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BriefContents 1.Preface
2.Acknowledgments
3.Chapter 1DefiningManagement andOrganization
4.Chapter 2OpenVersusClosedSystems
5.Chapter 3ServiceQualityApproach
6.Chapter 4Environmental Influences
7.Chapter 5Conflict,Power,andEthical Issues
8.Chapter 6Motivation
9.Chapter 7Leadership
10.Chapter 8Communication
11.Chapter 9PoliceAdministration
12.Chapter 10Courts
13.Chapter 11ProbationandParole
14.Chapter 12Prisons,Jails,andDetentionCenters
15.Chapter 13PrivateSecurityManagement
16.Chapter 14MeasuringOrganizational EffectivenessandService Quality
17.Appendix: ConstructingQFDfor LawEnforcement Servicesin Happymore
18.Index
19.About theAuthors
DetailedContents 1.Preface
2.Acknowledgments
3.Chapter 1DefiningManagement andOrganization
1.DefiningManagement
2.IdentifyinganOrganization
3.Leadership
4.For-Profit andNonprofit Organizations
5.What AreCriminal JusticeOrganizations?
6.Chapter Summary
7.Chapter ReviewQuestions
8.CaseStudy
9.Questionsfor Discussion
10.Internet Resources
11.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
4.Chapter 2OpenVersusClosedSystems
1.Closed-System Models: TheClassical Perspective
2.Open-System Models: TheHumanisticPerspective
3.ChangingFaceof theCriminal JusticeSystem—Needfor a LearningOrganization
4.Chapter Summary
5.Chapter ReviewQuestions
6.CaseStudy
7.Questionsfor Discussion
8.Internet Resources
9.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
5.Chapter 3ServiceQualityApproach
1.TheRoleof ServicesinanEconomy
2.Definitionof Service
3.Characteristicsof Services
4.Customer Involvement intheCriminal JusticeSystem
5.DefiningServiceQuality
6.MeasuringServiceQuality
7.Scopeof ServiceQualityintheCriminal JusticeSystem
8.Chapter Summary
9.Chapter ReviewQuestions
10.CaseStudy
11.Questionsfor Discussion
12.Internet Resources
13.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
14.Note
6.Chapter 4Environmental Influences
1.FundinginCriminal Justice
2.TechnologyinCriminal Justice
3.Cultural andDemographicIssues
4.Legal Pressures
5.Unions
6.Politics
7.Chapter Summary
8.Chapter ReviewQuestions
9.CaseStudy
10.Questionsfor Discussion
11.Internet Resources
12.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
7.Chapter 5Conflict,Power,andEthical Issues
1.Organizational Conflict
2.Power
3.Ethical DecisionMaking
4.Chapter Summary
5.Chapter ReviewQuestions
6.CaseStudy
7.Questionsfor Discussion
8.Internet Resources
9.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
8.Chapter 6Motivation
1.Content/NeedsTheories
2.ProcessTheories
3.MotivationandPerformance
4.WorkplaceDesigntoPromoteMotivation
5.Chapter Summary
6.Chapter ReviewQuestions
7.CaseStudy
8.Questionsfor Discussion
9.Internet Resources
10.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
9.Chapter 7Leadership
1.LeadershipVersusManagement
2.ContingencyTheoriesof Leadership(Situational Leadership Models)
3.Transactional LeadershipTheory
4.NewWaveof ChangeLeadershipTheories
5.LeadershipasaSkill
6.LeadershipandtheCriminal JusticeSystem
7.Chapter Summary
8.Chapter ReviewQuestions
9.CaseStudy
10.Questionsfor Discussion
11.Internet Resources
12.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
10.Chapter 8Communication
1.Definition
2.Organizational NeedsFulfilledbyCommunication
3.Interpersonal Communication
4.CommunicationChannels
5.Organizational Communication
6.Chapter Summary
7.Chapter ReviewQuestions
8.CaseStudy
9.Questionsfor Discussion
10.Internet Resources
11.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
12.Note
11.Chapter 9PoliceAdministration
1.Brief Historyof Policing
2.PrivatePolicing
3.PolicingAgencies
4.PoliceFunctions
5.OrganizationandStructureof PoliceDepartments
6.CommunityPolicing: TheOpportunitytoProvideQuality Services
7.Chapter Summary
8.Chapter ReviewQuestions
9.CaseStudy
10.Questionsfor Discussion
11.Internet Resources
12.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
12.Chapter 10Courts
1.TheCourt System
2.Court Personnel
3.Federal Court Organization
4.Federal Court Design
5.Theoriesof Judicial DecisionMaking
6.StateCourt Organization
7.SpecialtyCourts
8.JuvenileCourts
9.Goalsof theJuvenileCourt
10.StateCourt Management
11.Chapter Summary
12.Chapter ReviewQuestions
13.CaseStudy
14.Questionsfor Discussion
15.Internet Resources
16.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
13.Chapter 11ProbationandParole
1.Probation
2.Parole
3.ProbationandParoleOfficers
4.TheStructureof ProbationandParole
5.IssuesConfrontingProbationandParole
6.AdaptationsMadeinProbationandParoletoMeet Client and CommunityNeeds
7.Chapter Summary
8.Chapter ReviewQuestions
9.CaseStudy
10.Questionsfor Discussion
11.Internet Resources
12.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
14.Chapter 12Prisons,Jails,andDetentionCenters
1.ABrief Historyof PrisonsintheUnitedStates
2.IncarcerationRates
3.Correctional Facilitiesat theFederal Level
4.Correctional Facilitiesat theStateLevel
5.PrivatePrisons
6.CentralizationVersusDecentralizationinPrisonsandPrison Systems
7.Organizational Structureof Prisons
8.Correctional Facilitiesat theLocal Level: Jails
9.Jail Design
10.Organizational Structureof Jails
11.IssuesConfrontingCorrectional Centers
12.Chapter Summary
13.Chapter ReviewQuestions
14.CaseStudy
15.Questionsfor Discussion
16.Internet Resources
17.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
15.Chapter 13PrivateSecurityManagement
1.Development of PrivateSecurity
2.IssuesandGrowthof PrivateSecurity
3.CrimeTrendsandSecurity
4.TheAftermathof September 11,2001
5.Management Approaches
