdisciplinary sciences, the presentation of each case study can be seen and expanded using different perspectives, and we encourage that. We hope that you enjoy your time spent with this book, and please provide any feedback on how to improve it.
We want to express our gratitude to our students, who allowed us to develop and try out this material through the years. Our colleagues helped us discuss and kept us accurate to be accountable about general claims and rigorous about the calculations. Special thanks to our editorial team at Wiley for helping bring this book to life, and not least to our personal and extended packaging families that are part of this exciting journey to create a better future for society through the packaging lens. Although any book edition is imperfect, we reviewed the content several times; however, there are always fairies and goblins playing with our writing and editing process, introducing typos and mistakes, mixing with our best intentions. So, any typos and mistakes are the responsibility of the authors and the authors only.
Rafael A. Auras and Susan E. M. Selke
February 2022 East Lansing, MI, USA
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Auras/lifecycleofsustainablepackaging
This website includes Solution Manual and Teacher Materials
