X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences
Principles, Instrumentation, and Applications
Edited by
Vivek Kumar Singh
University of Lucknow
Lucknow, India
Jun Kawai
Kyoto University Kyoto, Japan
Durgesh Kumar Tripathi
Amity University
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Contents
List of Contributors xxiii
Preface xxxi
Par t I General Introduction 1
1 X-Ray Fluorescence and Comparison with Other Analytical Methods (AAS, ICP-AES, LA-ICP-MS, IC, LIBS, SEM-EDS, and XRD) 3
Kanishka Rawat, Neha Sharma, and Vivek Kumar Singh
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Analytical Capabilities of XRF and Micro-XRF 4
1.2.1 Micro-XRF 4
1.3 Comparison with Other Analytical Methods 4
1.3.1 Overview 4
1.3.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Analysis 5
1.3.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) 5
1.3.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) 10
1.3.4 Ion Chromatography (IC) 11
1.3.5 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) 12
1.3.6 Proton-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) 13
1.3.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X–Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) 14
1.3.7.1 Differences in XRF and SEM-EDS (Sample Handling, Experimental Conditions, Sample Stress, and Excitation Sources) 14
1.3.7.2 Combination of SEM-EDS and μ-XRF 16
1.4 Comparison of XRF and XRD 17
1.5 Comparison of XRF and Raman Spectroscopy 18
1.6 Conclusion and Prospects 19
References 19
2 X-Ray Fluorescence for Multi-elemental Analysis of Vegetation Samples 21
Eva Marguí and Ignasi Queralt
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Features and Analytical Capabilities of XRF Configurations used in Vegetation Sample Analysis 22
2.3 General Sample Treatment Procedures used for Vegetation Sample Analysis using XRF Techniques 26
2.4 Applications of XRF in the Field of Vegetation Samples Analysis 29
2.4.1 Environmental Studies 29
2.4.2 Nutritional and Agronomic Studies 31
2.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 32 References 33
3 X-Ray Fluorescence Studies of Tea and Coffee 37 Аnatoly G. Revenko and Darya S. Sharykina
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 The Equipment Used 39
3.3 Preparation of Samples for Analysis 39
3.4 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Tea Research 40
3.5 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Coffee Research 46
3.6 Determination of the Elemental Composition of Krasnodar Tea Samples by TXRF and WDXRF 50
3.6.1 Instrumentation 51
3.6.2 Suspension Preparation 51
3.6.3 Infusion Preparation 51
3.6.4 Acid Digestion 51
3.6.5 Preparation of Samples for WDXRF 52
3.6.6 Results and Discussion 52
3.7 Interelement Effects and Procedures of their Accounting 52
3.8 Conclusion 55 References 55
4 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence and it’s Suitability for Biological Samples 61 N.L. Mishra and Sangita Dhara
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Advantages and Limitations of conventional XRF for Elemental Determinations in Biological Systems 62
4.3 Factors Limiting the Application of XRF for Biological Sample Analysis 63
4.4 Modifying XRF to Make it Suitable for Elemental Determinations at Trace Levels: Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Spectrometry 63
4.4.1 Principles of TXRF 64
4.4.2 Theoretical Considerations 64
4.4.3 TXRF Instrumentation for Trace Element Determination 68
4.4.4 Sample Preparation for TXRF Analysis 68
4.5 Suitability of TXRF for Elemental Analysis in Biological Samples 70 References 72
5 Micro X-Ray Fluorescence and X-Ray Absorption near Edge Structure Analysis of Heavy Metals in Micro-organism 73
Changling Lao, Liqiang Luo, Yating Shen, and Shuai Zhu
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on Microbial Growth 73
5.3 Application of μ-XRF and XAS in Understanding the Cycling of Elements Driven by Micro-organism 74
5.4 Application of μ-XRF and XAS in Understanding the Transformation of Elements Driven by Micro-organisms 75
5.5 Application of μ-XRF and XAS in Understanding the Mechanism of Using Micro-organisms in Bioremediation 76
5.6 The Advantage of Using μ-XRF and XAS to Explore the Interaction Mechanism Between Micro-organisms and Heavy Metals 77
Acknowledgment 78
References 78
6 Use of Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence for Clinical Diagnosis 81 Yeasmin Nahar Jolly
6.1 Introduction 81
6.2 Determination of Arsenic Concentration in Human Scalp Hair for the Diagnosis of Arsenicosis Disease 82
6.2.1 Background 82
6.2.2 Role of EDXRF 82
6.2.3 Collection and Preparation of Hair Sample 82
6.2.4 Sample Preparation 83
6.2.5 Sample Analysis 83
6.2.6 Accuracy and Precision of the Method 84
6.2.6.1 Construction of Calibration Curve 84
6.2.6.2 Measured Condition 84
6.3 Determination of Lead Concentrations in Human Whole Blood Using EDXRF Technique with Special Emphasis on Evaluating Association of Blood Lead Levels with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 85
6.3.1 Background 85