6.Contract VersusProprietaryServices
7.DifferencesinPrivateSecurityandPublicLawEnforcement
8.Chapter Summary
9.Chapter ReviewQuestions
10.CaseStudy
11.Questionsfor Discussion
12.Internet Resources
13.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
16.Chapter 14MeasuringOrganizational EffectivenessandService Quality
1.Applicationof Customer OrientationTheorytoEnhanceService Quality
2.UnderstandingtheDual Roleof Criminal JusticeServices
3.UsingQFD: IncorporatingtheVoiceof theCustomer in ImprovingServiceQuality
4.DesigningCustomer-OrientedCriminal JusticeServices
5.ToolstoBuildQualityintheCriminal JusticeServiceDelivery Process
6.Chapter Summary
7.Chapter ReviewQuestions
8.CaseStudy
9.Questionsfor Discussion
10.Internet Resources
11.ReferencesandSuggestedReadings
17.Appendix: ConstructingQFDfor LawEnforcement Servicesin Happymore
18.Index
19.About theAuthors
Preface Wefelt compelledtowritethistextbookbecausethereareonlyahandful of textbooksintheareaof administrationandcriminal justicethat focus specificallyonmanagement concepts.Thebooksthat exist focuson management of criminal justicebut donot consider servicequality. Instead,thesebookstendtodiscussmanagement ingeneral,without providinganunderstandingtothecustomersusingthisserviceandtherole that customersplayinthedeliveryof service.Sincecustomersarepart of anyservicedeliveryprocess,theyshouldbeaninherent part of theprocess that isdesignedtodeliver theservice.Incriminal justice,thecustomer changesfrom call tocall—sometimesit isavictim,acomplainant,or a communitymember; other timesit isanoffender or another officer or agency.Thus,management andadministrationapproachesmust be customizedtotheenvironment beingserviced.Weholdthat usinga serviceapproachtomanagement ismuchmoreappropriateinthe changingcriminal justiceenvironment.Todate,andtothebest of our knowledge,thisisthefirst textbookthat hasadoptedaservicequality approachtoadministrationinthecriminal justicefield.Webelievethis textbookisinnovativeandwill challengethecurrent understandingsof management incriminal justiceagenciesheldbystudents,practitioners, andresearchersalike.
Approach Inthistext,wequestionthetraditional closed-system approachesoften usedincriminal justiceandintroducetheconceptsusedinopensystems andinservicequalityapproaches.Weexaminecriminal justiceservicesby focusingonwhothecustomersare,what their demandsandneedshappen tobe,howthechangingenvironment canaffect theseservices,andhow criminal justiceadministratorscanrespondtothedynamiccustomer and environmental bases.Thebookalsoaddressestheconstraintsplacedon thefieldof criminal justiceandhowtheserestrictionsimpact thechoices administratorsandlinestaff cananddomake,aswell ashowservicesare
provided.Weacknowledgetheincreasedpressuresoncriminal justice professionalstoworkwithinaglobal environment andincommunities withheightenedexpectations.Wealsoacknowledgetheeffortscriminal justiceagenciesaremakingtobecomemorecustomer friendly.Aswe writethe3rdeditionof thebook,weconsider it tobeaforward-thinking approachtomanagement incriminal justice,emphasizingproactive techniquesfor administration.Wefeel that traininginservicequalitymust start earlyinthecareer andintheeducational processtoproduceeffective andsuccessful administratorsinthecriminal justicesystem.Usinga servicequalitylenstounderstandandfacilitatethecriminal justicesystem providesabetter learningexperienceinthechangingU.S.andglobal environmentsfor undergraduateandgraduatestudents,whowill be staffingthissystem inthenear future.Byusingcasestudiesat theendof eachchapter,weprovideopportunitiestoapplythematerial learned.We believethisapproachwill havegreater meaningfor thestudents’ learning process.
Thetext iswrittenwithfiveexpressobjectives.Thefirst objectiveisto providethetheoriesof management.Thesecondobjectiveistolookat the theoriesthroughclosed- andopen-system approaches.Thethirdobjective istodrawattentiontotheissuesandconcernsof thesetwoapproachesin nonprofit serviceindustries,suchascriminal justice.Thefourthobjective istoprovideaservicequalitylenstoexaminehowthecriminal justice fieldcouldbe(andisbeing) redesignedtobetter addresscommunityneeds andtorespondtoglobal andnational dilemmas.Wealsousethistimeto point out howthecriminal justicefieldisevolvingandacceptingthe importanceof servicequality.Finally,wepresent theinformationinsucha waythat studentscaninternalizetheimportanceof their futurerolein providinghigh-qualityandeffectivecriminal justiceservices.
Thetext isorganizedin14chapters.Thefirst stepinimprovingservice deliveryisidentifyingthecustomersandrecognizingtheir importance withintheservicedeliveryprocess,alsocalledthecustomer focus,which istheprimarythemepresentedinChapters1through3.InChapter 4,we discussthechangingglobal environment andthepressuresthat areforcing criminal justiceagenciestobecomemorecustomer oriented.InChapters5 through8,wepresent themanagement principlesof conflict,power,
ethics,motivation,leadership,andcommunicationinthecriminal justice environment,viewedthroughtheservicequalitylens.InChapters9 through13,wediscussthefunctional knowledgeof criminal justice agenciesandintegratetheservicequalityprinciplesintheseareas.Inthe last chapter,weprovidehands-ontoolstoincorporatethevoiceof the customer indesigning/modifyingcriminal justiceservicestoimprovethe deliveryof servicequality.Wehopetheapproachadoptedinthistextbook will better preparethestudentsof criminal justicetodesign/redesignthe servicedeliveryprocesstobringagreater customer orientation,thus improvingtheoverall servicequality.
TheThirdEdition Inthiseditionyouwill findnumeroussubstantial changes:
Updatedreferences,statistics,anddatatopresent thelatest trendsin criminal justice
Coverageof current concernsandmanagement trendsincriminal justiceagencies,includingworkplacebullying,formal andinformal leadership,realignment inCalifornia’scorrectional institutions, probation-policerelationships,inmate-staff relationships,andfatal policeshootings
Increaseddiscussionof homelandsecurityerapolicing,procedural justice,keycourt personnel,andprivatesecuritychanges
Expandedcoverageof technologyincriminal justice,suchas cybercrime,electronicmonitoringandother usesof technologyin probationandparole,bodyworncameras,andpolicedrones
Half of thecasestudiesarenewor updated
All of the“Career Highlight”boxeshavebeenupdatedto demonstratethelatest datafor eachcareer presented
Eight new“IntheNews”articlesthat includetopicssuchas
Policeshootings
Fundingfor criminal justiceagencies
Policedrones
Useof GPSmonitoringdevicesonsexoffenders
Cyber attacksandidentitytheft
Cybercrime
Procedural justice PedagogicalAids Wehaveincludedthefollowinglearningaidsineverychapter:
Chapter objectivesat thebeginningof eachchapter tohighlight the informationstudentsshouldmaster
“IntheNews”boxestohelpstudentsseethepractical implicationsof what theyarereading
“Career Highlight”boxesthat describevarioustypesof jobsin management andadministrationinthecriminal justicefield
End-of-chapter summariestohelpstudentspreparefor examsand reviewinshorter form what theyhavelearnedinthechapter
Chapter reviewquestionstoassist studentsinpreparingfor exams andtoencouragethem togobeyondthememorizationof termsand conceptslearnedinthechapter
Casestudiesat theendof eachchapter toallowstudentstoapplythe informationtheyhavelearnedinasituationsimilar towhat islikely tooccur inthefieldof criminal justice
Internet resourcesthat studentscanusetolearnmoreabout the criminal justicefieldandviewresearchinhot topicsincriminal justiceadministration
Listsof referencesandsuggestedreadingsthat providestudentswith theprimarysourcesfor theinformationinthesechapters
InstructorSupplement WehavealsocreatedanInstructor’sManual/Test Bank,whichincludes chapter outlines,discussionquestions,atest bank,PowerPoint slidesof eachchapter,andmore.
Acknowledgments Aswithanyendeavor of thismagnitude,therearealwayspeoplebehind thesceneswhoassist inthepreparationandfinal product.First,wewould liketothankthevariousagenciesthat grantedpermissionfor ustouse their policies,proceduremanuals,handouts,andother documentsinthe text.Wewouldalsoliketothanktheprint mediaandother forumsfor their contributionstothe“IntheNews”inserts.Wewouldliketooffer special acknowledgmentstothepublishingteam at SAGEfor their continuedassistance,creativity,andhardwork.Aswefinishthethird edition,weacknowledgethecontributionsmadebyDr.Robert Fischer,Dr. MarthaHeltsley,Professor Jill J.Myers,Professor SabitaSawhney,and Professor JaneSchmidt-Wilk.Weappreciatetheir hardworkand expertise.Wealsoexpressappreciationtoour familiesfor their constant encouragement.Wewelcomeyour commentsconcerningthetext andlook forwardtowritingagaininthisfield.
Wewouldalsoliketothankthereviewerswhosefeedbackhelpedshape thedevelopment of thistext: TimothyC.Albright,CaliforniaState University,Sacramento; Emmanuel N.Amadi,Mississippi ValleyState University; DorisJ.“Dorie”Astle,SouthwesternOklahomaState University; KevinM.Beaver,FloridaStateUniversity; RonaldJ.Curtis, Jr.,FloridaGulf Coast University; RaymondL.Hasselman,Northeastern StateUniversity; EricMetchik,Salem StateUniversity; andFrancisM. Williams,PlymouthStateUniversity.
Jennifer M.Allen,jallen@nova.edu
RajeevSawhney,R-Sawhney@wiu.edu
SaraMiller McCunefoundedSAGEPublishingin1965tosupport the disseminationof usableknowledgeandeducateaglobal community. SAGEpublishesmorethan1000journalsandover 800newbookseach year,spanningawiderangeof subject areas.Our growingselectionof libraryproductsincludesarchives,data,casestudiesandvideo.SAGE remainsmajorityownedbyour founder andafter her lifetimewill become ownedbyacharitabletrust that securesthecompany’scontinued independence.
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ChapterOneDefiningManagement andOrganization:Learning Objectives LearningObjectives Uponcompletionofthischapter,studentsshouldbeabletodothefollowing:
Definemanagement,organization,andleadership
Listanddiscusscriminaljusticeorganizationsandthevariousspecialties incriminaljustice
Describenonprofitandfor-profitagencies
Inaneraofglobalizationaccompaniedbycomplexity,ambiguity,rapidchange, anddiversity,managinganyorganizationoragencyisadifficulttask.Yet,good managementiscriticaltothesurvivalofanorganizationoragency.Infact, Hanson(1986)hassuggestedthattheabilitytomanageismorestronglyrelated toafirm’sprofitabilitythananyotherfactor.Managersareconstantly challengedwithmakingdecisions,formulatinggoals,creatingamission, enactingpoliciesandprocedures,andunitingindividualsintheorganizationso thatcompletionofalloftheseandotherrelatedtaskscanbeaccomplished. Despitethefactthatmanagementpermeateseverythingthatanorganization does,what the management actuallyis,isnotalwaysclearlydefinedor identified.
Managementconsistsofmanyindividualsinanorganizationatvaryinglevels andranks,oftenclassifiedaslowermanagement,middlemanagement,and uppermanagement.Ofcourse,peoplearefamiliarwiththeterms chief executive officer, director, president, chief operating officer,andsoon.Theseare automaticallyassumedtobetitlesthatindicatetheranksofmanagement.We alsoassumethatthoseholdingthemanagementrolesworktoprovidethe organizationalmissionbymakingdecisionsandsettinggoalsforthosenot designatedasmanagement.Butaretheseobviousassumptions?Hecht(1980) asserts,“Manyapersonwhocarriesthetitleofmanagerisnotreallya
manager”(p.1).Whatthismeansisthatpeopleonthefrontlinesmaymake decisions,formulateprocedures,andhaveinputintothemissionandlong-term goalsoftheorganization.Takepoliceofficers,forexample.Oneofficeron patrolmayconsideradriverasspeedingifheorsheisdrivingatfiveormore milesoverthepostedspeedlimit.Anotherofficermaynotconsideradriverto bespeedingunlessheorsheis10milesormoreoverthepostedspeedlimit. Eventhoughthelawsaysthatthespeedlimitis55milesperhour,andthe policeagencyisexpectedtoticketdriversdrivinginexcessofthepostedspeed limit,apatrolofficermaypracticeapolicyoffivetotenmilesoverthespeed limit.Thisallowstheofficertomakedecisionsonenforcementofthelawand influencethemissionoftheorganization.Inotherwords,thepoliceofficeris actingasamanager.Individualsemployedinpositionsconsideredtobeatthe secondorthirdlevelmayalsohaveinputortitlesthatindicatetheyare managerswithintheorganization.Doesthismakethemmanagement?