6.3.2 Role of EDXRF in Diagnosis of Blood Lead Level 86
6.3.3 Collection of Blood Sample and Preparation 87
6.3.4 Preparation of Pellets from Powdered Sample 87
6.3.5 Sample Irradiation 87
6.3.6 Precision and Accuracy of the Result 88
6.4 Conclusion 88 References 89
7 Preparation of Sample for X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 91 Nuray Kup Aylikci, Onder Oruc, Ersin Bahceci, Abdelhalim Kahoul, Tolga Depci, and Volkan Aylikci
7.1 Introduction 91
7.2 Solid Samples 92
7.2.1 Metallic Samples 93
7.3 Powder Samples 94
7.3.1 Grinding 95
7.3.2 Pelletizing 96
7.3.3 Fused Samples 97
7.4 Liquid Samples 98
7.5 Sample Preparation for Infinitely Thick and Intermediate Specimen 102
7.6 Sample Preparation of Animal Cells 105
7.7 Sample Preparation of Plant Section 106
7.8 Precautions During Sample Preparation and Handling 108
7.9 Conclusion and Future Directions 108 References 109 Par t II Synchrotron Radiation XRF 115
8 Elemental Analysis Using Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence 117 M. K. Tiwari
8.1 Importance of Trace and Ultra-Trace Elemental Analysis 117
8.2 Various Methods for Trace Element Analysis 118
8.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Method 118
8.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Method 119
8.2.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Method 119
8.2.4 Accelerator Ion Beam Techniques 120
8.2.5 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Method 120
8.2.6 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Method 121
8.3 Comparison of TXRF and EDXRF Geometries 122
8.4 Synchrotron Radiation 125
8.4.1 Selection of a Laboratory X-Ray Source for TXRF 126
8.5 Indus Synchrotron Radiation Facility 127
8.6 Microprobe X-Ray Fluorescence Beamline (BL-16) 128
8.6.1 Working Principles of a Double Crystal Monochromator (DCM) Optic 129
8.7 Experimental Facilities Available on the BL-16 132
8.7.1 Normal EDXRF Measurements 132
8.7.2 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Measurements 134
8.7.3 Elemental Quantification 137
8.7.4 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Nanostructures 139
8.7.5 Microfocus X-Ray Beam Mode 141
8.7.6 Micro-Fluorescence Mapping 142
8.7.7 Micro-XRF Mapping Analysis of Old Archeological Tile Samples 143
8.8 Discussion and Summary 146
References 148
9 Synchrotron Radiation Based Micro X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Plant Materials 151
Katarina Vogel-Mikuš, Paula Pongrac, Peter Kump, Alojz Kodre, and Iztok Arcon
9.1 Introduction 151
9.2 Instrumentation and Sample Preparation 152
9.3 Case Studies 154
9.3.1 Metal Tolerance Mechanisms in Hyperaccumulating Plants 154
9.3.2 Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants and Fungi 155
9.3.3 Distribution of Mineral Nutrients and Potentially Toxic Elements in Grain 156
9.3.4 Investigation of Interactions between Plants and Engineered Nanomaterials 158 Acknowledgements 159
References 159
10 Micro X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Toxic Elements in Plants 163
Jian Liu and Liqiang Luo
10.1 Introduction 163
10.2 Advantages of XRF Technique for Plants Analysis 163
10.3 Preparation of Plant Samples for μ-XRF Analysis 167
10.4 The Case Studies of Synchrotron μ-XRF for Determination of Toxic Elements in Plants 167
10.4.1 Applications in Edible Plants 168
10.4.2 Applications in Accumulating Plants 169
10.4.3 Applications in Hyperaccumulator Plants 169
10.4.4 The Case Studies of Laboratory μ-XRF to Determine Elements in Waterlogged Oenanthe javanica DC 170
10.5 Conclusion and Outlook 171
References 172
11 Micro X-Ray Fluorescence Studies of Earthworm (Benthonic Fauna) in Soils and Sediments 175
Jing Yuan and Liqiang Luo
11.1 Introduction 175
11.2 Sample Preparation Methods 176
11.3 Earthworms and Soil Ecosystem 176
11.3.1 Case 1-Bioaccumulation of Arsenic (As) in Earthworms 177
11.3.2 Case 2-Silver(Ag) Nanoparticles Localization in Earthworms 178
11.4 Overview 178
References 180
12 Synchronous Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Microelements in Biopsy Tissues 183
V.A . Trunova
12.1 Introduction 183
12.2 Samples Preparation 184
12.3 Materials and Methods 186
12.4 SRXRF Measurements 187
12.5 SRXRF Biopsy Material of Living Organisms 189
12.5.1 The Elemental Composition of Derivatives of Human Epithelial Tissues 189
12.5.2 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair and Nails 191
12.5.2.1 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair, and Nails 192
12.6 Study of Elemental Composition and Inter-Element Correlations in the Liver and Lungs of Animals with Food Obesity 193
12.7 Concluding Remarks 199
References 199 Par t III Total Reflection XRF 203
13 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of some Biological Samples 205 N.L. Mishra and Sangita Dhara
13.1 Introduction 205
13.2 Trace Element Determinations in Marine Organisms by TXRF 206
13.3 Trace Element Determination in Blood Samples by TXRF 208
13.4 Analysis of Saliva and Oral Fluids by TXRF 209
13.5 TXRF Analysis of Hair Samples for Detection of Metal Poisoning and Other Forensic Applications 211
13.6 Kidney Stone Analysis by TXRF 213
13.7 Elemental Analysis of Cancerous and Normal Tissues by TXRF 213
13.8 TXRF Studies on Blood and Heart Tissues as Biomarkers of Radiation Dose 214
13.9 Urine Analysis by TXRF 215
13.10 Nail Analysis by TXRF 216
13.11 Analysis of Human Eye Lens and Aqueous Humor of Cataract Patients 216
13.12 Future Prospects for TXRF Analysis of Biological Samples 217
References 217
14 Recent Developments in X-Ray Fluorescence for Characterization of Nano-Structured Materials 219
M.K. Tiwari
14.1 Principles of GIXRF Analysis 219
14.1.1 Methodology 220
14.1.2 Phenomenon of Reflection and Refraction inside a Thin Film Medium 220
14.1.3 Calculation of Electric Field Intensity and Fluorescence Intensity 223
14.2 A Few Case Studies 225
14.2.1 Characterization of Ti/Co Bilayer Structures 227
14.3 Various Computational Tools (CATGIXRF Paper) 229
14.4 Structural Analysis of some Complex Nano-Structures 229
14.4.1 Trilayer Thin Film Structure 229
14.4.2 Multilayer Thin Film Structure 231
14.4.3 Analysis of Nanoparticles 235
14.4.4 Determination of Size and Shape of the Nanoparticles 236
14.5 Characterization of Absorbed Impurities on Surfaces 238
14.5.1 Introduction to Float Glass 238
14.5.2 Problem of Tin Diffusion 240
14.5.3 Experimental Measurements 241
14.5.4 GIXRF Analysis 241
14.5.5 X-Ray Reflectivity (XRR) Measurements 243
14.6 Discussion and Summary 244
References 245
15 Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverages 249
Artem
S. Maltsev, Rafail A. Yusupov, and Sait A. Bakhteev
15.1 Introduction 249
15.2 Features of Sample Preparation 253
15.2.1 Direct Analysis 253
15.2.2 Acid Digestion 254
15.3 Thin Layer Criterion 255
15.4 Quantitative Analysis 256
15.5 Angular Scanning 258
15.6 Absorption Effects 259
15.7 Method of Standard Addition 261 Acknowledgements 261
References 262
16 Trace Elements Analysis of Blood Samples and Serum Using Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence 265
Tsenddavaa Amartaivan and Purev Zuzaan
16.1 Introduction 265
16.2 Experimental 266
16.3 Sample Preparation 266
16.4 Applications 267
16.5 Conclusions 267
References 268
Part IV Beginner’s Guide 271
17 Basics and Fundamentals of X-Rays 273
Navgeet Kaur, Anju Goyal, and Rakesh K. Sindhu
17.1 Introduction 273
17.2 Different X-Ray Excitation Sources 274
17.3 X-Ray Detectors 274
17.4 X-Ray Absorption and Scattering 275
17.5 Quantization and Detection Limits of X-Ray Fluorescence 275
17.6 Preventive Measures 276
References 276
18 General Principle, Procedures and Detectors of X-Ray Fluorescence 279
Rakesh K. Sindhu, Shantanu K. Yadav, Mansi Chitkara, Inderjeet S. Sandhu, Sandeep Arora, Inderjeet Verma, Evren Algın Yapar, and Vivek Kumar Singh
18.1 Introduction 279
18.2 Basic Principle of X-Ray Fluorescence 279
18.2.1 Production of X-Rays 279
18.2.2 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 280
18.3 Small Spot Instruments and Micro-XRF 280
18.3.1 EDXRF Spectrometers with 2D Optics 281
18.3.2 EDXRF Spectrometers with 3D Optics 281
18.4 Different X-Ray Optics Configurations for Elemental Imaging in 2D/3D Using μ-XRF 281
18.5 Conclusion 283
References 283
19 Quantitative Analysis in X-Ray Fluorescence System 287 Neslihan Ekinci, F.I. El-Agawany, and Esra Kavaz
19.1 Introduction 287
19.2 Components for the X-Ray Spectrometry 288
19.3 Analytical Methods in X-Ray Fluorescence 290
19.3.1 The Standard Addition and Dilution Methods 291
19.3.2 Thin Film Methods 291
19.3.3 Matrix-Dilution Methods 291
19.3.4 Calibration Standardization 291
19.3.5 Internal Standardization 292
19.3.6 Standardization with Scattered X-Rays 292
19.3.7 Experimental Correction 292
19.3.8 Mathematical Correction 292
19.4 Concluding Remarks 293
References 294
20 Electronics and Instrumentation for X-Ray Fluorescence 295
Marco Carminati and Carlo Fiorini
20.1 Introduction 295
20.2 X-Ray Sources 298
20.3 Solid-State Detectors 300
20.4 Silicon Drift Detector 302
20.5 Noise and Readout Electronics 304
20.6 Signal Processing 306
20.7 Combination with Other Techniques 306
20.8 Conclusions 307
References 307 Par t V Application to Biological Samples 309
21 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Biological Materials 311
Marijan Nečemer, Peter Kump, and Katarina Vogel-Mikuš
21.1 Introduction 311
21.2 Theoretical Basics of EDXRF 312
21.2.1 X-Ray Radiation 312
21.2.2 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 312
21.3 EDXRF Instrumentation 315
21.4 Quantification of EDXRF Spectra 317
21.5 Sampling and Sample Preparation 317
21.6 Case Studies 319
21.6.1 Elemental Profiling for Ionomic Studies 319
21.6.2 Food Authenticity Studies 320
Acknowledgements 322
References 323
22 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Milk and Dairy Products 327
Galina V. Pashkova and Artem S. Maltsev
22.1 Introduction 327
22.2 Conventional XRF 327
22.3 Total-reflection X-Ray Fluorescence 333 Acknowledgements 339
References 339
23 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Medicinal Plants 341 E.V.