AccordingtoHecht,“Managementisanactivity,”andmanagersare“charged withanumberofpeopleworkingatthetaskofgettingsomeactivity accomplishedwithinasetperiodoftime”(p.1).Researchdefiningmanagement hasbeenongoing;todate,thereisstillnotacleardefinitionofmanagementfor allorganizations.Thismeansthateachorganizationfacestheuniquetaskof determininghowitwillbemanagedandbywhom
Thischapterwillinvestigatethedefinitionofmanagementaswellastasks commonlyassociatedwithmanaginganorganization.Theterm organization willbedefined,andkeyaspectsoforganizationalstructuresinnonprofitand for-profitagencieswillbediscussed.Leadershipandhowleadersworkwithin organizationsarediscussedaswell.Asthisbookpertainstomanagementin criminaljustice,abriefsummaryofcriminaljusticeagenciesandtheir managementstructuresisalsoprovidedinthischapter.Eachchapterinthetext —thisoneincluded—endswithafictionalcasestudyandsummarydiscussion. Thecasestudiesprovidescenarioslikelytobeencounteredinreallife. Althoughthecasestudiesmayresemblereality,theyarebasedonfictitious names,places,andoccurrences.Therearequestionsattheendofeachcase study.Therearenorightorwronganswerstothesequestions.Instead,theintent istoallowforapplicationandprocessingoftheinformationlearnedinthe chapter.
DefiningManagement Asdiscussedearlier, management isadifficulttermtodefine.Itiseasierto identifywhatamanagerdoesorissupposedtodothantodefinetheactualterm.
Ifoneweretosearchfortheterm management ontheInternet,wordssuchas supervising, directing, managing, measuring results,andsoonwoulddisplay, whichareallaction-orientedterms.Dwan(2003)identifiesmanagementas planninggoalsandspecifyingthepurposeoftheagency;organizingpeople, finances,resources,andactivities;staffing,training,andsocializingemployees; leadingtheorganizationandthestaff;andcontrolling,monitoring,and sanctioningwhenneeded(p.44).Oncloserscrutiny,onewillfindthatboththe explanationproposedbyDwanandthewordsdisplayedontheInternetidentify managementwithtasksorresponsibilities,whileneitherprovidesanexact definition.
Lookinginanotherdirection,onemayfindthatmanagementhasbeendefined throughtheorysuchas scientific management,wherethoseinchargeofan organizationaretomaximizeproductivitythroughselection,training,and planningoftasksandemployees.Managementtheoryhasalsofocusedon Fayol’s(1949)fivefunctionsofmanagement—planning,organizing, commanding,coordinating,andprovidingfeedback—andWeber’s(1947) bureaucraticmanagement,wherethereisacleardivisionoflabor,rules,and procedures.Therearealsothosewhoseemanagementasa process tobestudied andanalyzedthroughcasessothatcorrecttechniquescanbetaughttoothers (Dale,1960).Thereisthehumanrelationsapproachthatperceivesmanagement ascloselytiedtosociologyandthevarioussocialsystemsinsociety(Barnard, 1938;March&Simon,1958),emphasizingamanager’sunderstandingof workersassociopsychologicalbeingswhoneedtobemotivated(Tannenbaum, Weschler,&Massarik,1961).Managementhasalsobeendiscussedfromboth decision-makingandmathematicalperspectives(Koontz,1961).Althoughmost ofthesewillbeaddressedindetailinlaterchapters,itisimportanttonotethat theyappeartobethe roles ofmanagementandnottruedefinitionsofwhatitis tomanage.
CareerHighlightBox AnIntroduction Studentsareofteninterestedinthetypesofjobsavailableincriminaljustice, buttheyarenotalwaysgiventhechancetoexplorethevariousoptionsduring theircoursework.Sincethisbookdiscussesavarietyofcriminaljustice agenciesandtheadministrationandmanagementofthoseagencies,itmakes sensetoexposestudentstodifferentcareeropportunitiesthatmaybeavailable
inthoseorganizations.Ineachofthefollowingchapters,lookfor“Career Highlight”boxes,whichwillprovideinformationconcerningspecific occupations,typicalduties,payscales,andjobrequirementswithinorrelatedto thecriminaljusticesystem.Keepinmindthatdifferentjurisdictionshave distinctrequirements,sothisisonlyasmallrepresentationofthepossibilities andoccupationsavailable.Inaddition,studentsareencouragedtoexaminethe joboutlookandprospectssectionsineachjobdescriptionwithacriticaleye, sincedemandsforworkerswithspecificskillsetschangeregularly.Theauthors suggestthatstudentsdiscusscareeroptionswithfacultyandadvisorsasthey narrowdowntheirprofessionalgoals.Studentsarealsoencouragedtocontact individualscurrentlyworkinginthefieldofcriminaljusticetodiscuss opportunities,interests,andconcerns.
Koontz(1961)stated,“Mostpeoplewouldagreethat[management]means gettingthingsdonethroughandwithpeople”(p.17).Management,asviewedin thisbook,isbestdefinedwithingroups.Itisanongoingprocessthatworks towardachievingorganizationalgoals.Itmayconsistofmultipleorganizational layers,offices,people,positions,andsoon.Inotherwords,managementisan ongoingprocessofgettingthingsdonethroughavarietyofpeoplewiththeleast amountofeffort,expense,andwaste,ultimatelyresultingintheachievementof organizationalgoals(Moore,1964).
IdentifyinganOrganization BlauandScott(1962)definedan organization byusingcategories.Thefirst categoryconsistsoftheownersormanagersoftheorganization,andthesecond consistsofthemembersoftherankandfile.Thirdaretheclients,orwhatBlau andScottreferredtoasthepeoplewhoareoutsidetheorganizationbuthave regularcontactwithit.Fourthisthepublicatlargeorthemembersofsocietyin whichtheorganizationoperates.Theysuggestthatorganizationsbenefit someone—eitherthemanagement,themembership,theclient,orthe commonwealth.Thisdefinitionfitswellwithprivateenterpriseinthatthe managersorshareholdersmaybenefitgreatlyfromtheorganization’sbusiness andsales.Thisdefinitionalsofitswellwithcriminaljusticesincethevictim andthecommonwealth(public)maybenefitwhenanoffenderisarrestedand placedinjail.Incriminaljustice,thetypicalorganizationisfocusedon identifying,deterring,preventing,andprocessingcrimeandcriminalacts.Itis servicebased.Thehopeofachievinggoalsandobjectivesisthesameasthat foundinprivateenterprise,butthefunctionsandactivitiesareincontrastto privateenterpriseorfor-profitorganizations.