Chuparina and
23.1 Introduction 341
А
.G. Revenko
23.2 Issues Highlighted in Publications 343
23.3 XRF Specifications Used in Analysis of Medicinal Plants and Medicines 345
23.4 Procedures of Plant Sample Preparation 348
23.5 Interelement Effects, Account Ways 349
23.6 WDXRF Analysis of Siberian Violets 352
23.7 Concluding Remarks 355 References 356
24 X-Ray Fluorescence Studies of Animal and Human Cell Biology 363 Neera Yadav, Shilpa Chakrabarti, and Vivek Kumar Singh
24.1 Introduction 363
24.2 Applications of XRF in Cell Biology 364
24.2.1 Measurement of Trace Elements, Contaminants and Toxins 365
24.2.2 Cellular Imaging and Measurement of Biomolecules 366
24.3 Conclusion 368
References 368
25 Toxic and Essential Elemental Studies of Human Organs Using X-Ray Fluorescence 371 Kamya Goyal, Navgeet Kaur, Anju Goyal, Rakesh K. Sindhu, and Rajwinder Kaur
25.1 Introduction 371
25.2 Intracellular Trace Elements 374
25.2.1 Lead 374
25.2.2 Cadmium 374
25.2.3 Mercury 375
25.2.4 Iron 375
25.2.5 Iodine 375
25.2.6 Platinum 376
25.2.7 Gold 376
25.2.8 Zinc 376
25.2.9 Arsenic 376
25.3 Major Elements 376
25.3.1 Calcium 377
25.3.2 Potassium 377
25.3.3 Sodium 378
25.3.4 Magnesium 378
25.3.5 Sulfur 378
25.4 Biological Molecules 379
25.5 Non-Alcoholic and Alcoholic Beverages (Water, Tea, Must, Coffee and Wine) 380
25.6 Vegetable and Aromatic Oils 382
25.7 Conclusion 382
References 383
26 X-Ray Fluorescence for Rapid Detection of Uranium in Blood Extracted from Wounds 387 Hiroshi Yoshii and Yukie Izumoto
26.1 Introduction 387
26.2 Physical Properties of Uranium 387
26.3 Health Effects of Uranium Uptake 388
26.4 Current Uranium Contamination Inspection Methods 389
26.5 Usefulness of XRF Analysis in Uranium Determination 390
26.6 Examination of Blood Collection Materials 391
26.7 XRF Analysis of Simulated Uranium- Contaminated Blood Collection Samples 392
26.7.1 Sample Preparation 392
26.7.2 XRF Device and Measurement Conditions 393
26.7.3 Results of the XRF Measurements 394
26.7.4 Peak Fitting 397
26.7.5 Calibration Curve and Detection Limit 398
26.8 Summary 401 References 401
27 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Human Hair 405 Damdinsuren Bolortuya and Purev Zuzaan
27.1 Introduction 405
27.2 Human Hair 406
27.3 Methods and Materials 407
27.3.1 Sample Preparation 407
27.3.1.1 Sampling 407
27.3.1.2 Washing 408
27.3.1.3 Drying 408
27.3.1.4 Grinding 409
27.3.1.5 Pelletizing and Special Preparations 409
27.3.1.6 Extraction/Dissolution 410
27.4 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 410
27.4.1 EDXRF 411
27.4.2 TXRF 411
27.4.3 WDXRF 412
27.5 Correlation of Trace Elements in Hair 412
27.6 Conclusion 413
References 413
28 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry to Study Gallstones, Kidney Stones, Hair, Nails, Bones, Teeth and Cancerous Tissues 419
Vivek Kumar Singh, M. Sudarshan, Neha Sharma, Brijbir S. Jaswal, and Onkar N. Verma
28.1 Introduction to Trace Mineral Elements in Biomedical Samples 419
28.2 Applications of XRF for Biological Specimens 420
28.2.1 XRF Applications to Calcified Tissues (Teeth and Bones) 420
28.2.2 XRF Applications for Rapid Analysis of Metallic Restorations 422
28.2.3 XRF Applications for Gallbladder and Kidney Stones Formed in Human Body 423
28.2.4 XRF Applications to Blood Samples for Trace Detection 428
28.2.5 XRF Applications to Healthy and Cancerous Tissue Samples 429
28.2.6 XRF Applications to Soft Tissues and Pathological Specimens (Urine, Hair, and Nails) 431
28.2.7 SRXRF Application to Biological Samples 434
28.3 Concluding Remarks 435
Acknowledgement 436 References 436
29 Sampling and Sample Preparation for Chemical Analysis of Plants by Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence 443 Mónica
Orduña Cordero and Mª Fernanda Gazulla Barreda
29.1 Introduction 443
29.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation 445
29.2.1 Sampling 445
29.2.2 Preparation of Plant Samples for Analysis 447
29.3 Method of Analysis: Wavelength Dispersion X-Ray Fluorescence (WDXRF) Spectrometry 448
29.3.1 Sample Preparation for WDXRF Measurement 449
29.3.1.1 Matrix Effects 449
29.3.1.2 Mineralogical Structure and Bonding Effects 449
29.3.1.3 Particle Size 450
29.3.1.4 Preparation of Pellets 451
29.3.1.5 Preparation of Fused Beads 451
29.3.2 Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence 452
29.3.2.1 Sources (X-Ray Tubes) 453
29.3.2.2 Collimators and Masks 453
29.3.2.3 Dispersive Elements 454
29.3.3 WDXRF Analysis 455
29.3.3.1 Selection and Optimization of the Instrumental Conditions 455
29.3.3.2 Calibration 457
29.3.3.3 Reference Materials 459
29.3.4 Validation of the Methodology 460
29.3.4.1 Validation Using Reference Materials 460
29.3.4.2 Validation Using Independent Methods 463 References 464
30 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Medical Biology 467 Harinderjit Singh and Rakesh K. Sindhu
30.1 Introduction 467
30.2 Role of XRF in Cancerous Diagnosis 468
30.2.1 Metals and Metalloids in Biological Systems 468
30.2.2 X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging 468
30.2.2.1 XRF Imaging of Toxic Elements 469
30.2.2.2 XRF Imaging of Metals for Various Diseases 470
30.2.2.3 Pharmacology of Cobalt in Medicinal Biology 470
30.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects of XRF in Medical Biology 471 References 472
31 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Pharmacology 475
Аnatoly G. Revenko
31.1 Introduction 475
31.2 Equipment Used and Procedures for Preparation of Samples for Analysis 476
31.3 Examples of Applications of XRF for Pharmaceutical Products Research 477
31.4 Conclusion 482 References 482
Par t VI Special Topics and Comparision with Other Methods 489
32 X-Ray Fluorescence and State-of-the-Art Related Techniques to the Study of Teeth, Calculus and Oral Tissues 491
Héctor Jorge Sánchez, and Miriam Grenón
32.1 Introduction 491
32.2 Conventional X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 492
32.3 Synchrotron Radiation Induced XRF Analysis 494
32.4 Spatially-Resolved XRF for Studies of Bonds between Tooth and Dental Calculus 495
32.5 Total Reflection of X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) for Analysis of Metals in Oral Fluids of Patients with Dental Implants 499
32.6 EDIXS Microanalysis of the Local Structure of Calcium in Tooth Layers 502 References 505
33 Lab-scale Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer and Signal Processing Evaluation 509
Harpreet Singh Kainth, Tejbir Singh, Gurjeet Singh, Devinder Mehta, and Sanjiv Puri
33.1 Introduction 509
33.1.1 Photon-Atom Interaction Processes 509
33.1.2 Atomic Inner-Shell Photoionization 510
33.1.3 Inner-Shell Vacancy Decay Processes 512
33.1.3.1 Radiative Transitions 512
33.1.3.2 Non-Radiative Transitions 512
33.1.4 Physical Parameters Related to Inner-Shell Vacancy Decay 513
33.1.4.1 Near-Edge Processes Contributing to Absorption of Incident Photons 513
33.1.4.2 Single Scattering 515
33.1.4.3 Multiple Scattering 515
33.1.5 Scattering Processes 516
33.1.5.1 Elastic Scattering 516
33.1.5.2 Form Factor Formalism 516
33.1.5.3 Inelastic Scattering 517
33.2 Fundamental and Layout 519
33.2.1 Experimental Techniques for Investigation of the Photon-Atom Interaction Processes 519
33.2.2 Photon Sources 520
33.2.3 Specimen Target 521
33.2.4 Radiation Detectors 521
33.2.5 WDXRF Spectrometer 522
33.2.6 Target Preparation 524
33.2.7 Detection System 525
33.2.8 Intensity Correction Method 526
33.2.9 Energy Resolution and Efficiency 528
33.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 529
33.3.1 Sample Preparation for Calibration Curves 533
33.3.2 Sensitivity of WDXRF Instrument 533
33.3.3 Instrumental Limit of Detection 534
33.4 Applications 534
33.4.1 Chemical Effects and Speciation in k or l X-Ray Emission Lines 534
33.5 Conclusion and Prospects 543 Acknowledgment 545
References 545
34 Chemometric Processing of X-Ray Fluorescence Data 551 Vitaly Panchuk, Valentin Semenov, and Dmitry Kirsanov
34.1 Introduction 551
34.2 Principal Component Analysis 553
34.3 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis 556
34.4 Partial Least Squares (PLS) 557
34.5 Other Methods 561
References 561
35 X-Ray Crystallography in Medicinal Biology 563 Shilpa Chakrabarti and Neera Yadav
35.1 Introduction 563
35.2 Drug Design 563
35.2.1 XRC in Antiparasitic Drugs 563
35.2.2 XRC and XRF in Anti- Cancer and Anti-Diabetic Drugs 564
35.3 Monitoring Changes in Concentrations of Trace Elements 564
35.3.1 XRF and Autoimmune Diseases 564
35.3.2 XRC and XRF in Cardiac Function 564
35.3.3 XRC in Detection of Bone Loss 565
35.3.4 XRF in Elemental Analysis in Implants 565
35.3.5 XRF in Study of Pathological Specimens 565
35.3.6 XRF Use in Recognizing Dental Caries 565
35.3.7 XRF in Detection of Trace Elements 566
35.4 Conclusion 566
References 566
36 Historical Fundamentals of X-Ray Instruments and Present Trends in Biological Science 569
Kanishka Rawat, Neha Sharma, and Vivek Kumar Singh
36.1 Brief History of X-Ray Fluorescence 569
36.2 Introduction 571
36.3 Nature of X-Rays 572
36.3.1 Properties of X-Rays 573
36.3.2 Hard and Soft X-Rays 573
36.3.3 Continuous Spectrum 574
36.3.4 Characteristic X-Ray Spectrum 574
36.4 Production of X-Rays 575
36.4.1 Production by Electrons 575
36.4.2 Production in Lightning and Laboratory Discharges 575
36.4.3 Production by Fast Positive Ions 575
36.5 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 576
36.5.1 X-Ray Absorption and Scattering 576
36.6 Role of X-Rays in Biological Analysis 576
36.7 Different X-Ray Excitation Sources 580
36.8 X-Ray Detectors 583
36.8.1 Photographic Film 583
36.8.2 Semi- Conductor Detectors 584
36.8.3 Gas-Filled Detectors 584
36.9 Polarization of X-Rays 585
36.10 Quantization and Detection Limits of X-Rays 586
36.11 Preventative Measures 586
36.12 Concluding Remarks 587 References 587
37 X-Ray Fluorescence Studies of Biological Objects in Mongolia 591 P. Zuzaan and D. Bolortuya
37.1 Introduction 591
37.2 Determination of Some Elements in Plant Materials of the Khuvsgul Lake Basin 591
37.2.1 Preparation of Plant Samples 592
37.2.2 Sample Preparation for Measurement 593
37.2.3 Measurements and Methods 593
37.2.4 Procedure of Analysis 594
37.3 Human Hair Studies in Mongolia 597
37.3.1 The Human Hair Study for Medicine of Mongolia 597
37.3.2 Distribution of Calcium Content in Mongolians’ Hair 599
37.4 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis for Forensic Investigations in Mongolia 600
37.5 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Livestock Using XRF 601
37.6 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Foods Using XRF 602
Acknowledgements 603
References 604
38 Arsenic Analysis 609
Jun Kawai
38.1 Introduction 609
38.2 Arsenic Species 610
38.3 Gutzeit Method 611
38.4 Principles of HG-AAS Arsenic Analysis 611
38.5 Problems in Yamauchi’s Method 613
38.5.1 Glass Test Tube 613
38.5.2 NaOH Decomposition 614
38.5.3 pH Values for Speciation 615
38.5.4 Detection Limit 615
38.6 Selective Excitation of SRXRF 615
38.7 Stray Light 616
38.8 Conclusions 618
Acknowledgements 619
References 619
39 X-Ray Fluorescence: Current Trends and Future Scope 623
Rakesh K. Sindhu, Shantanu K. Yadav, Arashmeet Kaur, Manish Kumar, and Pradeep Kumar
39.1 Introduction 623
39.2 Principle 624
39.3 X-Ray Fluorescence 625
39.3.1 Microanalysis 625
39.3.2 Particles Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy 625
39.3.3 The Behavior of X-Rays 625
39.3.4 X-Ray Intensity 625
39.3.5 Process 626
39.3.6 Synchrotron XRF (SR-XRF) 626
39.4 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Technique 626
39.4.1 Pharmacological Action 626
39.4.2 XRF Soft Tissue and Pathological Samples Application 627
39.4.3 In Tooth Analysis 628
39.5 XRF Technique Used in Biology 628
39.5.1 Detection of Metal Ion(s) 628
39.5.1.1 Role of Metals in Biology 628
39.6 Applications of XRF in the Study of Plant Physiology 629
39.6.1 Hyperaccumulating Plant 629
39.6.2 Accumulators and Hyper-Sensors of Selenium 630
39.6.3 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Arsenic 630
39.6.4 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Cadmium 631