Membersofanorganizationusuallysharecommonvisions,missions,values, andstrategicgoals.A vision ishowindividualsimaginethegoalsofthe organizationwillbeaccomplished.Eachpersonwillhaveaparticular perceptionofhowtheorganizationfunctions.Solongastheorganizationis workingaccordingtothevision,peopleperceivetheorganizationasgoingwell. The mission istheoverallpurposeoftheorganizationandisusedtohelp describeorganizationstothoseoutsideofit,suchascommunitymembers.The missionmaybeastatementoralistofgoalstobeaccomplished(Ivancevich, Donnelly,&Gibson,1989).Acorrectionalinstitution’smissionmayinclude statementsregardingprotectingthepublic,staffmembers,andinmates; providingopportunitiesforrehabilitation;andassistinginreintegrating offendersintosocietyoncetheyarereleased.Acommonmissionstatementin policedepartmentsmayincludephrasesthatsupportpublicsafety,workingwith citizensandthecommunity,andreducingcrime.Forexample,theAtlanta PoliceDepartmentinGeorgiastatesthattheirmissionisto“createasafer Atlantabyreducingcrime,ensuringthesafetyofourcitizensandbuildingtrust inpartnershipwithourcommunity”(AtlantaPoliceDepartment,n.d.,para.1).
The values heldinanorganizationareconsideredpriorities.Theyincorporate aspectsofthevisionandthemissiontofocustheactivitiesofanorganization. Thevaluesaredeterminedbythecultureoftheorganization.Inpolicing,the culturetendstorevolvearoundprovidingservices,controllingcrime,and increasingpublicsafety.Therearestrictpoliciesandprocedurestobefollowed incarryingouttheactivitiesofthepolicingagency.Officers’positionsarewell defined,andthereisaclearlyidentifiedhierarchyintheorganization. Employeesareexpectedtobehonestandshowintegritywhilecompletingtheir tasks.UsingtheAtlantaPoliceDepartment’swebsiteasanexample,onecansee thatthedepartmentvaluesprofessionalism,integrity,commitment,andcourage (nodate).
Last,organizationsuse strategic goals.Memberswillworktowardseveral organizationalgoalstoaccomplishtheagency’smission.Thegoals,alsoknown asobjectives,arethemainconcernsoftheorganization.Theyaregenerallyset bytheadministrationandpassedthroughformalandinformalcommunication toemployees.AccordingtoHecht(1980),objectivesshouldfilterallthewayto thebottomoftheagency,witheachunitordepartmentestablishingandworking onitsownunitgoalswhilekeepingthelargerorganizationalstrategicgoalsin mind(p.91).Employeesmayalsohavepersonalgoalssetforthemselves.Itis hopedthatthepersonalgoalsdonotconflictwiththeorganizationalgoals.If thisoccurs,theemployeemaybeunsuccessfulwithintheagency,orthe
agency’saccomplishmentoflargerorganizationalandunitgoalsmaybe blocked.Theadministrationatthatpointmuststepinandrestatethe organizationalstrategicgoalsorretrainorterminatetheemployee.
Thestrategicgoalswillhave“twofeatures:adescriptionofanintendedfuture stateandactiontowardsachievingthatfuturestate”(Day&Tosey,2011,p. 517).Thestructureandcultureoftheorganizationarereiteratedinthestrategic goals.Likewise,thestrategicgoalsofanagencyprovideemployeesthe opportunitytoalignthemselvesandtheirpersonalgoalswiththeagency’sstated goals.Citizensinthecommunitycandeterminewhetheranagencyis accomplishingthemissionbyassessingthestatementsmadeinthestrategic goalsandtheoutputsdeliveredbythedepartment.Doran(1981)andLockeand Latham(2002)claimthatthemore specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-specific(SMART)theagency’sgoalsare,theeasieritisforothersto determineifanagencyhasactuallymetthestrategicgoals.
Thebetterorganizedanorganizationis,thebetteritwillbeabletoaccomplish itsgoals.Theterm organized canrelatetostructure.Organizationsare structuredverticallyandhorizontally.Theycontaindepartments,units, specializations,workgroups,jobs,andsoon.
Thestructureistypicallydeterminedbyhowformaltheorganizationis.Ifthere isarigidhierarchy,orwhatsomerefertoasbureaucracy,theorganizationis seenascentralized. Centralized organizations houseauthoritypositionsatthe topofthehierarchyintheupperlevelsoftheadministration.Managersare responsibleformostdecisionsincentralizedorganizations,andcommunication issentfrommanagementtolower-levelstaffonhowtoperformtasksandon changesinpolicyorprocedure.However,iftherearefewlevelsofauthority betweenthetopmanagersandthelinestaff(thoseperformingtheeveryday tasksorjobs),theorganizationisseenasdecentralized. Decentralized organizations allowforlower-levelstafftomakedecisionsonpoliciesor proceduresthatdirectlyaffecttheaccomplishmentoftasksandgoals (Ivancevichetal.,1989).Delegationofauthorityisforemostindecentralized organizations.Thestructureoforganizationsandtheimpactcentralizationor decentralizationhasonhoworganizationsfunctionandaccomplishgoalswillbe discussedingreaterdetailinChapter2.Fornow,it’simportanttorealizethat thestructureofanorganizationdetermineshowmuch autonomy,orthepowerto self-govern,workershavewithinthatorganizationandmayinfluencetheir individualgoalsettingandachievement.
Thechainofcommandwithinanorganizationcanalsodeterminestructure.A chain of command istheverticallineofauthoritythatdefineswhosupervises whominanorganization.Ifanorganizationhasawell-defined,unyieldingchain ofcommand,theorganizationisformalized. Formal organizations are bureaucraticandhaveclearlydefinedrules,procedures,andpolicies.Thoseat thehigherlevelsofthechainhavetheauthorityandpowertoissuecommands tothoseatthelowerlevel.Policedepartmentsuseformalchainsofcommand, withstreetofficersreportingtosergeants,whoreporttolieutenants,whoreport toassistantchiefs,whoreporttothechiefofpolice;theremayevenbelevelsin betweenthese.Skippingalevelinthechainofcommandmayresultinformal reprimandsandishighlyfrowneduponbycoworkersandsupervisors.Ina formalchainofcommand,informationwilltravelfromthechiefofpolice,to theassistantchiefs,tothecommandersandsergeants,andfinallytothestreetlevelofficers.Questionsorcommentsregardingtheinformationwilltravelup thechainofcommandinasimilarfashion.BylookingatFigure1.1,wecansee asampleoftheformalstructuretypicalofapolicedepartment.Thepatrol officersreporttotheshiftsergeants,whoreporttothecommandersineach squad.Eachareaofspecialtyhasadefinedchainofcommandwithintheoverall chainofcommandorformalstructureoftheorganization.