39.7 Application in Animal Biology and Medicinal Biology 632
39.7.1 Application in Health Science 632
39.7.1.1 Mercury Toxicology 632
39.7.1.2 Arsenic Toxicology 634
39.7.1.3 Iatrogenic Toxic Metals 635
39.7.1.4 Neurodegenerative Ailments 636
39.8 Applications in Nanotechnology 637
39.8.1 Potential Therapeutics and Xenobiotic Labels 637
39.9 Methodological Improvement 637
39.9.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 637
39.9.2 Mass Spectrometry Imaging 637
39.10 Molecular Fluorescence Samples 638
39.10.1 Mercury 639
39.10.2 Copper 639
39.10.3 Zinc 639
39.11 Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR) Spectroscopy 640
39.12 Novel X-Ray Imaging Methods 641
39.13 Conclusion and Advances 642 References 642
Index 647
List of Contributors
Tsenddavaa Amartaivan
Department of Physics
School of Arts and Sciences
National University of Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia and Nuclear Research Center
National University of Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia
Evren Algın Yapar
Analysis and Control Laboratories Department
Turkish Medicines and Medical Devices Agency
MoH
Ankara
Turkey
Iztok Arcŏn
Department for Low and Medium Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia and Laboratory of Quantum Optics
University of Nova Gorica
Nova Gorica
Slovenia
Sandeep Arora Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Punjab
India
Volkan Aylikci
Center for Science and Technology Studies and Research
Iskenderun Technical University-ISTE
Hatay
Turkey and
Department of Metallurgical and Material
Science Engineering
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay
Turkey
Ersin Bahceci
Center for Science and Technology Studies and Research
Iskenderun Technical University-ISTE
Hatay
Turkey and
Department of Metallurgical and Material Science Engineering
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay
Turkey
Sait A. Bakhteev
Department of Analytical Chemistry
Certification and Quality Management
Kazan National Research Technological University
Kazan
Russia
Damdinsuren Bolortuya Nuclear Research Center
National University of Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia
Marco Carminati
Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria
Politecnico di Milano
Milano
Italy and
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Milano
Milano
Italy
Shilpa Chakrabarti Biochemistry Department University of Allahabad
Prayagraj
India
Mansi Chitkara
Chitkara University
Institute of Engineering and Technology
Chitkara University
Punjab
India
E.V. Chuparina
Vinogradov Institute of Geochemistry
SB RAS
Irkutsk
Russian Federation
Tolga Depci
Department of Petroleum and Natural Gas
Engineering
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay
Turkey
Sangita Dhara
Fuel Chemistry Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai
India
and
Homi Bhabha National Institute
Mumbai
India
F.I. El-Agawany Department of Physics Faculty of Science
Menoufia University
Shebin El-Koom
Menoufia
Egypt
Neslihan Ekinci Department of Physics Faculty of Science
Ataturk University
Erzurum
Turkey
Mª Fernanda Gazulla Barreda Institute of Ceramic Technology- Ceramic Industries Research Association
Jaume I. Castellón University
Castellón de la Plana
Spain
Carlo Fiorini
Dipartimento di Elettronica Informazione e Bioingegneria
Politecnico di Milano
Milano
Italy
and
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare
(INFN), Milano
Milano
Italy
Anju Goyal
Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Punjab India
Kamya Goyal
Laureate Institute of Pharmacy
Kathog, Jawalamukhi, Kangra
Himachal Pradesh
India and
Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Patiala
Punjab
India
Miriam Grenón
Faculty of Dentistry
National University of Córdoba
Córdoba
Argentina
Yukie Izumoto
National Institute of Radiological Science
National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology
Inage-ku
Chiba
Japan
Brijbir S. Jaswal
Department of Physics
University of Lucknow
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
List of Contributors
Héctor Jorge Sánchez
Faculty of Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, and Computer Science
National University of Córdoba
Córdoba
Argentina and Instituto de Física Enrique Gaviola
CONICET
Córdoba
Argentina
Abdelhalim Kahoul
Department of Materials Science
Faculty of Sciences and Technology
Mohamed El Bachir El Ibrahimi University
Bordj-Bou-Arreridj
Algeria and Laboratory of Materials Physics
Radiation and Nanostructures (LPMRN)
Mohamed El Bachir El Ibrahimi University
Bordj-Bou-Arreridj
Algeria
Navgeet Kaur
Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Punjab India and Swami Devi Dyal Institute of Pharmacy
Panchkula
Haryana
India
Rajwinder Kaur
Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Patiala
Punjab
India
List of Contributors
Arashmeet Kaur
Chikara College of Pharmacy
Chikara University
Punjab
India
Esra Kavaz
Department of Physics
Faculty of Science
Ataturk University
Erzurum
Turkey
Jun Kawai
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Kyoto University
Sakyo-ku
Kyoto Japan
Dmitry Kirsanov
Institute of Chemistry
St. Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg
Russia
Alojz Kodre
Department for Low and Medium
Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia and
Faculty for Mathematics and Physics
University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana
Slovenia
Manish Kumar
Chikara College of Pharmacy
Chikara University
Punjab
India
Pradeep Kumar
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products
Central University of Punjab
Bathinda
India
Vivek Kumar Singh
Department of Physics
University of Lucknow
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Peter Kump
Department for Low and Medium Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia
Nuray Kup Aylikci
Department of Engineering Sciences
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay
Turkey and
Institute of Graduate Studies
Department of Energy Systems
Engineering