Figure1.1OrganizationalChartoftheRoxboroPoliceDepartment, Roxboro,NC
Source:RoxboroPoliceDepartment, http://www.cityofroxboro.com/assets/pdf/policeorg.pdf.
Ontheothersideofthespectrum,wecanseecriminaljusticeorganizationsthat differgreatlyinformalization.Althoughthesizeofthedepartmentmaymakea difference,organizationssuchasprobationhaveatendencynottorelyas heavilyonformalchainsofcommand.Thisdoesnotmeanthereisno organizationalstructure(thelargertheagency,themoreformalizeditmaybe); thestructurejusttendstobemorelooselytiedtogether.Theorganization, therefore,islessformalized.Probationofficerstendtoreporttooneindividual (thedeputychief),whoisdirectlylinkedtothechiefprobationofficer.Thechief probationofficer,thedeputychief,andthefieldprobationofficerstypically haveadirectlineofcommunicationtothejudge(s).Inessence,thisisamore informal organizational structure.Inprobation,the line staff orprobation officersworkingdirectlywiththeclientsinthefieldhavemoreautonomyand inputintothedecisionmakingoftheorganizationthandothoseinformalized organizations.Theyareabletointerpretpolicy;askmanagersquestions directly;andanswerquestionsaskedbyoffenders,familymembersof offenders,serviceproviders,thejudge,andsoon,withlittleornomanagerial input.Figure1.2demonstratesanorganizationalchartinamedium-sized
probationdepartment.Noticetheflathorizontalstructurecomparedtothe verticalstructureofthepolicedepartmentinFigure1.1.
1.2OrganizationalChartofMedium-SizedProbation Department Source:http://webapps.chesco.org/courts/cwp/view.asp?a=3&q=606462.
Organizationsarealsostructuredassystems(discussedindetailinChapters2 and3).Basically,thismeansthatorganizationshaveinputs,outputs,processes, andfeedback.Thewholesystemisdesignedtoaccomplishtheorganizational goal(s)(McNamara,2007). Inputs aretakeninbytheorganizationthatinclude suchthingsasresources,money,technology,people,andsoforth.Theinputsare usedtoproducea process wherebythepeopleintheorganizationspendmoney andresourcesonactivitiesthatmeetthemissionoftheorganizationinhopes thattheidentifiedgoalswillbeaccomplished.The outputs arethetangible results(e.g.,products,services,orjobs;orinthecaseofcriminaljustice, loweredcrimerates,betterprotection,etc.)oftheeffortsproducedinthe process(McNamara,2007).Theseareidentifiablebythoseoutsideofthe organizationandaregenerallyusedtodetermineiftheorganizationis
Figure
successful.Thefinalstepinthesystemsapproachincludesfeedback.This feedback comesfromthelargerenvironmentaswellasfromcustomers,clients, stakeholders,employees,orthegovernment,tonameafewsources.Insystems opentotheenvironment,thefeedbackmaybeusedtomodifytheinputsand processesusedinaccomplishingfuturegoals(McNamara,2007).In organizationsclosedtotheenvironment,thefeedbackmayormaynotbe consideredinchangesthataremadetotheorganization.
Theorganizationmayhavesubsystemsthatoperatewithinthelargersystemas well.Eachsubsystemcanbethoughtofasaseparateorganizationthatworksto accomplishitsowngoalswhilecontributingtotheaccomplishmentofthelarger organizationalgoal(s).Thesubsystemshavetheirownboundaries,missions, andtasks,aswellastheirowninputs,outputs,processes,andfeedback (McNamara,2007).Detectiveunitsinpolicedepartmentscanbethoughtofas subsystems.Thedetectives’unithasitsownmission,goals,andvalues,yetthe detectivesareworkingtoaccomplishthelargerpolicinggoalsofproviding services,identifyingcrime,andworkingwithandprotectingthepublic.
Groupsandindividualemployeeswithinanorganizationcanalsobethoughtof assystemswithcommonmissions,values,goals,inputs,outputs,processes,and soon.Theorganizationcanbethoughtofasmultiplesystems,alloperating withinmultiplesystemsforoneormoreidentifiedstrategicgoal(s).Asimple wayofconsideringthemultiplesystemsapproachistothinkofauniversity campus.TheindividualclassesofferedbytheDepartmentofCriminalJustice havemissions,goals,andvaluesidentifiedineachsyllabusascourseobjectives andcoursedescriptions.Thecoursesareofferedeachsemesterbyadepartment thatalsohasamission,goals,andvaluessharedbythefacultywhoteach criminaljusticeandthestudentsmajoringincriminaljustice.TheDepartment ofCriminalJusticeissituatedinacollegeorschool(oftencalledtheSchoolof SocialSciences)alongwithotherdepartmentswithsimilardisciplines,andthey shareamissionandcommongoalsandvaluessetbythedean.Finally,these threesystemsoperatewithinthelargeruniversitysettingtoaccomplishthe missionandstrategicgoalsandvaluessetbytheschool’sadministration.Toadd tothis,someuniversitiesareinvolvedinstatewidesystemsthatincludeall universitieswithinthestate.InGeorgia,forexample,allstate-fundedschools belongtotheUniversitySystemofGeorgia(USG).TheUSGsetsamission, goals,andvaluesforthestateeducationalsystemandpassesthatinformation downtothevarioussystemsmentionedpreviously.Thesystemsapproachwill beinvestigatedfurtherinthenexttwochapters,butfornow,sufficeittosaythat
allorganizationshavesystemsintheirstructures.Theimpactofthosesystems onorganizationalactivities,goals,andvaluesvariesgreatly.