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay Turkey and
Center for Science and Technology Studies and Research
Iskenderun Technical University-ISTE
Hatay
Turkey
Changling Lao
Guilin University of Technology
Guilin
China
and
National Research Center of Geoanalysis
Beijing China and China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Beijing China
Jian Liu
College of Environmental Natural Resource Sciences
Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment
Zhejiang University
Hangzhou China
Liqiang Luo
National Research Center of Geoanalysis
Beijing China
Artem S. Maltsev
Center for Geodynamycs and Geochronology
Institute of the Earth’s Crust
SB RAS
Irkutsk Russia and Department of Analytical Chemistry
Certification and Quality Management
Kazan National Research Technological University
Kazan Russia
Eva Marguí
Department of Chemistry
University of Girona
Girona
Spain
Devinder Mehta
Department of Physics
Panjab University
Chandigarh
India
N.L. Mishra
Fuel Chemistry Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai India and Homi Bhabha National Institute
Mumbai India
Yeasmin Nahar Jolly
Atmospheric and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory
Chemistry Division, Atomic Energy Centre
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission
Dhaka
Bangladesh
Marijan Nečemer
Department of Low and Medium
Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia
Mónica Orduña Cordero
Institute of Ceramic Technology- Ceramic Industries Research Association
Jaume I. Castellón University
Castellón de la Plana
Spain
Onder Oruc
Institute of Graduate Studies
Department of Energy Systems Engineering
Iskenderun Technical University–ISTE
Hatay
Turkey
Vitaly Panchuk
Institute of Chemistry
St. Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg
Russia
Galina V. Pashkova
Institute of the Earth’s Crust
SB RAS
Irkutsk
Russia
Paula Pongrac
Department of Biology
Biotechnical Faculty
University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana
Slovenia and Department for Low and Medium
Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia
Sanjiv Puri
Department of Basic and Applied Sciences
Punjabi University
Patiala
India
Ignasi Queralt
Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research
IDAEA- CSIC
Barcelona
Spain
Kanishka Rawat
Applied Nuclear Physics Division
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
Kolkata
West Bengal
India
Anatoly G. Revenko
Institute of the Earth’s Crust
SB RAS
Irkutsk
Russian Federation
Inderjeet S. Sandhu
Chitkara University
Institute of Engineering and Technology
Chitkara University
Punjab
India
Valentin Semenov
Institute of Chemistry
St. Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg
Russia
Neha Sharma
Department of Physics
University of Lucknow
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
and
School of Physics
Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University
Katra
Jammu and Kashmir
India
Darya S. Sharykina
Institute of the Earth’s Crust
SB RAS
Irkutsk
Russian Federation
Yating Shen
National Research Center of Geoanalysis
Beijing China
Rakesh K. Sindhu
Chitkara College of Pharmacy
Chitkara University
Rajpura
Punjab India and Swami Devi Dyal Institute of Pharmacy
Panchkula
Haryana India
Harinderjit Singh
Adesh Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences
Adesh University
Bathinda Punjab India
Harpreet Singh Kainth Department of Basic and Applied Sciences
Punjabi University
Patiala
India
Tejbir Singh Department of CIL/SAIF
Panjab University
Chandigarh India
Gurjeet Singh Department of Physics
Punjabi University
Patiala
India
M. Sudarshan
UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research
Kolkata
India
M.K. Tiwari
Synchrotrons Utilization Section
Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT)
Indore
India
V.A. Trunova
Nikolaev Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS
Novosibirsk
Russia
Onkar N. Verma
Department of Physics University of Lucknow
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Inderjeet Verma
M.M. College of Pharmacy
MM(DU)
Mullana-Ambala
India
Katarina Vogel-Mikuš Department of Low and Medium Energy Physics
Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Slovenia and
Department of Biology
Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana
Slovenia
Neera Yadav College of Pharmacy
Gachon University of Medicine and Science
Incheon City
South Korea
List of Contributors
Shantanu K. Yadav
Chikara College of Pharmacy
Chikara University
Punjab India
Hiroshi Yoshii
National Institute of Radiological Science
National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology
Chiba Japan
Jing Yuan
East China Center for Geoscience Innovation
Nanjing Center of Geological Survey
China Geological Survey
Nanjing
China
Rafail A. Yusupov
Department of Analytical Chemistry
Certification and Quality Management
Kazan National Research Technological University
Kazan
Russia
Shuai Zhu
National Research Center of Geoanalysis
Beijing China
Purev Zuzaan
Nuclear Research Center
National University of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia
Preface
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy is a well-established analytical technique being used extensively for mining, metallurgy, petroleum, and geological studies, though not widely used for biological applications. During the past decade, XRF spectrometry has gone through major changes in the field of biological sciences. This book is a guide which provides an up-to-date review of XRF spectrometry for biological, medical, food, environmental, and plant science researchers. It covers the basic principles and latest developments in instrumentation and applications of X-ray fluorescence in biological sciences. This also provides a thoroughly updated and expanded overview to industry professionals in X-ray analysis over the last decades. The main feature of this book is that it provides information about XRF techniques and procedures for qualitative and quantitative analysis of biological specimens worth modern applications and industrial trends.