Organizationscanbeverycomplexorganisms.Theymayoperatewithinthe confinesofformalrules,regulations,andauthority,ortheymaybemoreloosely basedontheachievementofgoalswithlittlesupervision.Organizationsmay alsobeopensystemsactivelyengagingandinteractingwiththeenvironmentor closedsystemsthatacceptlittleoutsideinputandfeedback;eachisdiscussedin detailinChapter2.Eitherway,itisthemanagerswhoaretaskedwithclarifying thegoals,systems,structure,andmissionoftheorganization.Clarificationof managementandofgoals,structure,andmissionoccurredinAbingdon,Illinois, intheprovidednewsscenario.AreadingoftheIllinoisCompiledStatutesledto questionsregardinganofficer’spositionandresponsibilitiesinthepolice department.“IntheNews1.1”bringstolighthowstatutoryrequirementsmay impactorganizationalstructureandhowmanagersarecalledontoidentify organizationalstructuresandemployeetasksandresponsibilities.
IntheNews1.1 StatuteOpentoInterpretationSaysCityofAbingdonOfficials
August2,2007
ABINGDON—AnAbingdonPoliceCommitteemeetingwasheldThursday evening,July26;afollow-uptothepreviousmeetingheldtheWednesday before.AtthismeetingAbingdonChiefofPolice,EdSwearingen,andLt.Jared Hawkinson,werepresentaswereAldermenJasonJohnson,RonnieStelle,Dean Fairbank,DaleSchisler,MyronHovind,MikeBoggs,MayorStephenDarmer, TreasurerJimDavisandAbingdonCityClerkSheilaDay.
Atthepreviousmeetingthequestionastowhetherornotspecificpassengers ridinginAbingdonsquadcarswerecoveredbyCityinsurancewasaddressed withtheunderstandingthatcertainpassengerswouldnotfallundertheCity insurancepolicy.Darmersays,afterspeakingwiththeCity’sinsurance representative,thisisnotthecase.“Hesaidpassengersareallcoveredunderour insurance.They’realwayscovered.Theonlythinghehadconcernsaboutwas theriskandthisCitymanagement’scall.”
JohnsonthenaddressedIllinoisCompiledStatute655/3.1-30-21Sec.3.1-30-21 regardingpart-timepoliceofficers.Thecompletestatutereadsasfollows:A municipalitymayappoint,discipline,anddischargepart-timepoliceofficers.A municipalitythatemployspart-timepoliceofficersshall,byordinance, establishhiringstandardsforpart-timepoliceofficersandshallsubmitthose standardstotheIllinoisLawEnforcementTrainingandStandardsBoard.Parttimepoliceofficersshallbemembersoftheregularpolicedepartment,except forpensionpurposes.Part-timepoliceofficersshallnotbeassignedunderany circumstancestosuperviseordirectfull-timepoliceofficersofapolice department.Part-timepoliceofficersshallnotbeusedaspermanent replacementsforpermanentfull-timepoliceofficers.Part-timepoliceofficers shallbetrainedundertheIntergovernmentalLawEnforcementOfficer’sInServiceTrainingActinaccordancewiththeproceduresforpart-timepolice officersestablishedbytheIllinoisLawEnforcementTrainingandStandards Board.Apart-timepoliceofficerhiredafterJan1,1996whohasnotyet receivedcertificationunderSection8.2oftheIllinoisPoliceTrainingActshall bedirectlysupervised.ThisstatutewasadoptedJan1,1996.Previously, AbingdonPoliceSgt.CarlKraemersaidpart-timepoliceofficerJared Hawkinsonhasdutiesthatinclude,butnotlimitedto,makingtheschedulefor theDepartmentandHawkinsonwasreportedtobeinchargeoftheDepartment intheabsenceofSwearingen,which,accordingtothestatute,isaviolationof IllinoisLaw.Johnson,PoliceCommitteeChair,saidthatisnotthecase,“Atthe meetingitwasbroughtupdiscussinganofficer,Lt.Hawkinson,beingincharge oftheDepartmentinabsenceoftheChief.AccordingtotheIllinoisCompiled Statutes,itdoessaypart-timeofficersshallnotbeassignedunderany circumstancestosuperviseordirectfull-timepoliceofficersofapolice department.Now,whenonereadsthatandwhenonelooksatthesemanticsof therankstructureofthepolicedepartmentyouseethechief,youseelieutenant andyouseesergeantandbeingfamiliarwithmilitarycommandstructureyou canseewheretheystair-step.Infact,wehavearankingstructure.”
Accordingtoahand-outpassedaroundduringthemeetingHawkinsonisin chargeofadministrativefunctions:networkoperations,schedulingatthe directionofthechief,fleetmanagement;supervisionofpart-timeofficers: patrolofficers,firearmsinstructor,ordinanceofficerandservesastheauxiliary officerliaison.Kraemer,whoisafull-timeofficer,isthepatrolsupervisorand hasdutiesincludingreportapproval,directsupervisorofdepartmentaloperation atthedirectionofthechiefandevidencecustodian.SaidJohnson,“Inthe absenceof,forwhateverreason,whetheritbepersonalvacation,whateverthe occasion,intheabsenceofChiefSwearingen,thepersonwhoisinchargeisin
fact,Sgt.Kraemer.Sgt.Kraemeristhego-to-guyinplaceofChief.Itisnot JaredHawkinson.Instatingthat,goingbacktotheCompiledStatute,inmy opinion,inthewayIreadthis,youcanhavefivepeoplereaditandgetfive differentopinions;Lt.Hawkinsonisactuallynotasupervisorordirectingfulltimepoliceofficersinanycapacity.We’retryingtomakesurewe’renot shootingourselvesinthefootwithanythingwedo.And,likeIsaid,fivepeople canreadtheCompiledStatuteandhavefivedifferentinterpretations.Actually, Hawkinsondoesnothaveanyfull-timeofficersreportingtohiminanycapacity. Asfarastheschedulingisconcerned,theschedulingisdonebytheChiefand Lt.Hawkinsonputsitonpaper.”
Swearingennoted,priortotheconclusionofthemeeting,thereareroadside safetychecksplannedforSeptemberinAbingdontobeconductedbythepolice department.Theirfocuswillbeonseatbeltandinsuranceviolationsandthose nothavingCityWheelTaxStickers.
Source: From“StatuteOpentoInterpretationSaysCityofAbingdonOfficials,” byD.Fowlks,August2,2007, Argus-Sentinel, 2(31).Copyright©2007 ArgusSentinel.
Leadership Managersaretypicallyconsideredleadersbymanyinsideandoutsideofthe organization.Managersarechargedwithleadingtheirsubordinatesthroughthe taskandintocompletionofthejob.However,themanagermayormaynotbe goodatleading.Since“leadershipcanariseinanysituationwherepeoplehave combinedtheireffortstoaccomplishatask”(Ivancevichetal.,1989,p.296),a leaderisnotalwaysamanager.Inotherwords,managementandleadershipare notsynonymous.Animportanttaskof leadership istomotivateothersto accomplishorganizationalgoals.Managersmaytellsubordinateswhattodoand howtodoit,buttheymightnotmotivatesubordinatestoactuallyfinishthejob. Leadersinspireothersnotonlytodotheworkbutalsotofinishit.Leaders promotechange,keepaneyeontheaccomplishmentofthejob,lookatlongtermgoals,andinspireandmotivate;whereasmanagersmaintainthestatusquo,monitorthemeansbywhichthejobisgettingdone,andsolveproblemsas theyariseintheorganization.Leadersandmanagerscanactuallybeat oppositionintheirapproachtotheworkandaccomplishmentoforganizational goals
Thereissomedebateonwhetherleadersarebornwithleadership characteristics,aretaughttobegoodleaders,orarebetterabletoperform leadershipbehaviorsthanothers.Traittheoriesputforththatleadersareborn withspecificcharacteristicsthatmakethemmorecapableofleadingothers (Bass,1981;Lippitt,1955;Stogdill,1974).Theymaybemoreemotionally stable;bemorebusiness-minded;orhavemoreself-confidence,integrity,and honesty,andaconstantdrivetopromotechangeandtomakeimprovementsin theirenvironments.Contrarytothisapproach,itmaybethatthepersonseenas aleaderissimplybetterabletoperformthebehaviorsassociatedwith leadership—beingsupportiveofothers,friendly,andapproachable;abletoset goals,givedirections,assigntasks,inspire,andmotivate—andgetpeopleinthe organizationtoaccomplishindividualandorganizationalgoals.Thisisa behavioralapproach.Behavioristsareinterestedinhowthoseperceivedas leaderscanmotivateotherstoperform.Intheirminds,leadershipcanbelearned (Shanahan,1978).
Thefinalapproachtoexplainingleadershipissituational.Thisapproachrealizes thatnoonebehaviormaybeappropriateinallsituationswithallpeopleandthat traitsalonecannotalwaysinspireothers(Fiedler,1967).Instead,leadersshould beabletoadapt(andmaybetaughttodoso)tothesituationputbeforethemin determininghowbesttoapproachthegoalsoftheorganizationandthe individualsbeingled.Inthiscase,leadershipmaybealearnedquality.This seemstobetheapproachchosenbyParke-DavisPharmaceuticalsin2001.The companypartneredwiththeUniversityofMichiganExecutiveEducationCenter todevelopcurriculumtoteachitsscientistsleadershipskills.Thecurriculum requiredthescientiststodevelopanindividualactionplanthataddressed teamwork,qualitiesforsuccessandfailure,self-awareness,coachingothers, communication,creativity,motivation,organizationalstructure,setting direction,andpromotingchange.Parke-Davisbelievesthatitsmanagershavean improvedsenseofself-awareness,leadershipbehaviors,andself-confidenceas aresultoftheprogram.Inaddition,theorganizationfeelstheprogramprovides employeeswitha“clearerideaofresponsibilitiesandvaluesneededtolead others…[aswellasimproved]communication,teambuilding,andproblem solvingskills”(“MakingScientistsIntoLeaders,”2001,p.938).Learninghow tolead,whenbesttolead,andinwhatsituationleadershipskillsaremost appropriateistheapproachputforthinsituationaltheories,asseenintheParkeDaviscurriculum.
ThelackofleadershipskillsinitiallyseenbyParke-Davisinthecompany’s scientistscanalsoappear,attimes,inthecriminaljusticesystem.Managers,
whoareassumedtobetheleadersincriminaljusticeagencies,areusually promotedfromwithinandarriveattheirpositionsbecauseoftheamountof timeservedwiththeorganization,bycommunityelection,throughappointment, orbecauseofsocializationskillsorheroism.Theydonotnecessarilypossess theabilitiestobegoodleadersandmaynotbeabletoadapteasilytosituations thatarise.Becauseofthewaytheyobtainedtheirpositions,itmaybemore difficultforthemtoleadothersemployedbytheagency,sincethereare relationshipsalreadyformedwiththecommunityandemployees.Inastudyof policechiefsandsheriffs,LaFranceandAllen(2010)foundthatsheriffslivedin thecountytheyservedforanaverageof20ormoreyearslongerthanpolice chiefs,weremorelikelytohaveservedintheircurrentpositionslongerthan policechiefs,andonaveragehaveworkedfortheagencytheyservedforalmost sixtimeslongerthanpolicechiefs.Basedonthesefindings,eventhough sheriffsareelected,theyhaveobviousrelationshipswiththecommunityandthe employeesinthesheriff’soffice.Theserelationshipsmayimpacttheabilityto imposechangesandleadthedepartment
Inaddition,employeesincriminaljusticeagenciesarenotnecessarily encouragedtothinkoutsideofthebox,oftenbecauseofconstitutionalandlegal confinesandtrainingmandates.Therefore,imagination,creativity,andlongterminnovationmaynotbequalitiesvaluedbytheagencyorusedbythose viewedasleaders.Thinkingofthesheriffsmentionedpreviously,weare remindedoftheoldsaying,“There’sanewsheriffintown,”butevenwithnew administration,wemayseeveryfewchangesoccurinthepolicingorganization andintheprovidingofservices.Finally,leadershipincriminaljusticecanbe constrainedbyenvironmentalfactors(discussedindetailinChapter4)that weighintotheseagencies.Unioncontracts,budgetingconstraints,legislative decisions,courtrulings,andalackofcommunitysupportmaylimittheamount ofchangealeadercanaccomplishinsideapolicingorcorrectionalinstitution. Thesefactorsmayalsodeterminethemeansusedandendsaccomplished,so thereislittlealeadercandotochallengethesystem.Consequently,theleaders maynotbeinspiredormotivatedtoaccomplishthegoalsoftheorganization, andtheymayendupdoinglittleforthosewholooktothemforguidanceand encouragement.Forexample,inonecountyinFlorida,theSheriffisattempting tousesocialmediatoeducateandraiseawarenessbutoftenexperiences negativeresponsesfromthoseviewingtheposts.Recently,underafourthof Julyfireworkseducationalvideo,communitymemberspostednumerous commentstoinclude,“So,willthisbetheyearthat[thecounty]Deputies enforcethelawsregardingillegalfireworkspurchaseanduse,orjustanother yearwhereSeniors,Pets,SpecialNeedsChildren,VeteranswithPTSD,and