The chapters are contributed by independent groups in the world. Four chapters are contributed by the members of editorial advisory board of the journal “X-Ray Spectrometry ” from Wiley. The chapters are divided into six parts. Part 1 is a general introduction of XRF. Parts 2 and 3 are most advanced methods of SR-XRF and TXRF, which are micro-XRF, high sensitivity (low detection limit) XRF. Part 4, a beginner’s guide, is one of the characteristics of the present book. Parts 5 and 6 are the main parts of the present book.
Part I (General Introduction) consists of seven (07) chapters. Chapter 1 describes about the XRF and comparison with other analytical methods such as AAS, ICP-AES, LA-ICP-MS, IC, LIBS, SEM-EDS, and XRD. Chapter 2 highlights the significant role of different XRF configurations for both multi-elemental bulk analysis and element distribution within vegetal tissues. In Chapter 3, the application of XRF analysis is described for the chemical compositions of tea and coffee samples. Chapter 4 deals with total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) spectrometry and its suitability for biological samples. In this chapter, the fundamentals, basic principles, and theoretical aspects of TXRF have been discussed along with its advantages and limitations. Chapter 5 describes the use and application of μ-XRF and XANES to understand the interaction process and mechanism between microorganisms and heavy metal. Chapter 6 covers the details of EDXRF techniques for the application to clinical samples such as blood and hair. In Chapter 7, all considerations related with the sample preparation process are summarized which is very crucial for XRF analysis.
Part II (Synchrotron Radiation XRF) consists of five (05) chapters which show how Synchrotron Radiation XRF (SRXRF) can be used to provide analytical information in biological sciences for elemental composition. Chapter 8 covers numerous aspects of SRXRF and its applications. This chapter highlights the usefulness of XRF technique for the elemental characterization of different sample matrixes in non-destructive manners. Chapter 9 deals with the application of SR-based micro -XRF spectroscopy for plants. Chapter 10 covers the application of μ-XRF to study toxic elements in plants. Chapter 11 highlights the application of micro-XRF for the analysis of
benthonic fauna (earthworm and nematodes) in soils and sediments. Chapter 12 discusses in detail the use of SRXRF for the analysis of microelements in biopsy tissues.
Part III (Total Reflection XRF) consists of four (04) chapters which describe in detail the principles and basic fundamentals of total reflection XRF (TXRF) along with their biological applications. Chapter 13 covers the applications of TXRF for the trace element determinations in marine organisms, blood samples, saliva and oral fluids, hairs, nails, kidney stones, urine samples, and forensic samples. Chapter 14 demonstrates the applications of combined X-ray reflectivity (XRR) and grazing incidence X-ray fluorescence (GIXRF) technique for the characterization of thin films and nano-structured materials. Chapter 15 deals with the analysis of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages by TXRF. Chapter 16 describes the details of using TXRF and XRT techniques for trace elemental analysis of blood and serum samples.
Part IV (Beginner’s Guide) consists of four (04) chapters which cover the basics theory of XRF and historical fundamentals of XRF instruments, quantitative analysis methods, electronics and instrumentation, methods of using XRF to study biological samples. Chapter 17 introduces the atomic physics of the XRF spectrometry which is very useful for beginners to learn for its applications. Chapter 18 includes general principles, production, and detectors of X-ray waves. Chapter 19 introduces general discussion on quantitative analysis methods and procedures which is the principal subject of XRF spectroscopy. Chapter 20 deals with the crucial aspects concerning the operation and optimization of electronics for X-ray detection and fluorescence spectrometry.
Part V (Application to Biological Samples) consists of eleven (11) chapters which include the different biological applications of XRF spectrometry. Chapter 21 highlights the theoretical basics of the EDXRF followed by some relevant case studies such as elemental profiling for ionomic studies and food authenticity studies. Chapter 22 deals the application of XRF including TXRF to milk and dairy products. Chapter 23 includes the literature review on the elemental concentration analysis of medical plants using XRF technique. Chapter 24 deals with the application of XRF in animal and human cell biology. Chapter 25 covers a variety of biomedical applications using XRF spectrometry. Chapter 26 describes the usefulness of XRF technique to analyze uranium (U) in blood extracted from wounds. Chapter 27 highlights the use of XRF for the analysis of human hair. Chapter 28 discusses the potential utility of XRF methods to analyze different kinds of biological samples such as calcified/dental tissues, gallbladder and kidney stones, hair, nails, blood, urine, and clinical samples. Chapter 29 describes the principles of using WDXRF for the chemical analysis of plant samples. Chapter 30 covers the use and application of XRF in medicinal biology. Chapter 31 describes in details the use of XRF in pharmacology
Part VI (Special Topics and Comparison with Other Methods) consists of eight (08) chapters. This section includes some chapter based on special topics and comparisons of XRF with other techniques. Chapter 32 describes the XRF technique and state-of-the-art related techniques specifically as they regard the study of teeth, tartar, and oral tissues. Chapter 33 describes in details the principles, theory and applications of WDXRF spectrometry Chapter 34 describes the chemometric processing of XRF data which is one of the most important steps in XRF spectrometry. Chapter 35 briefly describes the applications of X-ray crystallography in medicinal biology. Chapter 36 describes the historical fundamentals of X-ray instruments and present trends in the field of biological science. Chapter 37, the application and development of XRF spectrometry is discussed for biological objects in Mongolia. Chapter 38 highlights the developments and use of XRF techniques to study arsenic in biological samples in Japan. Chapter 39 is the most important chapter which describes about the current trends and future prospects of XRF technique.
Four chapters (17, 18, 25, and 30) are at very basic level, which will be useful for biologists to understand XRF and its biological applications. The priority is understandable by trading-off the accuracy or precise expression in these four chapters.
